Introduction

 
pH  is  a  measure  of  the  acidity  or  basicity  of  a  solution.  It  is  defined  as  the  co
logarithm  of  the  activity  of  dissolved  hydrogen ions  (H+).  Hydrogen  ion  activity
coefficients  cannot  be  measured  experimentally,  so  they  are  based  on  theoretical 
calculations. The pH scale is not an absolute scale; it is relative to a set of standard 
solutions whose pH is established by international agreement. 

 The  lower‐case  letter  "p"  in  pH  stands  for  the  negative  common  (base  ten) 
logarithm,  while  the  upper‐case  letter  "H"  stands  for  the  element  hydrogen.  Thus, 
pH is a logarithmic measurement of the number of moles of hydrogen ions (H+) per 
litre of solution. Incidentally, the "p" prefix is also used with other types of chemical 
measurements where a logarithmic scale is desired, pCO2 (Carbon Dioxide) and pO2 
(Oxygen) being two such examples.  

The logarithmic pH scale works like this: a solution with 10‐12 moles of H+ ions per 
liter  has  a  pH  of  12;  a  solution  with  10‐3  moles  of  H+  ions  per  liter  has  a  pH  of  3. 
While  very  uncommon,  there  is  such  a  thing  as  an  acid  with  a  pH  measurement 
below 0 and a caustic with a pH above 14. Such solutions, understandably, are quite 
concentrated and extremely reactive. [1] 

History 
The  concept  of  pH  was  first  introduced  by  Danish  chemist  Søren  Peder  Lauritz 
Sørensen  at  the  Carlsberg  Laboratory  in  1909.  It  is  unknown  what  the  exact 
definition of p is. Some references suggest the p stands for “Power”, others refer to 
the  German  word  “Potenz”  (meaning  power  in  German),  and  still  others  refer  to 
“potential”. Jens Norby published a paper in 2000 arguing that p is a constant and 
stands for “negative logarithm”; which has also been used in other works. H stands 
for  Hydrogen.  Sørensen  suggested  the  notation  "PH"  for  convenience,  standing  for 
"power of hydrogen", using the cologarithm of the concentration of hydrogen ions in 
solution, p[H] Although this definition has been superseded p[H] can be measured if 
an electrode is calibrated with solution of known hydrogen ion concentration. [1] 

1
 Measurement methods 
There are two methods for measuring pH; a probe and meter, and litmus paper. The 
most accurate and reliable method is the probe and meter. This method is no less 
convenient  than  the  other  method,  but  requires  a  more  expensive  piece  of 
equipment.  

    
  1. Litmus Paper:
 
The term litmus comes from an Old Norse word meaning 
“to dye or color”.  This is fitting since the lichens used to 
make  litmus  have  also  been  used  to  dye  cloth  for 
hundreds  of  years.  Very  little  information  is  available 
about  the  beginnings  of  litmus.  There  is  some  data  that 
suggest  that  litmus  paper  was  developed  by  J.L.  Gay‐
Lussac, a French chemist during the early 1800s. 
  Figure(1).Litmus paper.
 Litmus paper is the most recognized member of chemical indicators. Litmus changes 
color when exposed to an acidic or basic solution. The simple pH scale ranges from 0‐
14  with  0  being  the  most  acidic,  7  being  neutral,  and  14  being  the  most  basic  or 
alkaline.  Litmus  paper  is  commonly  used  in  educational  science  classes.  Because  it 
has such wide recognition, it has become a cultural reference in our society as well. 
It is common to use the term litmus test when referring to a test in which a single 
factor determines the outcome.  
While litmus paper is effective at indicating whether a substance is acidic or basic, it 
cannot report an exact numerical pH value.  

The Future 

Litmus paper will most certainly continue to be used extensively in education due to 
its reasonable cost and ease of use. However, some varieties of lichens are becoming 
extinct. As a result, it is possible that manufacturers of litmus paper may switch to 
synthetic  materials  in  the  future.  This  is  already  being  done  by  manufacturers  of 
other  types  of  pH  papers.  Additionally,  because  litmus  cannot  give  quantitative 
results,  it  cannot  replace  other  pH  papers  and  pH  meters.  In  fact,  the  trend  is  to 
make pH indicators that are even more accurate and less subjective. One such trend 
is  to  utilize  fiber  optic  probes  in  pH  meters  in  order  to  make  them  even  more 
sensitive. [3] 

2
  

2. Potentiometry method: 

 All potentiometry does is to measure (meter) the voltage (potential) caused by the    
hydronium ion: H3O+. This new method gave accuracy, reliability and fast results.  
 
  Tools for measuring pH:
 
1. A  pH  meter  (to  accurately  measure  and  transform  the  voltage  caused  by 
hydronium ion into a pH value); 
2. A pH electrode (to sense all the hydronium ions and to produce a potential). 
3. A  reference  electrode  (to  give  a  constant  potential  no  matter  what  the 
concentration of hydronium ion is). 
 
  The pH meter
 
Basically,  a  pH  meter  measures  the  potential  between  the  pH  electrode  (which  is 
sensitive  to  the  hydronium  ions)  and  the  reference  electrode  (which  doesn't  care 
what's in the solution). 
 
   The pH electrode
 
The  pH  electrode's  potential  changes  with  the  H3O+  ion 
concentration in the solution.                                      
The  clever  bit  is  that  the  pH  electrode  only  senses  the 
hydronium ions. This means that any voltage produced is from 
hydronium  ions  only.  This  way  we  can  relate  the  potential 
directly to the hydronium concentration.  
Figure(2). pH electrode
   The reference electrode
 
The  reference  electrode  supplies  a  “constant”  value  against 
which we measure the potential of the pH electrode. That's the 
thing  about  potentials,  they  have  to  be  in  Pairs  to  produce  a 
voltage. [2] 
 
  The function of the diaphragm on a pH electrode:   Figure(3).reference  electrode
 
The  diaphragm  on  a  pH  electrode  allows  a  flow  of  electrolyte  from  the  reference 
solution into the solution being measured.  
This  completes  the  electrical  circuit  between  the  reference  and  sensing  electrode 
and gives the potential difference which is measured by the pH meter. The type of 
diaphragm used will influence the outflow of electrolyte into the sample, which will 
in  turn  affect  the  response  speed  of  the  electrode.  The  common  diaphragm  types 
are listed in table(B.1) in appendix(B) below along with their inherent properties. For 
most common applications a platinum diaphragm is the one of choice.  

3
 
 
   Glass bulb at the bottom of electrodes 
 
The glass membrane on pH electrodes comes in a variety of different shapes based 
on the fitness for purpose of the electrode. The most common membrane shapes in 
use today are outlined in table (B.2) in appendix (B). 
 
In practice there is a trade‐off between the speed of response of the electrode and 
its  ruggedness,  thus  the  application  the  electrode  is  being  selected  for  will  govern 
the choice of membrane design. The classical sphere shaped membrane offers low 
electrical  resistance  due  to  its  large  surface  area  but  is  relatively  fragile.  The  cone 
shaped membrane is seen as a universal design as it is robust, of medium resistance 
and is easy to clean.  
 
  The difference between the various types of membrane glass for pH electrodes
 
As  pH  is  measured  in  a  wide  variety  of  solutions  at  varying  temperatures  it  is  not 
possible  to  formulate  a  single  pH  membrane  glass  which  can  give  accurate  and 
reliable  pH  measurements  in  all  conditions.  For  this  reason  different  types  of 
membrane  glass  have  been  developed  to  give  good  performance  in  a  variety  of 
measurement conditions. The most common membrane glass types found in Schott 
electrodes are as outlined in table (B.3) in appendix (B). [5] 
 
  The classical set‐up
 
The classical set‐up for measuring pH consisted of a pH meter; 
a pH electrode and a reference electrode. [2] 
  
The modern set‐up 
            Figure(4).Classical setup
Although  you  can  perfectly  measure  pH  using  the  "classical" 
set‐up,  it  was  soon  realized  that  the  two  electrodes  could  be 
built  into  the  same  probe  (although  there  still  are  two  totally 
separate electrodes). This is nowadays called the combined pH 
electrode, which is much more practical.  
 
 
 
 
  The formula for pH calculation   Figure(5).Modern  setup
 
From the above we know that in order to measure pH we measure potential 
differences. Nernst studied the relation between the mV (millivolts) reading 
produced by a pH electrode against a standard hydrogen electrode and the pH of the 
measuring solutions. Now, a standard hydrogen electrode is a rather complicated 
piece of equipment. Suffice to say that it gives very well defined and reproducible 

4
 mV readings over a wide range of pH values and strictly responds only to hydronium 
  ions. 
  Nernst equation:
 
U =U 0 + (2.303RT/ziF) log(H3O+)
 

Where: 
 
‐ U: is the potential measured between indicator and reference electrode. 
‐ U0:  is  the  standard  potential  of  the  electrode  assembly,  depends  on  its 
construction (well made electrodes give 0 mV with pH 7 – neutral solution). 
‐ R: is the gas constant (8.31441 J K‐1 mol‐1). 
‐ T: is the absolute temperature in K (273.15 + t in °C). 
‐ Zi:  is  the  charge  of  the  hydronium  ion  (1+)  (each  ion  carries  a  single  positive 
charge with it). 
‐ F: is Faraday constant (96 484.56 C * mol‐1). 
 
The pH meter basically uses this equation to calculate the pH value. However, all the 
individual parts within the equation have to be known (not everything is constant). 
The  potential  is  measured  by  the  electrodes  and  the  temperature  (T)  needs  to  be 
measured as well and if there isn't any temperature sensor connected to the meter, 
the temperature (T) value has to be entered. [2] 
 
   pH measurement in theory and in practice
 
In theory a pH electrode is so constructed that its potential in buffer pH = 7 equals 0 
mV. (A buffer is a solution which keeps a given concentration of hydronium ions and 
therefore  a given  pH).  This  potential  is  called  the  zero  potential  of  a  pH  electrode. 
This  is  one  of  the  two  main  characteristics  of  a  pH  electrode.  The  second 
characteristic  is  the  electrode  slope.  The  slope  of  an  electrode  gives  the  change  of 
potential measured between two buffers with a pH difference of 1 in comparison to 
what  is  expected  by  theory  (from  Nernst).  Nernst  calculated  this  value  as  59.16 
mV/pH at 25 degrees Celsius. But this is just theory and as we all know the practice 
always looks a little different. In practice the zero point as well as the slope of the 
electrode differ from what they should be. This difference has to be known so that 
the meter can compensate for any changes in electrode response. This way you get 
“true” results. Determining the deviation of the zero point and the slope from their 
theoretical values and saving these values into the meter (it works automatically) is 
called calibration. [5] 
 
   How to calibrate your pH meter
 
1. Take the pH electrode and connect it to the meter. Remove the storage vessel and 
rinse  the  sensing  area  thoroughly  with  distilled  water.  Dab  the  electrode  with  a 
soft paper tissue to remove the rest of water (don't rub the electrode surface). 
 

5
 2. Dip the electrode into buffer pH = 7, so that the diaphragm of the electrode is well 
immersed.  If  the  pH  electrode  doesn't  have  an  integrated  temperature  sensor, 
connect  a  separate  temperature  sensor  to  the  meter  and  dip  it  also  into  the 
buffer solution. If you don't have a temperature sensor which you can connect to 
the meter, use a conventional sensor and enter the temperature into the meter 
when required. 
 
3. Start the calibration on the meter (check instructions for use of the meter). You 
will notice that the temperature is measured first and then a mV reading is taken, 
which should be around 0 mV.  The difference to 0 mV will be registered by the 
meter and taken into account during later measurements. 
 
4. Rinse the sensors thoroughly with distilled water and dab the electrode with a soft 
paper tissue to remove the rest of water (don't rub the electrode surface). Dip in 
buffer pH = 4 and repeat the procedure. 
 
5.  Having  two  mV  readings,  this  and  the  previous  one,  the  meter  can  establish  a 
linear function U = f (pH) and also calculate the slope of the electrode. The real 
value  differs  again  from  the  theory  of  59.16  mV/pH.  The  meter  saves  the 
difference and takes it into account during later measurement. (see Appendix(A)). 
[2] 
 
  Temperature compensation
 
  Temperature plays a key role in pH measurement. There are two reasons for this:
 
1. The pH value of the solution changes with the temperature. 
2. The slope (theoretical slope) of the electrode changes with the temperature. 
 
pH  measurement  should  always  be  performed  together  with  temperature 
measurement  because  only  pH  values  measured  at  the  same  temperature  can  be 
compared. 
Of  course  there  is  one  exception  which  confirms  the  rule  above.  This  is  when  you 
calibrate. In this case both problems mentioned above are eliminated. [2] 
 
  The response time of an electrode
 
The  response  time  of  an  electrode  is  the  length  of  time  necessary  to  get  a  stable 
reading when the electrode is moved from one solution to another of different pH or 
temperature. 
Response  time  is  dependent  on  the  electrode  type,  the  measuring  sample, 
temperature,  the  magnitude  and  direction  of  concentration  change  and  the 
presence  of  interfering  substances.  A  slow  response  time  can  be  indicative  of  the 
incorrect selection of electrode for the intended application. [5] 
 
 

6
Paper vs. Meter comparison 
Litmus paper 

• Advantages: 

1. Easy for young children to use. 
2. Does not need calibration. 

• Disadvantages: 

1. Resolution is not as good as meters (reads in 0.5 pH unit increments). 
2. It is not temperature compensated. 

pH meter 

• Advantages: 

1. Measures to 0.1 pH units. 
2. Can be temperature compensated. 

Note: avoid using meters with one point calibration. 

• Disadvantages: 

1.  The meter must be calibrated with buffer solutions before each use. 
2.  More expensive than litmus paper. 
3.  Performance deteriorates over time. 
4. Better  meters  have  at  least  a  two  point  calibration  and  have  an  automatic 
temperature compensation (ATC). Buffer solutions may be ordered in liquid 
or powdered form. The liquid is more expensive and has a shorter shelf life, 
but  may  be  more  convenient  than  mixing  the  powdered  buffers.  Most 
meters require the small, flat ‘watch‐type’ batteries. Although the batteries 
last a long time, if the meter is turned off when not in use, it is a good idea to 
have an extra set of batteries on hand. [6] 

 
 
 

7
Some application areas: 
 
1. pH measurement in food industry 
 
pH clearly plays an important role in food processing. Among the reasons for 
measuring pH in food processing include:  
 
• To produce products with consistent well defined properties.  
• To efficiently produce products at optimal cost. 
• To avoid causing health problems to consumers. 
• To meet regulatory requirements. 

The  pH  range  of  foods  varies  considerably  with  some  typical  values  of  food  and 
related  solutions.  Due  to  the  logarithmic  nature  of  the  measurement,  even  small 
changes  in  pH  are  significant.  The  difference  between  pH  6  and  pH  5  represents  a 
ten‐fold increase in acid concentration; a change of just 0.3 represents a doubling of 
acid concentration. Variations of pH can impact flavor, consistency, and shelf‐life. [4] 
 
Examples: 
 
• pH Measurement in Corn Wet Milling 
 
BACKGROUND 
 
Corn wet‐milling is the most common method used to process corn. In this process, 
corn kernels are separated into their component fractions and then further treated 
to yield cornstarch, corn sweeteners, corn oil, and animal feed.  
 
pH measurements are made throughout the milling process to optimize the product 
yield.  The  bulk  of  the  water  used  for  rinsing  and  washing  usually  needs  pH 
adjustment  to  prevent  altering  the  nominally  acidic  pH  present  during  the  various 
steps. Rinse waters are generally recycled upstream, but must be eventually treated 
(and neutralized) before disposal. 
 
Specific pH applications include the following: 
 
1. The pH in the steeping tank is used to control the addition of the sulfur dioxide (or 
other  acid) that  begins  to  release  the  starch  from  the  corn.  Too  much  acid  may 
release  the  starch  prematurely  and  causes  corrosion  of  stainless  steel  process 
lines. Not adding enough will not prepare the corn kernels adequately. 
2.  Starch  modification  is  used  to  lower  the  viscosity  of  the  starch  product.  This 
process must be con‐ducted under controlled pH to meet product specifications. 
3.  The  enzymes  used  in  starch  conversion  are  expensive  and  function  best  at  well 
defined pH levels (typically in the 3‐5 range depending on the enzyme used). pH 
levels higher than normal will not utilize the enzymes efficiently, while operation 
at  lower  pH  may  allow  the  reaction  to  proceed  too  far  and  cause  plugging  of 

8
 downstream filters. High pH values cause the product to set into a viscous gel that 
is difficult to process. [7] 
 

• pH of Cheese 

 
pH, together with temperature, rank as the most important indicators of food quality 
and safety. The pH of cheese is measured to ensure that quality standards have been 
properly  met.  pH  is  also  monitored  at  different  stages  of  cheese  processing  and 
transformation  to  guarantee  safety  and  improve  production.  Along  with 
temperature and water activity, pH is an important determinant in the shelf life of 
foods.  The  pH  value  of  cheese  varies  not  only  among  types  of  cheese,  but  also 
between  batches  of  the  same  variety.  There  is  also  variation  throughout  the 
maturation process, decreasing early on and increasing again as the cheese matures. 
Typically, the pH of cheese ranges from 5.1 to 5.7 with a few exceptions. Increasingly 
pressure  is  being  put  on  cheese  makers  to  supply  end  product  which  has  been  pH 
tested. [8] 

 
    
 
2. Ph measurements in agriculture: 
 
Example: 
 
• Soil pH Measurement with a Portable Meter 
 
Background: 
 
Soil  pH  is  a  very  useful  measurement,  indicative  of  soil  chemical  and  biological 
properties  important  to  plant  growth.  The  availability  of  plant  nutrients,  activities 
and  nature  of  microbial  populations,  solubility  toxic  substances  and  activities  of 
certain pesticides are all influenced by soil pH. 
 
Considerations Involved in Measuring Soil pH: 
 
1. All meters should be calibrated once each day before use with standard pH buffer      
solutions at two pH points. Standardize the pH meter until the instrument reading 
agrees with both buffer pH’s. 
2. It is best to make pH measurements at approximately room temperature because 
pH  reading  sere  temperature  sensitive.  If  possible,  adjust  the  instrument  to  the 
temperature of the solution being measured. 
3.  the  most  common  procedure  is  to  place  the  soil  into  a  paper  cup  and  add  one 
tablespoon of distilled water. Stir the sample for 15 seconds and let stand for 30 
minutes. 

9
4.  The  electrode  tip  must  be  placed  in  the  soil  slurry  and  not  in  the  overlying 
solution. Stir the slurry carefully and read the pH immediately. 
5. To avoid abrasion of the sensing surface, prevent the electrode tip from touching 
the  bottom  of  the  sample  cup.  Some  instruments  have  electrode  holders  to 
prevent abrasion. Rinse the electrodes after each soil sample. [9] 
 
 
Future research and development in pH sensors 
 
The  selection  of  the  optimum  sensor(s)  and  analyzer  for  a  control  system  is  as 
important as its proper configuration.  

pH measurement is not simple and furthering the problem is the fact that many, if 
not  most,  applications  requiring  pH  measurement  are  challenging  environments 
involving high temperatures and/or process elements that can foul, coat, or poison a 
pH sensor.  

In the past, this has resulted in the need for frequent cleaning and replacement of 
the  pH  sensor,  sometimes  once  a  day  in  very  harsh  circumstances,  making  the 
measurement costly in both equipment and time.  

While  there  is  no  perfect  pH  sensor  yet  today,  the  technology  is  advancing  to  the 
point  that  the  pH  sensor  is  a  relatively  trouble‐free  part  of  the  process,  so  long  as 
one selects carefully and performs appropriate maintenance too.  

The two major areas of advance have been extending the life of the pH sensors and 
extending their range of applications.  

The most obvious area of advance in pH technology is in the area of glass durability. 
New  glass  formulations  and  low‐stress  handling  techniques  provide  exceptional 
resistance to thermal and caustic degradation. This translates to less breakage from 
thermal  stress  or  shock  and  improved  speed  of  response  at  near  theoretical  levels 
and minimal hysteresis for fast accurate calibrations even after months of service.  

In addition to the more durable glass, new sensor designs also mount the glass bulbs 
in protected tips that shield the glass from direct impact while in service or during 
calibration. For  applications  where  glass‐tipped  sensors  cannot  serve,  ion  selective 
field effect transistor (ISFET) technology may be the best choice.  

The  response  time  of  these  sensors  can  be  as  much  as  10  times  faster  than 
traditional  glass  electrodes.  This  response  combined  with  stability  make  ISFET 
sensors appropriate for use in cold processes like brine or water for cooling.  

10
Aging  effects  caused  by  temperature  fluctuations  are  also  less  with  ISFET  sensors 
providing longer intervals between maintenance and calibration. However, the ISFET 
sensor does not typically survive in harsh alkaline or strongly acidic solutions as well 
as glass does. It is non‐linear at the ends of the pH spectrum; hence, the ISFET sensor 
has a range of two to 12 pH versus zero to 14 pH for the glass electrode sensor. If the 
application  requires  fast  response  in  a  relatively  benign  environment,  or  does  not 
allow the use of glass, then an ISFET sensor is the answer.  

Despite  the  best  technology  developments,  sensors  still  need  cleaning  in  dirty 
applications. Spray  cleaners  attach  to  the  sensor  and  provide  a  periodic  burst  of 
cleaner  onto  the  sensor  electrode,  removing  the  coating  that  can  degrade 
performance and cause dead time.  

If cleaning is critical and the application is sufficiently benign to not require frequent 
sensor replacement then a mechanical or pneumatically activated retraction system 
may  be  used. These  systems  easily  and  automatically  remove  the  sensor  from  the 
process for cleaning and then return it smoothly, reducing impact on employee time 
and  reducing  downtime.  The  systems  are  costly,  so  a  cost/benefit  analysis  is 
appropriate; a long‐life sensor that is reliable and easy to install may prove to be a 
better choice. 

Many of these improvements significantly forward the operation of pH sensors in a 
wide  range  of  applications.  Over  the  last  decade,  more  and  more  steps  to  build  in 
sensor diagnostics that alert the operator before a critical failure occurs have come 
about. With  advance  notice  of  sensor  degradation,  orderly  maintenance  or 
shutdowns are now possible.  

Most analyzers today are modular in design, allowing the same analyzer to be used 
with  a  simple  change  of  a  circuit  board  for  multiple  applications  (pH,  ORP, 
conductivity,  chlorine,  turbidity,  and  others),  which  can  significantly  speed  training 
and operation.  

In  addition,  many  analyzers  allow  multiple  inputs,  permitting  a  single  analyzer  to 
control more than one sensor.  

Finally, pH analyzers can be equipped with advanced digital communications (HART, 
Profibus,  Foundation  fieldbus,  and  others)  to  allow  integration  with  central 
databases eliminating “islands of automation,” speeding record keeping and trouble‐
shooting, and complying with requirements in many industries. [10] 

11
References: 
 
[1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH 
 
[2] http://www.brinkmann.com/utilities/download_pdf.asp?DR=downloads
%2Fpdf%2Ffaqs%2Felectrodes&FN=pH-background.pdf.

[3] http://www.madehow.com/Volume-6/Litmus-Paper.html

[4] http://www.foodmanufacturing.com/scripts/Products‐The‐Importance‐of‐pH‐   
Measurement.asp 
[5] http://www.reagecon.com/TechPapers/phfaqv4.pdf

[6] http://www.globe.gov/tctg/hydro_prot_ph.pdf?sectionId=152

[7] http://www.emersonprocess.com/raihome/documents/Liq_AppData_2000‐
84.pdf 

[8] http://www.qclscientific.co.uk/ph‐measurement‐150‐c.asp 

[9] www.rce.rutgers.edu 

[10]http://www.isa.org/InTechTemplate.cfm?Section=Article_Index1&template=/Content
Management/ContentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=67497 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

12
   Appendices
 
  APPENDIX (A): Calibration of pH meter
 
 
 

 
    Zero point adjustment
 
 
Here is a typical calibration report: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

13
  
 
  APPENDIX (B): diaphragm types and membrane shapes
 
• Table(B.1): common diaphragm types

 
 
• Table(B.2): The most common membrane shapes in use today 
 

 
 
 
 
 

14
  
• Table(B.3): membrane glass types 
 
 
                        

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

15
  APPENDIX (C): Data sheets

16
pH Measurement
Electrode Basics
pH electrode technology hasn’t changed
much in the past 50 to 60 years. With all
the technological advancements of the last
30 to 40 years, pH electrode manufacturing
remains an art. The special glass body of
the electrode is blown to its configuration
by glass blowers. Not a terribly advanced
nor “high tech” process but a very critical
and important step in the electrode
manufacturing. In fact, the thickness
of the glass determines its resistance
and affects its output.
MDS37, $750, see page B-29.
pH electrodes are constructed from a
special composition glass which senses
the hydrogen ion concentration. This glass
is typically composed of alkali metal ions.
The alkali metal ions of the glass and the
hydrogen ions in solution undergo an ion
exchange reaction generating a potential
difference. In a combination pH electrode,
the most widely used variety, there are
actually two electrodes in one body. One
portion is called the measuring electrode,
the other the reference electrode. The
potential that is generated at the junction
site of the measuring portion is due to
the free hydrogen ions present in solution.
The potential of the reference portion is
produced by the internal element in
contact with the reference fill solution.
This potential is always constant. In
summary the measuring electrode
delivers a varying voltage and the
reference electrode delivers a constant
voltage to the meter.
The voltage signal produced by the pH
electrode is a very small, high impedance
signal. The input impedance requires
that it only be interfaced with equipment
with high impedance circuits. The input
impedance required is greater than
1013 ohms. This is the reason why pH
electrodes do not interface directly will
all equipment.
pH electrodes are available in a variety of
styles for both laboratory and industrial
applications. No matter their status, they
are all composed of glass and are
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B-3 continues to expand, visit omega.com for new details!
therefore subject to breakage. Electrodes pH electrodes should always be stored in
are designed to measure mostly aqueous a moistened condition. When not in use,
media. They are not designed to be used it is best to store the electrode in either
in solvents, such as CCI4, which does not buffer 4.0 or buffer 7.0. Never store an
have any free hydrogen ions. electrode in distilled or deionized water as
this will cause migration of the fill solution
The pH electrode due to the nature of its from the electrode.
construction needs to be kept moist at all
times. In order to operate properly the
glass needs to be hydrated. Hydration is
required for the ion exchange process to
occur. If an electrode should become dry,
it is best to place it in some tap water for
a half hour to condition the glass.
pH electrodes are like batteries; they run
down with time and use. As an electrode
ages, its glass changes resistance. This
resistance change alters the electrode
potential. For this reason, electrodes
need to be calibrated on a regular basis.
Calibration in a pH buffer solution corrects
for this change. Calibration of any pH
equipment should always begin with buffer
7.0 as this is the “zero point.” The pH scale
has an equivalent mV scale. The mV scale
ranges from +420 to -420 mV. At a pH of
7.0 the mV value is 0. Each pH change
corresponds to a change of ±60 mV. As pH
values become more acidic, the mV
values become greater. For example a pH pH electrodes have a finite lifespan due
of 4.0 corresponds to a value of 180 mV. to its inherent properties. How long a pH
electrode will last will depend on how it is
cared for and the solutions it is used to
measure. Typically, a gel-filled combination
pH electrode will last 6 months to 1 year
PHB-212, $420, depending on the care and application.
see page B-23. Even if an electrode is not used it still
ages. On the shelf, the electrode should
last approximately a year if kept in a
moistened condition. Electrode demise
can usually be characterized by a sluggish
response, erratic readings or a reading
which will not change. When this occurs,
an electrode can no longer be calibrated.
pH electrodes are fragile and have a
limited lifespan. How long an electrode
will last is determined by how well the
probe is maintained and the pH
application. The harsher the system,
As pH values become more basic, the mV the shorter the lifespan. For this reason
values become more negative; pH=9 it is always a good idea to have a back-up
corresponds to -120 mV. Dual calibration electrode on hand to avoid any system
using buffers 4.0 or 10.0 provide greater down time. Calibration is also an important
system accuracy. part of electrode maintenance. This
assures not only that the electrode is
pH electrodes have junctions which allow behaving properly, but that the system
the internal fill solution of the measuring is operating correctly. In summary these
electrode to leak out into the solution are the “electrode facts of life.”
being measured. This junction can
become clogged by particulates in the
solution and can also facilitate poisoning
by metal ions present in the solution. If a
clogged junction is suspected, it is best to
soak the electrode in some warm tap
water to dissolve the material and clear
the junction.
For Sales
& Service
U.S.A. and Canada
Each electrode
supplied with
either BNC
(shown) or US
standard PHE-1304
connector. economy,
$32.

PHE-1417 PHE-1411 ORE-1311 general

economical general purpose ORP, $87.
purpose for ORE-1411
with double PHE-2385 rugged double
PTFE samples PHE-1311
puncture tip for requiring general junction ORP
junction, meats, cheeses for interfering
$90. double purpose, $57.
and leathers, $85. junction, $70. ions, $101.

PHE-1335, extra long test tubes (PHE-1335-D detachable style shown), $89 + 5 = $94. See C-13 of the GREENBOOK®
All electrodes shown smaller than actual size. for all electrodes shown here.

Glass Electrode Error in pH Units

10°C (50°F)
15°C (59°F)
20°C (68°F)
25°C (77°F) Temperature
30°C (86°F)
35°C (95°F)
40°C (104°F)

Compound pH Value
Sulfuric Acid 0.3
Limes 2.8-3.8
Wines 3.0
Oranges 3.0-4.0
Beer 4.0-5.0
Automatic Temperature Blood, Human 7.3-7.5
59 mV per decade at 25°C (77°F) Compensation becomes
52 mV per decade at 0°C (32°F) more critical as the temperature Egg whites 7.6-8.0
74 mV per decade at 100°C (212°F) changes from 25°C (77°F), Sodium Bicarbonate 8.4
or the pH from 7.0 Ammonia 11.6
Sodium Hydroxide 14.0
+
H (Hydrogen Ions) OH– (Hydroxyl Ions)
Acid Neutral Alkaline
pH 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
mV @ + + + + + + + – – – – – – –
25°C 414 355 296 237 177 118 59 00 59 118 117 237 296 355 414
(77°F)

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Lab Instrument products online, visit omega.com
B-4
Temperature Compensation
pH Measurement Error

The millivolt output of all pH electrodes
varies with temperature in a manner
predicted by theory. The magnitude of this
variation is a function of temperature and
of the pH value of the system being
measured.
At a pH of 7 and a temperature of 25°C
(77°F), temperature error is approximately
zero. So, at any temperature when the pH
is about 7, there is no temperature error.
And, at any pH when the temperature is at
25°C (77°F), there is no error. When the
temperature is other than 25°C (77°F)
and the pH other than 7, the temperature
error is:
0.03 pH error/pH unit/10°C (18°F).
The following table illustrates this
combined effect:

pH TEMPERATURE ERROR TABLE

pH Value
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
5 –0.30 –0.24 –0.18 –0.12 –0.06 0 +0.06 +0.12 +0.18 +0.24 +0.30
15 –0.15 –0.12 –0.09 –0.06 –0.03 0 +0.03 +0.06 +0.09 +0.12 +0.15
25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
35 +0.15 +0.12 +0.09 +0.06 +0.03 0 –0.03 –0.06 –0.09 –0.12 –0.15
Temperature, 45 +0.30 +0.24 +0.18 +0.12 +0.06 0 –0.06 –0.12 –0.18 –0.24 –0.30
°C
55 +0.45 +0.36 +0.27 +0.18 +0.09 0 –0.09 –0.18 –0.27 –0.36 –0.45
65 +0.60 +0.48 +0.36 +0.24 +0.12 0 –0.12 –0.24 –0.36 –0.48 –0.60
75 +0.75 +0.60 +0.45 +0.30 +0.15 0 –0.15 –0.30 –0.45 –0.60 –0.75
85 +0.90 +0.72 +0.54 +0.36 +0.18 0 –0.18 –0.36 –0.54 –0.72 –0.90
NOTE: Values in light blue are less than 0.1 error and may not require temperature compensation. Values in gray are temperature and pH in which there
is no error in pH from temperature.

Add the appropriate error factor to correct
uncompensated readings. Correct
uncompensated readings as follows
(the factors from the table assume that
the electrodes were calibrated in buffer
at 25°C/77°F):
Effects of Temperature on pH
Temperatures Above 25°C: temperature
compensation lowers high pH and raises
low pH, resulting in value closer to neutral.
Temperatures Below 25°C: temperature
compensation raises high pH (more basic)
and lowers low pH (more acidic), resulting
in values further away from neutral.
Whether or not temperature compensation
need be used is a matter of the needed
pH accuracy. For example, if the accuracy
requirement is ±0.1 pH, at a pH of 6 and
a temperature of 45°C (113°F), the error
is 0.06, well within the accuracy
requirements. On the other hand, with
the same ±0.1 pH accuracy requirement,
operating at pH 10 and 55°C (131°F)
would give an error of 0.27 pH and
compensation should be used.
When compensation is required, it can be
done in one of two ways. If the
temperature fluctuates, then an automatic
compensator should be used. If the
temperature is constant within several
degrees C, then a manual compensator
can be used. If no compensator is needed,
a fixed resistor can be installed across the
temperature compensator terminals.
Any of the above devices–automatic
compensation, manual compensation or
fixed resistor–operate as a function of the
pH meter’s electronic circuit. As such,
information and parts should be obtained
from the meter manufacturer.
If automatic compensators are used, they
should always be at the same location as
the pH electrode. When electrodes are
calibrated in buffer, the temperature
compensator also should be in the buffer.
In a similar way, a manual temperature
compensator should be adjusted to reflect
the temperature to which the pH electrode
is exposed during both calibration and
operation.
Reproduced with permission of Sensorex

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& Service
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pH Measurement Tips
The measurement of pH is very
important in many laboratories
and industries. Below are a few
guidelines to aid in making PHB-600R, $570, with pH electrode,
accurate and precise temperature probe, 2 buffer solutions
pH readings. and electrode holder (all included),
shown smaller than actual size.
See page B-25 for more information.
Meter Calibration
Frequency
For accurate results a
pH meter should be
calibrated at least once
per 8-hour shift.
Buffers
Standard buffers should
always be used for meter
calibrations. Buffers can
be purchased already
prepared or in capsule form.
Standard buffers usually
are available in three
pH values—pH 4.00,
pH 7.00, and pH 10.00.
Buffers should be stored
away from heat and in tightly
sealed containers.
Always use freshly poured
buffers for meter calibration.
All buffers should be used at room
temperature, 25°C (77°F).

Types of Calibration
One-Point Calibration
Meter calibration using only one buffer.
The value of buffer used should be that
closest to value anticipated for sample.
Two-Point Calibration
Meter calibration using two buffers,
one of which should always be 7.00.
The second buffer used would depend
on the application.
Method
Here is a general method for most pH
meters. Some pH meters require slightly
different techniques. Please read the
instructions for their particular procedures.
1. The temperature setting on the meter
must correspond to the temperature
of the buffers used, or an automatic
temperature compensator must be
employed.
2. Turn pH meter to “pH” or “ATC” if
automatic temperature compensation
is used.
3. Place clean electrode into fresh,
room temperature pH 7.00 buffer.
4. Adjust the pH reading to exactly
7.00 using the ZERO OFFSET,
STANDARDIZED or SET knob.
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5. Rinse the electrode with distilled or
deionized water. (This would be the
procedure for a one-point calibration. Use and Maintenance
Continue through step 8 for a two-point Electrodes should be used in a
calibration.) vertical position.
6. Place electrode into the second buffer, Electrodes should be rinsed between
either pH 4.00 or pH 10.00. samples with distilled or deionized water.
NEVER wipe an electrode to remove
7. Adjust the pH reading to display the excess water. Just blot the end of the
correct value using the SLOPE, electrode with a lint-free paper. Wiping
CALIBRATE, or GAIN controls the electrode can cause spurious readings
(coarse ajust). due to static charges.
8. Adjust the pH reading to read the The level of filling solution in refillable
correct value using the SLOPE knob electrodes should be kept at least 2/3 full.
(fine ajust). The filling hole should be open during
use. pH electrodes are fragile. A proper
The pH meter is now calibrated and electrode holder should be used to provide
ready to use. support and aid in raising and lowering the
probe into solutions.
Electrode Care
Over 80% of pH measurement difficulties
are due to electrode problems. Proper
storage, use, and maintenance increases
accuracy.
Storage
Electrodes should be stored in an
acidic solution with a low salt content.
Commercial soaking solutions are
available or you can make your own
by mixing a 1M KCI solution adjusted
to pH 4.0.
Lab Instrument products online, visit omega.com
B-6
One Omega Drive | Stamford, CT 06907 | 1-888-TC-OMEGA (1-888-826-6342) | info@omega.com

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EPG05
AH-300-K-1-1
pH sensor

Higher life expectancy by refilling

Low flow rate by small junction
Low alcaline error

applications

Process Water

Cooling And Boiler Feed Water

description
The Kuntze AH-300-K-1-1 is a combination electrode with a 1mm ceramic junction for pH measurement.
The sensor is liquid filled, thus blocking resistant and particulary suitable for lightly polluted media.

technical data
characteristic
measuring parameter pH-value
measuring range 0 .. 14 pH
ambient conditions
max. pressure 6 bar
adjustable by internal pressure
min. condutctivity > 50 µS
temperature -5 .. +100°C

Version 02/2009
AH-300-K-1-1
pH sensor

mechanical construction
junction Keramik
shaft material glass
electrode material AH glass ball
reference system Ag/AgCl/3M KCl
internal buffer pH 7
mechanical connection S7 plug
electrical connection 2-pole screw connection

Article Numbers

Article
Name Description
Number
pH sensor: KCl liquid filled, 1 mm ceramic
AH-300-K-1-1 24132040K
junction, S7 plug

accessories
accessories
pH-buffer solutions The slope of pH sensors change over the time (depending on the
measuring media), we recomment a regulary calibration with our
buffer solutions. We offer in a
1000 ml package pH 2, pH 3,56, pH 4, pH 7 and pH 9,22 and in
50 ml package pH 4 and pH 7.

Version 02/2009
 Value-Added Solutions

ABB pH Sensor Model TB557

Holds Up in Harsh Environments
Where Other Sensors Fail
The ABB sensor’s pH- Polychemie was having
sensitive hemispherical difficulty producing a
glass electrode is precursor monomer product
rugged enough to due to high pH sensor
withstand an abrasive failure rate occurring within
and strong caustic its batch reactors. The
environment. It is rated
sensors Polychemie was
using were exposed to
for a true 0 – 14 pH
high temperatures as well
range at temperatures
as corrosive and abrasive
to 284 degrees F. The
conditions, making them
body of the sensor is inoperable. ABB solved
Kynar® polyvinylidene the problem by providing
fluoride thermoplastic Polychemie with its pH
strengthened by a Sensor Model TB557,
titanium sheath; which proved to be virtually
both materials hold immune to the challenging
up well to the harsh reactor environment.
process conditions. Measurement of pH within a process
batch reactor is critical to the production
of coagulant and solution flocculants.
Polychemie, located in Pearlington,
Mississippi, manufactures these chemicals
for its parent company, SNF Inc., which
is one of the world’s largest suppliers of
water-soluble polymers widely used for
water and wastewater treatment and a
wide range of specialty applications.
Early in the chemical process, the pH mea-
surement controls the initial raw material
additions at low pH levels. Later, the pH
measurement controls caustic additions
to maintain close-tolerance pH levels.
The pH sensor must respond quickly and
withstand high temperatures as well as
corrosive and abrasive conditions, which
can lead to numerous sensor failures.
Over the course of the process, the
reactor’s pH sensor is subjected to an
environment ranging from 2 to 10 pH, and
temperatures near 180 degrees F. Steam
coils within the vessel’s jacket maintain
the high temperatures.
Control Functions
During the initial phase, two components
flow into the agitated reactor, mixing with
a third material already present. A pH
value controls the flow rate of one of the
two components to maintain the required
stoichiometric ratio of the raw materials in
the reactor. The setpoint for this control
loop keeps the reactor solution highly
acidic – about 2 pH.
The pH measurement also comes into play
during the final process phase. Here, the

www.abb.com/instrumentation
 process strips away water and residual
Success Stories
organic material that is not part of the
monomer product. The plant recycles
the excess organic materials. During
this phase, the reactor operates under
vacuum at elevated temperature, and
with a tight tolerance on alkalinity
(9 – 10 pH).
The pH value is used to control the rate of
caustic added to the reactor to maintain
the high alkalinity required for stripping.
Salts formed during this phase account
for the abrasive nature of the pH sensor’s
environment. At the beginning of this
phase, the sensor must respond virtually
across its full range within 30 seconds –
from high-acidic to highly alkaline.
Signals from the pH sensor’s transmit-
ter run to a distributed control system
(DCS). The DCS employs PID control
algorithms, developing signals for the
control valves that set the rate of raw
material and caustic additions. The end-
point of a monomer batch occurs when
the analysis of the stripped extraction
samples reaches a predetermined value.
The Search for the
Right Sensor
Initially, Polychemie tried several types
of pH sensors in its reactors, but none
could last long in the harsh environ-
ment. Shortly after installation, sensor
response times slowed to a point that
rendered the pH reading useless. Even
flowing reference sensors with both
conventional glass and unique glass/steel
measuring electrodes quickly degraded.
Eventually, the plant found success
with the TB557 pH sensor from ABB
Instrumentation. The TB 557 Model
consists of a hot tap retractable sensor
that is conveniently inserted into and out
of the reactor through a ball valve. This ar-
Copyright © 2005 ABB 3BUS340006R0001 Teflon® is a registered trademark of DuPont. Kynar® is a registered trademark of Arkema.
rangement allows insertion or removal of
the sensor without disturbing the process.
ABB supplies the sensor complete with
a ball valve assembly that bolts to a
standard flanged port on the reactor.
The sensor has a patented reference
comprised of a matrix of immobilized
KCI salt fronted by a porous Teflon®
junction. This “solid state” reference is
virtually immune to poisoning, plugging
and pumping problems that plague
conventional liquid, slurry and gel-based
references. Without this reference
technology the sensor would be quickly
destroyed during the vacuum and
extreme high pH process phases.
PH Sensor Model TB
557 Characteristics
The ABB sensor’s pH-sensitive hemi-
spherical glass electrode is rugged
enough to withstand an abrasive and
strong caustic environment. It is rated
for a true 0 – 14 pH range at tempera-
tures to 284 degrees F. The body of
the sensor is Kynar® polyvinylidene
fluoride thermoplastic strengthened by a
titanium sheath; both materials hold up
well to the harsh process conditions. An
integral cable and temperature element
complete this rugged pH sensor.
The Polychemie plant has been using
ABB TB557 pH sensors for three years.
Polychemie calibrates the pH sensors
and transmitters for its reactors on a
weekly schedule. To do so, technicians
simply retract the sensor, close the ball
valve, and then remove the sensor for
field calibration. Technicians check both
the sensor and transmitter as well as
the sensor response time. Because pH
measurement is so critical to successful
batch production of this monomer
process, Polychemie replaces sensors
every six months as a matter of policy.
pH Sensor DT016A

The pH sensor can be connected to the Nova5000, MultiLogPRO or TriLink data

loggers.
The pH sensor is capable of measuring the entire range of 0 - 14 pH and is used for
various experiments in Biology, Chemistry and Environmental Science.
This sensor can replace the traditional pH meter and in addition, it automatically
collects the pH data and the pH changes during chemical reactions and displays
these changes in a graph.
The pH sensor (DT016A) consists of the Fourier Systems adaptor (DT017) and a pH
electrode (DT018) and is equipped with an automatic temperature compensation
system.

Typical Experiments
• Acid – Base titration
• Investigation of water quality
• Acidification of milk and others foods
• pH measurements in tissue extracts
• Alcoholic fermentation in yeast

How it Works
The pH electrode contains two half-cells. One contains a reference element of known
H+-concentration. The other, at the bottom of the electrode, is an H+- sensitive glass
membrane. The adaptor measures and amplifies the potential difference between the

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two half-cells. The pH level (pH= – log (H+)) is calculated from the potential
difference.

Sensor Specification

Range: 0 - 14 pH

Accuracy:
± 2% over entire range, after
temperature compensation

Resolution (12-bit): 0.004 pH

Temperature Compensation: Yes

Operating Temperature: 0 °C – 50 °C

Response Time for 95% of

10 seconds
Reading:

Default Sample Rate: 10 samples per second

Feature: Equipped with an offset

calibration screw

Sensor Storage: Store the pH electrode in its

storage solution when not in
use

Contents
• Adaptor & electrode set DT016A
• Adaptor only DT017
• Electrode only with a bottle containing pH 4.01 buffer DT018

Adaptor & electrode set DT-016A Adaptor only DT-017 Electrode only DT-018

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Equipment Setup
1. Connect the electrode to the adaptor.
2. Connect the adaptor to the data logger's input.

Required Equipment
• Nova5000, MultiLogPRO or TriLink data loggers
• Wash bottle with distilled or deionized water
• Several clean beakers
• Lab wipes

Technical Notes
• If other electrochemical type sensors (Oxygen and Conductivity) are placed in
the same solution at the same time and connected to the same data logger,
they can interfere with each other’s signals. Keep the sensors as far apart as
possible - the distance required will depend on the conductivity of the
solution. If there is still a problem, try connecting the sensors to different data
loggers or take readings using one sensor at a time.
• In order to use temperature compensation a Temperature sensor must be
connected to the data logger along with the pH sensor (the Temperature
sensor must be plugged into Input 1).

Preparation of the Electrode for Initial Use

1. Remove the protective bottle or cover from the electrode and thoroughly rinse the
electrode with distilled water. Wipe carefully with a clean lab wipe.
2. During shipment, air bubbles may have migrated into the electrode sensing bulb.
Hold the electrode up to the light and inspect the sensing bulb for air bubbles. If
air is seen, carefully shake the electrode downward (like a thermometer) to dispel
the air bubble from the sensing bulb at the tip of the electrode.

Calibration
The pH sensor is shipped fully calibrated.
For experiments that require very accurate calibration, however, the pH sensor is
equipped with an offset calibration screw. The screw is located at the back of the
sensor case. Place the electrode in a reference solution (buffer of pH 7) and start
recording. Insert a flat screwdriver to the calibration hole and slowly turn the
calibration screw until the reference value is reached.

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Using the pH Sensor with Fourier Data Loggers and MultiLab Software

1. Rinse the electrode with distilled water and blot with a lab wipe.

2. Launch the MultiLab software (from either your PC or Nova5000).

3. Connect the Temperature sensor (DT029) to the data logger’s first sensor input
I/O-1.

4. Connect the pH sensor to I/O-2.

5. The Temperature and pH sensors are automatically recognized by the MultiLab

software.
6. Click Setup on the main toolbar and program the data logger’s sample rate and
number of samples.
7. Place the electrode in a beaker containing the sample and a stir bar.
8. Click Run on the main toolbar to start the measurement.

Maintenance
• At the end of the measurement, remove the electrode from the sample; rinse the
electrode with distilled water over the waste beaker. Blot the electrode dry with a
lab wipe. The electrode is now ready to read the pH of other samples.
• When not in use, store the pH electrode in the supplied bottle containing the
storage solution.
• The recommended storage solution is comprised of 50% ph 4 buffer and 50% 4M
KCl salt. If this storage solution isn't available then a fresh ph 4 buffer can be
used as well.

Cleaning the Electrode

Do not use strong solvents (e.g. acetone, carbon tetrachloride, etc.) to clean the pH
electrode. Be sure to recalibrate the electrode after cleaning.
1. If the electrode has become coated with oil or grease, carefully wash the
electrode under warm tap water using dish-washing detergent. Rinse thoroughly
with fresh tap water followed by a rinse with distilled water. Soak the electrode in
pH electrode storage solution for 30 minutes after this cleaning procedure.
Recalibrate the electrode before use.

4
2. If the electrode has been exposed to protein or similar materials, soak in acidic
pepsin, ASI part number CS 0003, for 5 minutes. Rinse thoroughly with distilled
water. Soak in storage solution for 30 minutes prior to recalibration.
3. If the previous cleaning procedures fail to restore response, soak the electrode in
0.1 N HCI for 30 minutes. Rinse thoroughly with distilled water. Recalibrate
before use.
4. If electrode response is still not restored, replace the electrode.

An Example of using the pH Sensor

Acidification of milk
In this experiment we follow pH changes in milk, kept in a thermos, during 30 hours
of incubation.

Figure 1: Acidification of milk

Troubleshooting
If the pH displays values which are out of the sensor range, verify that the sensor
cables are properly connected.

5
Technical Support
Please contact Fourier technical support as follows:
Web: http://www.fourier-sys.com/support_support.html
Email: support@fourier-sys.com

Consult the FAQs before contacting technical support:

http://www.fourier-sys.com/support_faq.html

Copyright and Warranty

All standard Fourier Systems sensors carry a one-year warranty, which states that for
a period of twelve months after the date of delivery to you, it will be substantially free
from significant defects in materials and workmanship.
This Warranty does not cover breakage of the product caused by misuse or abuse.
This Warranty does not cover Fourier Systems consumables such as electrodes,
batteries, EKG stickers, cuvettes and storage solutions or buffers.