MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

MODULE 2

I. TOPIC: MATHEMATICAL LOGIC & PROPOSITION

II. OBJECTIVE(S):

1. Provide a formal language for mathematical statements that is easily translatable into
the natural language and that allows compact and convenient notation;
2. Understand the different symbols used in math logic;
3. Describe the importance & application of math logic.

III. INTRODUCTION:

Logic is the formal systematic study of the principles of valid inference and correct reasoning. The
invention of logic is attributed to the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BC). George Boole
(1815-1864) wrote the Laws of Thought where logic was developed into an abstract mathematical
system like algebra. He, together with Augustus de Morgan (1806 - 1871), founded symbolic
logic.

Logic examines:
(a) general forms which arguments may take,
(b) which forms are valid, and
(c) which forms are fallacies.

The initial motivation for the study of logic was to learn to distinguish good arguments from bad
arguments.

IV. DISCUSSION:

In studying mathematical logic, we need first to understand the meaning of a proposition or

statement. A proposition or statement is defined as a declarative sentence that is either true or
false, but not both simultaneously.

Which sentence is a proposition?

1. Two is an even number.
2. R is a vowel.
3. 3 + 2 = 5
4. My dress is beautiful.
5. The dog is smart.
6. 3X = 12

Statement 1 is true, statement 2 is false, Statement 3 is true, Statement 4 & 5 are vague so it is not
a proposition and statement 6 depends upon the value of X. Therefore, 1,2,3 are propostions, while
4,5 & 6 are not proposition.

Arguments are made up of propositions. The reasoning used in an argument may be correct or
not.
Example:
John is a Filipino, therefore John is generous.
In symbols, this argument is simplified into: P ∴Q

If John is a Filipino, then he is hospitable.

If he is hospitable, then he is generous.
Therefore, if John is Filipino, then he is generous.

In symbols, this argument is simplified into:

If P then Q
If Q then R
∴ If P then R
A propositional variable represented by a lowercase or capital letter in the English alphabet
denotes an arbitrary proposition with an unspecified truth value. An assertion which contains at
least one proposition variable is called a propositional form.

In the preposition:
“if I study the lesson, Then I will pass the test”

In a condition hypothetical proposition, the truth does not rest on the truth of every statement taken
singly. Rather, it depends on valid sequence between members of the proposition. In the example
given, we don’t assert, “I study the lesson” nor we assert, “I will be able to pass the test”. We ae
going to simply declare the fact that the statement “I study the lesson” is dependent on the other
statement which is “I will pass the test” and vice versa.

Note:
The word “then’ as part of the consequent maybe omitted.
“IF I study the lesson, I will pass the test”
The consequent may also be written ahead of the antecedent and the word “then” is omitted.
“I will pass the test, IF I study the lesson”
We omit both “if and then” provided that we follow the proper statement ordering.
“I study the lesson, AND I will pass the test”

Sometimes, conditional proposition are considered aside from “If-Then” other accepted words are:
given that, in the event that, provided that, unless, in case that and only if.

Examples:

1. A politician may win in the election ONLY IF the people will vote in his favor. TRUE
2. IN CASE THAT the basketball player plays well, he will not be charge with a technical.
TRUE
3. UNLESS you submit your resume, then you won’t be hired.” TRUE

The tables represents the symbols for logical operators:

Symbol Operator Words commonly used

 Negation Not

 Conjunction And

 Disjunction Or

→ Conditional If, then

 Biconditional If and only if

Example 1:
The art show was enjoyable, and the room was presentable.
Step 1: Use a variable to represent each basic statement.
P: The art show was enjoyable.
Q: The room was presentable.
Step 2: Write the following in symbolic form.
P^Q

Example2:
I will leave the party unless you let me stay
Step 1: Use a variable to represent each basic statement.
P: I will leave the party.
Q: you let me stay.
Step 2: Write the statement in prepositional form.
PQ

Example 3:
If I can buy a gift, then I will attend his birthday party.
Step 1: Use a variable to represent each basic statement.
P: I can buy a gift.
Q: I will attend his birthday party.
Step 2: Write the statement in symbolic form.
P→Q

Example 4:
My mother will buy me a new cellphone if and only if I pass all of my subjects.
Step 1: Use a variable to represent each basic statement.
P:My mother will buy me a new cellphone
Q: I pass all of my subjects
Step 2: Write the statement in symbolic form.
PQ

Example 5:
If I will not pass my exam or will not submit my project on time then I will not pass my subject.
Step 1: Use a variable to represent each basic statement.
A: I will pass my exam.
B: I will submit my project on time
C: I will pass my subject
Notice that statements A, B and C are worded as positive statements. Remember that basic
statements, as a rule, don't use the word "not".
Step 2: Write the statement in symbolic form.
(A v B) → C

NOTE: A logical operator may be like the negation of a proposition. It involves only one
proposition and is governed by a rule which can be illustrated in the truth table.
a. The truth value of a statement is the classification as true or false which denoted by T or F.
b. A truth table is a listing of all possible combinations of the individual statements as true or
false, along with the resulting truth value of the compound statements.
c. Truth tables are an aide in distinguishing valid and invalid arguments.

Definition of “not P”
The negation of not P is written as  P
Example: A is a consonant --- P
A is not a consonant ----  P

p p

T F

F T

A negation is a statement that is a refusal or denial of some other statement.

Example:
Statement: Anna has a beautiful dress.
Negation: Anna does not have a beautiful dress.

The negation of a true statement is false, and the negation of a false statement is true.
Example:
Statement: The number 6 is even
Negation: The number 6 is not even.

Definition of P  Q
The proposition “P and Q” denoted by P  Q is called the conjunction of P and Q. The proposition
P and the proposition Q are called conjuncts. Other words that can be used in place of “and” are
moreover, although, still, furthermore, also, nevertheless, however, yet, and but.

A comma or semicolon between two statements may also stand for and.
Example: “I am here, you are there.”
Can be taken to mean “I am here and you are there.”

When is the proposition “P and Q” false? When is it true?

The proposition “P and Q” is false when at least one of the conjuncts P or Q is false. When
both P and Q are true, then their conjunction is true.

The table below are the rules for conjunction:

P Q PQ

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F F

Since there are two variables or two statement, there are four rows in the table (two raised to the
power of two). There are three columns; two for the variables and one for the conjunction.

Example 1:
6 is an even number and 8 is an odd number.
Step 1: Use a variable to represent each basic statement.
P : six is an even number .
Q: eight is an odd number.
Step 2: Write the statement in symbolic form.
PQ
If P is T and Q is F, then the proposition is…

P Q PQ

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F F

Example 2:
(3 + 4 = 7) and (8 > 7)
Step 1: Use a variable to represent each basic statement.
P: (3 + 4 = 7)
Q: (8 > 7)
Step 2: Write the statement in symbolic form.
PQ
If P is T and Q is T, then the proposition is…

P Q PQ

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F F

______________________________________________________________________________

Definition of P  Q
The proposition “P or Q or both” denoted by P Q is called the disjunction of P and Q. The
proposition P and Q are called disjuncts. P unless Q is another expression of disjunction. The
proposition P Q is true when at least one of the propositions P or Q is true. It is false when both
P and Q are false.

Disjunction rule are give below:

P Q PQ

T T T

T F T

F T T

F F F

Example 1:
I will leave the party unless you let me stay
Step 1: Use a variable to represent each basic statement.
P: I will leave the party.
Q: you let me stay.
Step 2: Write the statement in symbolic form.
PQ
If P is T and Q is F, then the proposition is…

P Q P Q

T T T

T F T

F T T

F F F

Example 2:
Either Pedro or Juan will be the next mayor of our town.
Step 1: Use a variable to represent each basic statement.
P: Pedro will be the next mayor of our town.
Q: Juan will be the next mayor of our town.
Step 2: Write the statement in symbolic form.
PQ
If P is F and Q is F, then the proposition is…

P Q P Q

T T T

T F T

F T T

F F F

Definition of P → Q
The proposition “P implies Q” denoted by P → Q is called an implication or a conditional
statement. P is called the antecedent, premise or hypothesis whereas Q is called the conclusion
or consequent. Other ways of expressing “P implies Q” are:

• If P then Q
• P only if Q
• P is sufficient condition for Q
• Q is a necessary condition for P
• Q if P
• Q follows from P
• Q provided P
• Q whenever P
• Q is a logical consequence of P
Example:
If I will get my promotion, then I will treat you to a travel vacation.
Consider the following statements:
1. I will get my promotion, then I will treat you to a travel vacation.
2. I will get my promotion, then I will not treat you to a travel vacation
3. I will not get my promotion, then I will still treat you to a travel vacation.
4. I will not get my promotion, then I will not treat you to a travel vacation.

Question: which statement above the premise is broken? 1,2,3 or 4?

Answer: The promise is broken in situation 2 where the premise is satisfied but the conclusion of
the statement is not fulfilled. Only then will the implication become false.

Truth Table for p q

Recall that conditional is a
compound statement of the P Q P→Q
form “if p then q”.
Think of a conditional as a
promise.
If I don’t keep my promise, T T T
in other words q is false,
then the conditional is false
if the premise is true.
If I keep my promise, that is T F F
q is true, and the premise is
true, then the conditional is
true.
When the premise is false F T T
(i.e. p is false), then there
was no promise. Hence by
default the conditional is
F F T
true.

In short, if the promise is not broken then it is true.

Example:
If you participate in the class, then you get extra points.
Step 1: Use a variable to represent each basic statement.
P: You participate in the class.
Q: You get extra points.
Step 2: Write the statement in symbolic form.
P→Q
If the promise of the teacher is broken…then the statement of the teacher is…..

P Q P→Q

T T T

T F F

F T T

F F T

Definition of P  Q
 The proposition “P if and only if Q” denoted by P  Q is called the material equivalence or
biconditional of two propositions P and Q. This can be expressed by P is a necessary and
sufficient condition for Q, and by P is materially equivalent to Q. The abbreviation iff is used
for if and only if. We note that the biconditional statements puts together the implication P → Q
and Q → P in one statement P  Q. Thus the material equivalence can also be written in
propositional form as (P → Q)  (Q → P).

Example:
I will treat you to a travel vacation, if and only if I will get my promotion.
Consider the following statements:
1. I will get my promotion, then I will treat you to a travel vacation.
2. I will get my promotion, then I will not treat you to a travel vacation
3. I will not get my promotion, then I will still treat you to a travel vacation.
4. I will not get my promotion, then I will not treat you to a travel vacation.
: The statements that do conform to the original statement are 2 and 3

Truth Table for P  Q

P Q P Q

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F T

P Q P→ Q Q→ P (P → Q)  (Q → P)

T T T T T

T F F T F

F T T F F

F F T T T

Thus P  Q can also be written in propositional form as (P → Q)  (Q → P).

SUMMARY OF THE TRUTH TABLE

 p p

T F

F T

P Q PQ P Q P→Q P Q

T T T T T T

T F F T F F

F T F T T F

F F F F T T

TYPES OF PROPOSITION
There are many ways of classifying propositions. For instance, an implication can be classified in
terms of its relation with another conditional statement.
Definition of the Converse, Contrapositive, and Inverse of an Implication.

Definition of the Converse, contrapositive, and inverse of an implication

Let P and Q be propositional variables.
1. The conditional statement Q →P is called the converse of the implication P →Q
2. The conditional statement Q →P is the contrapositive of the implication P →Q
3. The conditional statement P →Q is the inverse of the implication of P →Q

Example:
Given the statement “If x = 1, then x3 = 1.”
• The converse of the implication is “If x3 = 1, then x = 1”
• The contrapositive of the given is “If x3 ≠ 1, then x ≠ 1.”
• The inverse of the given is “If x ≠ 1, then x3 ≠ 1.”

Does the truth of the implication P → Q guarantee the truth of its converse? What about its
contrapositive? What about its inverse? Set up the truth table to justify your answer.

P → Q Q → P Q →P P →Q
T T T T T T F T F F T F

T F F F T T T F F F T T

F T T T F F F T T T F F

F T F F T F T T T T T T

The truth of P → Q does not guarantee the truth of its converse and inverse. If you look at the third
row of the table below, the implication is true but the converse and inverse are false. However, the
contrapositive is always true, though. In fact, the implication has the same truth values as the
contrapositive.
Definitions of Tautology, Contradiction or Absurdity, and Contingency.
1. A tautology is a proposition that is true under all circumstances.

The truth table for P P shows that it is a tautology:

P P P P
T F T
F T T

2. A contradiction or an absurdity is a proposition that is always false.

The truth table for P P shows that it is a contradiction:

P P P P
T F F
F T F
The third column shows that the given proposition is always false.

3. A contingency is a proposition which is neither a tautology nor a contradiction.

The truth table for P →P shows that it is a contingency:
P P P →P
T F F
F T T
Since the third column has two values, then this proposition is a contingent.

______________________________________________________________________________
Logically Equivalent Propositions
Two propositions are logically equivalent if they are materially equivalent under all
circumstances. The biconditional of these two proposition is a tautology.
Example: The proposition (P  Q) and (P Q) are logically equivalent. This can be proven
by showing that the biconditional (P  Q) (P Q) is a tautology

P (P  Q) 
P Q P Q P Q (P Q)
Q (P Q)
T T F F T F T T

T F F T F T F T

F T T F F T F T
F F T T F T F T

Example:
If the tire is flat, then I will have to remove it and take it to the gas station.
Step 1: Use a variable to represent each basic statement.
P: The tire is flat.
Q: I have to remove the tire.
R: I have to take the tire to the gas station.
Step 2: Write the compound statement in symbolic form.
P -> (Q ^ R)
TRUTH TABLE OF: P→ (Q  R)

P Q R (Q  R) P→ (Q  R)

T T T T T

T T F F F

T F T F F

T F F F F

F T T T T

F T F F T

F F T F T

F F F F T

The conditional is false if the premise is true but the conclusion is false.

V. SUMMARY
1. Logic is the formal systematic study of the principles of valid inference and correct
reasoning.
2. A proposition or statement is defined as a declarative sentence that is either true or false,
but not both simultaneously.
3. Arguments are made up of propositions. The reasoning used in an argument may be
correct or not.
4. A tautology is a proposition that is true under all circumstances.
5. A contradiction or an absurdity is a proposition that is always false.
6. A contingency is a proposition which is neither a tautology nor a contradiction.

VI. ENRICHMENT VIDEOS

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=itrXYg41-V0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TCBu8PD4Lls
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wRMC-ttjhwM

VII. REFERENCE:

https://www.cs.yale.edu/homes/aspnes/classes/202/notes.pdf
https://www2.karlin.mff.cuni.cz/~krajicek/mendelson.pdf
http://www.mathematik.uni-muenchen.de/~schwicht/lectures/logic/ws03/ml.pdf