Machining processes

2.810 Fall 2003

Professor Tim Gutowski
Outline
Basic Machine Configuration1

Basic Mechanics1

Geometry1,3

Production machining1,2,3,4,5

Environmental Issues
Readings
1. Kalpakjian Ch.20-26
2. “Simplified Time Estimation Booklet
for Basic Machining Operations”
3. Design for Machining handout
4. Single minute exchange of dies
(SMED) handout
5. “A Job Shop” handout
Outline
Basic Machine Configuration1
n Single point machining
w Turning, boring, trepanning, planing
n Multiple point machining
w Drilling, milling, reaming, sawing, broaching,
grinding
 Machining processes
* Grinding
Turning
Grinding
V
wheel
D
Grains

v Workpiece

Milling
*
Cutter Arbor Spindle
Shank
Spindle
End mill

Arbor

Horizontal Slab milling Face milling End milling

* Source: Kalpakjian, “Manufacturing Engineering and Technology”

 Machine Tools Horizontal-spindle surface grinder
*

* Headstock

Spindle Spindle
speed
selector
Ways Cross slide
Carriage
Center
Feed
change Tailstock quill
gearbox Tailstock

*
Compound rest and Head
Bed
slides (swivels) Apron
Lead screw

Feed rod Table

Column

Basic Lathe Saddle

Knee

Vertical-Spindle Mill
Base

* Source: Kalpakjian, “Manufacturing Engineering and Technology”

Outline
Basic Mechanics1
n Power, Forces

n Heat, Tool materials, Rate limits

n New Technology to reduce these effects

See Video on Plastic Deformation

Basic Machining Mechanism
d(work) •
F ⋅ V = Power = = work
dt
•
tc
work
Chip
•
= specific energy = u S
Rake
angle V vol
- +

α
u S = u plastic work (65 to 80%) + u friction
Tool
u p = ∫ σ dε ≅ τγ 2≤γ ≤ 4
t0 φ
1
Shear plane Shear angle u p ≅ τγ ≅ H × ( 2 − 4)
6
Workpiece

Approximation
us ~ H (Hardness)
Specific energy, uS
Basic Machining Mechanism
Hence we have the approximation;

Power = Hardness * MRR

MRR is the Material Removal Rate or d(Vol)/dt
Since Power is
P=F*V
and MRR can be written as,
d(Vol)/dt = A * V
Where A is the cross-sectional area of the undeformed chip, we can get
an estimate for the cutting force as,

F=H×A
Note that this approximation is the cutting force in the cutting direction.
You may want to use the specific cutting energy “us” given in Table
20.1 of Kalpakjian in place of the Hardness value in the above
equations.
Cutting Force Directions in Milling
Fcn
Fp

Fc

Fc
Fp Fcn

Fp

Fcn
Fc ~ H × Ac
Fcn Fc
Fc (Tangential Cutting Force ~
Fp Chip Cross-section × Hardness)
Feed per Tooth and MRR
Ω = rotational rate (rpm)

Top view of face milling

With 4 tooth cutter v (m/s)

f = feed per tooth (m) Side view

w = width of cut (m)

Consider the workpiece moving into the cutter at rate “v”. The travel in time t’
is v*t’. During the same time, the cutter would rotate Ω∗t’ times and the
workpiece would see 4Ω∗t’ cutter teeth. In general, a cutter may have “N”
teeth, so the feed per tooth is
f = v / NΩ
The material removal rate (MRR) is,
MRR = v w d
where “d” is the depth of the tool into the workpiece.
Ex) Face milling of Al Alloy
N = 4 (number of teeth)
vw
D = 2” (cutter diameter)
Let w = 1” (width of cut), d=0.1” (depth of cut)
f = 0.007” (feed per tooth),
d φ=D
vs = 2500 ft/min (surface speed; depends on
cutting tool material; here, we must have a
w coated tool such as TiN or PCD)

The rotational rate for the spindle is

Ω = vs / πD = 4775 rpm
Now, we can calculate vw, workpiece velocity,
f = vw / N Ω => vw= 134 [in/min]

Material removal rate, MRR = vw*w*d = 13.4 [in3/min]

Power requirement, P = us*MRR = 5.36 [hp]
Cutting force / tooth, F ~ us*d*f = 111 [lbf]
us from Table 20.1; Note 1 [hp min/in3] = 3.96*105 [psi]
Ex) Turning a stainless steel bar
Recommended feed = 0.006” (Table 22.2)
Recommended surface speed = 1000 ft/min
f
D=1”
Ω= 1000 ft/min = 3820 rpm
π∗1” ∗ 1ft/12”
d

Tool Let d = 0.1”

Material removal rate, MRR = 0.1∗0.006∗(π∗1∗3820) = 7.2 [in3/min]

Power requirement, P = us*MRR = 1.9*7.2 = 13.7 [hp]
Cutting force / tooth, F ~ us*d*f = (1.9*3.96*105)*(0.1*0.006)
= 450 [lbf]

us from Table 20.1; Note 1 [hp min/in3] = 3.96*105 [psi]

 Temperature Rise in Cutting
*

Adiabatic Temperature Rise:

ρ cp ∆T = uS

Note : uS ~ H, Hardness
∆Tadiabatic > ½ Tmelt (Al & Steel)

Interface Temperature:
Typical temperature distribution
in the cutting zone
∆T = 0.4 (H / ρ cp)(v f / α)0.33

v = cutting speed
f = feed
α = thermal diffusivity of workpiece
Note v f / α = Pe = convection/conduction
* Reference: N. Cook, “Material Removal Processes”
* Source: Kalpakjian, “Manufacturing Engineering and Technology”
 Cutting tool materials & process conditions

Hardness (HRA)
Tool life (min)

HRC
Cutting Speed (ft/min) Temperature (°F)
Machining time (min)

Cutting speed (ft/min)

m/min
Year Feed (in/rev)
* Source: Kalpakjian, “Manufacturing Engineering and Technology”
Limits to MRR in Machining
1. Spindle Power – for rigid, well supported parts
2. Cutting Force – may distort part, break delicate
tools
3. Vibration and Chatter – lack of sufficient rigidity in
the machine, workpiece and cutting tool may result
in self-excited vibration
4. Heat – heat build-up may produce “welding”, poor
surface finish, excessive work hardening; can be
reduced with cutting fluid

See Video on Rate Limits In Machining

 Typical Material Removal Rate
10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1 10 102 [cm3/sec]

EBM 1 EDM1,2 Machining

25A, 6um RMS1
Rough milling
Grinding3 Creep Feed2 of Al > 35hp
Grinding

LASER3

Chem. Milling2

Note: 1cm3/sec = 3.67 in3/min 1m X 1m area

* References: 1. Advanced Methods of Machining, J.A.McGeough, Chapman and Hall, 1988

2. Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, S. Kalpakjian, Addison-Wesley, 1992
3. Laser Machining, G. Chryssolouris , Springer-Verlag, 1991
 Hexapod Milling Machines
*

Stewart
Platform

Linear actuator

Tool

Hexapod machining center Schematics

(Ingersoll, USA)

* Source: http://macea.snu.ac.kr/eclipse/background/background.html
High speed Machining and Assembly
High Speed Machined aluminum parts are replacing built-up
parts made by forming and assembly (riveting) in the aerospace
industry. The part below was machined on a 5-axis Makino
(A77) at Boeing using a 8-15k rpm spindle speed, and a feed of
240 ipm vs 60 ipm conventional machining. This part replaces a
build up of 25 parts. A similar example exists for the F/A-18
bulkhead (Boeing, St. Louis) going from 90 pieces (sheetmetal
build-up) to 1 piece. High speed machining is able to cut walls
to 0.020” (0.51mm) without distortion. Part can be fixtured
using “window frame” type fixture.

MRR = f d * N Ω w
Outline
Geometry1,3
n Micro-geometry: tolerance, surface finish

n Macro-geometry: 5 axes, form tools vs. software

Micro-geometry
Excellent surface finish and dimension
precision are possible.
Compare machining tolerances with other
processes.
n See figure 22.15 and 35.25 of Kalpakjian
Compare surface finish with other processes,
and various applications.
n See figure 22.14 and 35.26 of Kalpakjian
Why is machining so good?
Variation Vs Part Size
Macro-geometry
Machine tool configuration
number of axes, spindles, serial and parallel
configurations
Cutter geometry
Form tool, cutter radius, inserts, tool changers
Software
flexibility, geometrical compensation, “look ahead”
dynamics compensation
* Source: Reintjes, “Numerical Control”
 *
Head

Table
Column

Saddle

Knee

Base

* Source: Kalpakjian, “Manufacturing Engineering and Technology”

* Source: Kalpakjian, “Manufacturing Engineering and Technology”
Simple Classification Scheme for
Part Geometry

Primary Rotational
Primary Rotational with secondary Primary Planar

Primary Planar with Primary Rotational Primary Rotational and

secondary and Planar Planar with secondary

Secondary
Pop quiz; how would you
make a gun stock?

See video
Production Machining
Part Fixturing and Production Equipment
n Quick Release Fixtures, Quick Tool Changes, SMED (notes
from Shigeo Shingo), Multiple Spindles, Modular Equipment
n See Chapter 24 of Kalpakjian
Machining Systems
n Job Shop, Flow Shop, Cellular Machining, Machining Centers,
Flexible Automation (FMS), Transfer Lines
n See Chapter 39 of Kalpakjian
Process Planning and Time Estimation
n See “Simplified Time Estimation for Machining” and DFM
rules
Part Fixturing for Prismatic Parts
Job Shop
n Vise Jaws / T-slot
n Bolt clamps / T-slot
n Direct bolt to plate / T-slot
Production
n Special work holding jaws and clamps
w Soft jaws, custom jaws, stops, mechanical clamps,
hydraulic clamps, pneumatic clamps, magnetic chuck
n Multiple parts fixtures and indexing heads
w Tombstones, trunnion, indexing heads
Job shop fixturing

Vise Faceplate on lathe

T-slot & clamps on mill

 Production

Indexing Trunnion
http://www.royalworkholding.com

Quad-Vertical combination Chuck

http://www.royalworkholding.com/RM3.html
8-station Vise
http://www.te-co.com/toolex/html/10a.html

Hydraulic Pallet Fixture
http://www.royalworkholding.com
Modular Fixtures
http://www.royalworkholding.com/RM3.html
Collet Index Fixture
http://www.cuttingtoolmall.com/catalog/standard.cfm?FamilyID=225205
SMED
Single-Minute-Exchange-Die
w Shigeo Shingo, “A Study of the Toyota
Production Systems”
n Stage1: Separating Internal and External
Setup
n Stage2: Converting Internal to External
Setup
n Stage3: Streamlining all aspects of the
setup operation
Machining Systems Classification
Synchronous

Cellular
Machining Transfer
Flow Line
System Flow

Shop
Free Transfer

CNC Machining Center

Job
Job
Shop
Shop

Automation of Workstation/Transfer
Job shop
Flow Shop

L L M D G

A A

Receiving L M G G

L M D
Shipping
Flexible Manufacturing System
 Transfer line

* Source: Kalpakjian, “Manufacturing Engineering and Technology”

Machining Cell
VM Part movement
HM

L VM

Decoupler
(Kanban square)
L
G

Worker path Final

inspection
S Worker position

Raw material Finished

OUT
cart part cart
Process planning
How would you machine this part?

Assumption:
1. We begin with a stock size of 2.5” X 2.25” X 12”
2. This will be manufactured in a job shop for very low quantity
We will use:
- A bandsaw to roughly cut the stock to size
- A manual vertical mill to create the planar features and the holes
- A belt sander to sand the radii ( assuming the tolerance is not
very high)
 Machine Operation

Horizontal band saw Saw stock to ~4.125”

Mill two ends to length 4”

Mill width to 2”

Manual vertical mill Mill out 2”X1.5”X4”

Drill hole 1” diameter

Bore 1” radius

Belt sender Sand 0.5 radii

* Source: http://www.jettools.com/Catalog/Metalworking/CatalogPages/HVBS56M.html
 Machine Operation
Horizontal band saw Saw stock to ~4.125”

Mill two ends to length 4”

Mill width to 2”
Manual vertical mill Mill out 2”X1.5”X4”

Drill hole 1” diameter

Bore 1” radius

Belt sender Sand 0.5 radii

* Source: http://www.hemsaw.com/Videolinkpages/x-vVideopg.htm
 Machine Operation
Horizontal band saw Saw stock to ~4.125”

Mill two ends to length 4”

Mill width to 2”
Manual vertical mill Mill out 2”X1.5”X4”

Drill hole 1” diameter

Bore 1” radius

Belt sender Sand 0.5 radii

* Source: http://www.hemsaw.com/Videolinkpages/x-vVideopg.htm
 Machine Operation
Horizontal band saw Saw stock to ~4.125”

Mill two ends to length 4”

Mill width to 2”

Manual vertical mill Mill out 2”X1.5”X4”

Drill hole 1” diameter

Bore 1” radius

Belt sender Sand 0.5 radii

* Source: http://www.hemsaw.com/Videolinkpages/x-vVideopg.htm
 Machine Operation
Horizontal band saw Saw stock to ~4.125”

Mill two ends to length 4”

Mill width to 2”

Manual vertical mill Mill out 2”X1.5”X4”

Drill hole 1” diameter

Bore 1” radius

Belt sender Sand 0.5 radii

* Source: http://www.hemsaw.com/Videolinkpages/x-vVideopg.htm
 Machine Operation
Horizontal band saw Saw stock to ~4.125”

Mill two ends to length 4”

Mill width to 2”

Manual vertical mill Mill out 2”X1.5”X4”

Drill hole 1” diameter

Bore 1” radius
Belt sender Sand 0.5 radii

* Source: http://www.hemsaw.com/Videolinkpages/x-vVideopg.htm
 Machine Operation
Horizontal band saw Saw stock to ~4.125”

Mill two ends to length 4”

Mill width to 2”

Manual vertical mill Mill out 2”X1.5”X4”

Drill hole 1” diameter

Bore 1” radius

Belt sender Sand 0.5 radii

* Source: http://www.jettools.com/jet-index.html (WMH Tool Group)

Process plan
Machine Operation
Horizontal band saw Saw stock to ~4.125”
Mill two ends to length 4”

Mill width to 2”
Manual vertical mill Mill out 2”X1.5”X4”
Drill hole 1” diameter

Bore 1” radius
Belt sender Sand 0.5 radii
Time estimation (minutes)
Machine Operation (V = Volume, A Fixture Tool Run (R=Rough, Deburr/Inspect/
= Area, P = Perimeter) Change F=Finish) Measure

Horizontal band Saw stock to ~4.125”

0.23 - 2.02 0.30D, 0.05I
saw A = 5.6525 in2, P = 9 in

Mill two ends to length 4”

0.20 0.13R 0.63D, 0.05I,
V = 0.703 in3 2
A = 11.25 in2, P = 19in
0.20 0.75F 0.13M

Mill width to 2”
0.46R 0.43D, 0.05I,
V = 2.5 in3 0.20 -
A = 10 in2, P = 13in
0.67F 0.13M

Mill out 2”X1.5”X4”

2.19R 0.50D, 0.05I
Manual vertical V = 12 in3 - -
A = 14 in2, P = 15in
0.93F 0.13M, 0.13M
mill
Drill hole 1” diameter 2 0.03
-Center drill
2 0.05 0.21D, 0.05I
-Pilot drill ½” 0.20
2 0.04 0.17M
-Pilot drill 63/64”
-Ream 2 0.01
Bore 1” radius
0.96R 0.24D, 0.05I
V = 0.79 in3 0.20 2
A = 1.57 in2, P = 7.28in
0.01F 0.06M

Sand 0.5 radii

0.20R 0.10D, 0.05I
Belt sender V = 0.05 in3 0.08 -
A = 0.79 in2, P = 3.14in
0.21F 0.06M, 0.06M
Summary Times (minutes)
Fixture Tool Change Run (R=Rough, F=Finish) Deburr/Inspect/Measure
1.31 12 6.08 2.58 3.63

Total Time 25.6 minutes

Environmental issues
Waste material
Energy
n Machine, material (embodied energy),
temperature controlled environment
Lubricants and hydraulic fluids
Cutting Fluids
n Dry machining
Production machining energy
Vs production rate

Ref. Toyota