Textual Readings in Comparative Religion I (Classical

Dr.
Anis Malik Thoha

Dept. of Uṣūl al-Dīn and Comparative Religion
Phone: 03-61965003 (office)
01-62717643 (mobile)
Email: anism@iiu.edu.my
amta64@gmail.com
 This course is the first part of two courses
designed to familiarize students with the
works of prominent classical Muslim scholars
on other religions. In this first part, the works
of al-Bīrūnī and Ibn Taymiyyah will be closely
studied. The knowledge exposited by these
scholars, their systematic arguments and
expositions as well as the methodologies they
developed will be discussed. Each scholar’s
special contribution will be highlighted.
10/30/2008 Textual Readings in Comparative Religion I 2

The objectives of this course are to:
1. to expose students to the rich legacy of Muslim
scholarship on other religions
2. to read the works of prominent classical Muslim
scholars on other religions
3. to study the various methodologies used by these
scholars
4. to examine the various arguments adopted by
these scholars in their works
5. to guide students to device proper approaches and
sound arguments in their own work on other
religions

Upon completion of this course, students should be able to:
1. appraise classical works by Muslims on other religions
2. use information and arguments learnt from the course
for their own interactions with, and works on, other
religions
3. argue soundly and appropriately on matters related to
other religions
4. employ some of the methods learnt from this course
5. construct his or her own personal approaches to study
on other religions

 Muslim scholarship on other Religions
 Franz Rosenthal asserts in his preface to
Bruce Lawrence’s translation of Al-
Shahrastānī’s “Ārā’ al-Hind” that “the
comparative study of religions has been
rightly acclaimed as one of the great
contributions of Muslim civilization to
mankind’s intellectual progress.”

 Eric J. Sharpe states that “the honour of
writing the first history of religion in world
literature seems in fact to belong to the
Muslim Shahrastānī (d. 548 AH/1153 CE)
whose Religions and Schools of Philosophy
describes and systematizes all the religions
of the then known world, as far as the
boundaries of China.”

 Religionswissenschaft (scientific study of religions,
comparative religion) is, therefore, not a modern
invention as commonly claimed by the western scholars.
 Why should Muslims study other religions?:
 Intellectual curiosity?
 Development of knowledge
 To understand Qur’anic verses related to other religions.
 For da’wah, refute/challenge truth-claims, practices.
 For practical purposes, i.e., governance, business, social
engagements (Ḥablun min al-Nās)
 Ḥablun min Allāh orʿIbādah in its widest sense.

 Abundant and voluminous legacy of Muslim
scholars on other religions.
 They include Abū al-Ḥasan al-ʿĀmirī (381
AH/992 CE), al-Bāqillānī (d. 1031), al-Bīrūnī
(d. 1051), Ibn Ḥazm (d. 1064), al-
Shahrastānī (d. 1153), al-Ghazālī (d. 1111)
and Ibn Taymiyyah (14th century).

 Muhammad ibn Ahmad Abū al-Rayhān al-
Bīrūnī (362/973-440/1051).
 Born in 362/973 in a place called Bīrūn in
Khawārizm.
 He moved from place to another due to
political circumstances. To al-Rayy when he
was twenty three, after three years to Jurjan
where he published his Al-Āthār, and back to
Khawārizm after ten years, then to Ghaznah.

 Sulṭān Masʿūd’s reign was very conducive to the
flourish of scholarship.
 Hence al-Bīrūnī dedicated one of his important work
on science to the Sulṭān and named it Al-Qānūn al-
Masʿūdī.
 In the field of sciences, al-Bīrūnī recorded major
contributions, such as:
 Trisection of an angle, and solution of some complex
problems without the use of protactor and scales.
 Accurate determination of latitude and longitude of a
large number of places.
 Pointing to the existence of the American continent.

 Providing proof that light travels at a much
faster speed than sound.
 Explaining the forces of gravity.
 It is under this circumstances also that al-

Bīrūnī managed to do a field and
anthropological research on Indian culture
and civilization, which he called it Taḥqīq Mā
li al-Hind min Maqūlah Maqbūlah fī al-ʿAql
aw Mardhūlah.

 Al-Bīrūnī’s works on other religions are
basically presented in his Al-Āthār al-
Bāqiyahʿan al-Qurūn al-Khāliyah. In this book
he deals with almost all religions known to the
people of his region at that particular time.
 But it his Taḥqīq Mā li al-Hind min Maqūlah
Maqbūlah fī al-ʿAql aw Mardhūlah is solely
dedicated to study the Indian
tradition/religion.

 Compared to his Al-Āthār, his Taḥqīq is
obviously more specific in its scope or subject
matters, i.e. Indian culture and civilization.
 Hence, the Taḥqīq or the so-known in the west
Kitāb al-Hind is actually a comprehensive work
on almost everything Indian, ranging from the
belief system, superstition, customs/traditions,
institutions, philosophy, geography, to the hard
sciences.

 Objective of the book is stated explicitly in
the introduction, as he said:
 ‫تحرٌر ما عرفته من جهتهم (فرقة الهند والشمنٌة) لٌكون‬...
...‫نصرة لمن أراد مناقضتهم وذخٌرة لمن رام مخالطتهم‬
 “…to write down what I know about Indians
as a help to those who want to discuss
religious questions with them, and as a
repertory of information to those who want
to associate with them.” (p. 5)

 In his discourses on these topics, al-Bīrūnī
constantly refers to and extensively quotes from the
scriptures and holy texts of India, such as the Vedas,
Patanjali, Gita, Samkhya, Vishnu Purana and Vishnu
Dharma.
 That al-Bīrūnī is truly very well-versed in Indian
scriptures and language is attested to by the fact that
he translated into Arabic the Patanjali and Samkhya.
 The book was meant for a specific group of people,
that is, a learned and serious audience, or those who
wished to have dialogues and discourses with the
Indians.

 Method and approach used in the work are best
expressed in a sentence in the introduction which
reads :
 ‫ولٌس الكتاب كتاب حجاج وجدل حتى أستعمل فٌه بإٌراد حجج الخصوم‬
‫ وإنما هو كتاب حكاٌة فأورد كالم الهند‬،‫ومناقضة الزائغ منهم عن الحق‬
.‫على وجهه وأضٌف إلٌه ما للٌونانٌٌن من مثله لتعرٌف المقاربة بٌنهم‬
 “The book is not a polemical one… My book is
nothing but a simple historic record of facts.” (p. 5)
 Also: ‫وأنا فً أكثر ما سأورده من جهتهم حاك غٌر منتقد إال عن‬
‫ضرورة ظاهرة‬
 “And in the most of what I shall mention about them,
I am but a reporter/narrator.” (p. 19)

 Al-Bīrūnī begins his Taḥqīq by presenting the
difficulties encountered by a Muslim like him in
discovering India for some reasons. Among the
others is:
 ‫أن القوم ٌباٌنوننا بجمٌع ما ٌشترك فٌه األمم‬
 “That the people is different from us in all respects
that are common to all peoples.” (p. 13)
 The first is language. It is composed from characters
which have no equivalence to the Arabic and
Persian, nor similarity to them. (p. 13)

 The second is: ‫أنهم ٌباٌنوننا بالدٌانة مباٌنة كلٌة‬
 That they differ from us in religion totally. Their
sense of superiority and haughtiness which
subsequently leads to their unwillingness to mix
with other people and, consequently, their reluctant
to disclose their scholarship and sciences to the
others. (pp. 14-15)
 The third is: ‫أنهم ٌباٌنوننا فً الرسوم والعادات‬
 They differ from us in customs and traditions. This
also has led to add another sense of superiority and
exclusivism. (pp. 15-19)

 Al-Bīrūnī is very careful and meticulous in
describing the Indian belief.
 He distinguishes between the elite group )‫(الخواص‬
and the common men )‫ (العوام‬in society due to the
different nature of each of them. The elite is rational
and investigative on the principles’ subject matters,
while the common’s minds stop at the visible things
and are contended with the branches or trivialities.
 So, his description of India is based only on what is
believed by ‫الخواص‬.
 ‫ فإن قطبها ما علٌه البراهمة‬،‫( وال معتبر علٌهم ومذاهبهم وإن كثرت‬p.
29)

 The belief of the elite, educated and scholarly class
of the people (‫الخواص‬, i.e. the Brahmanists)
pertaining to God is that He is One and Eternal, no
beginning no end.
 ‫واعتقاد الهند فً هللا سبحانه أنه الواحد األزلً من غٌر ابتداء وال انتهاء‬
 He quotes verses from Patanjali, Veda, Gita, Samkhya
in order to prove that.
 As far as the belief of the common men is concerned,
it is no different between all religions. Even in Islam,
the anthropomorphic belief and the likes are very
common to all common men. (pp. 20-24)

 The Indian belief on the existing beings or
things is just like the Greeks and the Sufis. In
principle, they believe that beings are but one.
 ‫أن األشٌاء كلها شٌئ واحد‬
 It is only the existence of First Cause (‫)العلة األولى‬
that is Real. For it is independent by itself, and
the others are dependent upon it for their
existence.
 Everything which depends for its existence on
the other, its existence is not real. And the real
is only the First One.

‫‪‬‬ ‫الوجود الحقٌقً للعلة األولى فقط الستغنائها بذاتها فٌه وحاجة‬
‫غٌرها إلٌها‪ ،‬وأن ما هو مفتقر فً الوجود إلى غٌره فوجوده‬
‫)‪ (p. 24‬كالخٌال غٌر حق‪ ،‬والحق هو الواحد فقط‪.‬‬
‫‪‬‬ ‫‪This is based on the statement by Vasudeva in‬‬
‫‪the Gita and what is mentioned in the Veda (pp.‬‬
‫‪30-33).‬‬
‫‪‬‬ ‫فإن باسدٌو ٌقول فً الكتاب المعروف بكٌتا‪” :‬أما عند التحقٌق‬
‫فجمٌع األشٌاء إلهٌة ألن ”بشن“ جعل نفسه أرضا لٌستقر الحٌوان‬
‫علٌها وجعله ماء لٌغذٌهم وجعله نارا ورٌحا لٌنمٌهم وٌنشئهم‬
‫وجعلهم قلبا لكل واحد منهم ومنح الذكر والعلم وضدٌهما على ما‬
‫هو مذكور فً ”بٌذ“‬
‫‪10/30/2008‬‬ ‫‪Textual Readings in Comparative Religion I‬‬ ‫‪22‬‬

 Vasudeva said: “To speak accurately, we must
say that all things are divine; for Vishnu made
himself the earth that the living beings should
rest thereupon; he made himself water to
nourish them thereby; he made himself fire
and wind in order to make them grow; and he
made himself the heart of every single being.
He represented them with recollection and
knowledge and the two opposite qualities, as is
mentioned in the Veda (p.30).

 Regarding the species of the creatures,
according to Al-Bīrūnī, it is difficult to relate.
He relates that according to Samkhya,
creatures are of three species : high
(spiritual beings, al-rūḥāniyyūn), middle
(human being), and lower (animals).
 There are 14 types of the creatures, 8 of
them belong to the spiritual beings, 5 to
animals, and 1 to human being.

 ‫كما أن الشهادة بكلمة اإلخالص شعار إٌمان المسلمٌن والتثلٌث عالمة‬
‫النصرانٌة واإلسبات عالمة الٌهودٌة كذلك التناسخ علم النحلة الهندٌة‬
‫ إن النفس إذا‬:‫ فإنهم قالوا‬،‫فمن لم ٌنتحله لم ٌك منها ولم ٌعد من جملتها‬
‫لم تكن عاقلة لم تحط بالمطلوب إحاطة كلٌة دفعة بال زمان واحتاجت‬
‫إلى تتبع الجزئٌات واستقراء الممكنات وهً وإن كانت متناهٌة فلعددها‬
...‫كثرة‬
 As the shahādah is the symbol of faith of the
Muslims, the Trinity is the symbol of the Christianity,
and the Shabbat is the symbol of Judaism, likewise
the metempsychosis is the symbol of Indian faith
and tradition. Whosoever does not believe in it, he is
not part of them and not considered among them,
for they said:

 If the soul is not knowledgeable it will not know the
required (duties)comprehensively simultaneously,
rather it will need to trace the parts and to deduce
the possibilities. This soul, although it is limited, its
number is abundance. ..
 As such, the soul has to pass from one body after
another, because it is only through the bodies that it
can acquire experience and knowledge.
 This is to go on until the soul has satiated its desire
to know more. It will then separate permanently
from all bodies and thus will unite with the Highest
Absolute Intelligence.

 This is based on the statement by Vasudeva
in the Gita and what is mentioned in the
Veda (p. 39-41), and Vishnu Dharma (p. 41),
and Patanjali (p. 42-43)
 According to Al-Bīrūnī this kind of belief is
also commonly found in the ancient Greek
(p. 43-44), and in the Sufi tradition (p. 44).

 Al-Bīrūnī explains that the Indian concept of
retribution is basically divided into three levels: high
(heaven, Jannah, reward), lower (hell, Jahannam,
punishment) and middle (merit gain).
 Retribution is exclusively for the soul. The soul
which has been liberated and united with the
Highest Absolute Intelligence is considered as
attaining heaven.
 It is uneasy to understand the concept of retribution
in Indian tradition, as the texts mention that reward
and punishment are here and now (middle level)

 To be reborn in the higher body (higher caste) is
considered reward. By contrast, to be born in the
lower body (animal or tree) is a punishment.
 There are many types/levels of punishment
(jahannam). In Vishnu Purana, they are 88000 types
according to different sinful acts (p. 45-47).
 The cause of metempsychosis or the bondage of
rebirth and death is ignorance (al-jahl). Therefore to
be liberated from bondage one must gain
knowledge, comprehensive knowledge.
 Only then, the soul is liberated. This liberation is
called “moksha” (p. 53)

 There are three ways to gain this knowledge:
1. By eternal inspiration (ilhām bi-lā zamān),
since the birth.
2. By inspiration after certain time (ilhām baʿda
zamān).
3. By study.
 The liberation by knowledge is only attainable
by avoiding vice or bad deeds(p. 55).

 Al-Bīrūnī said that when “state and religion are in
perfect harmony” then their union represents the
highest development of human society (p. 75).
 He observes that kings in antiquity imposed
institutions of social stratification on their people to
facilitate law and order (76).
 Likewise the Indians have their caste institution
called varna (colours) or jataka (birth).
 This institution becomes especially strong because it
is founded upon solid religious foundations, i.e., the
doctrine of metempsychosis and liberation.

‫وهم ٌسمون طبقاتهم ”برن“ (‪ )varna‬أي األلوان وٌسمونها من جهة‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫النسب ”جاتك“ (‪ )Jataka‬أي الموالٌد‪ ،‬وهذه الطبقات فً أول األمر‬

‫أربع‪ ،‬علٌاها ”البراهمة“ (‪ )Brahmins‬قد ذكر فً كتبهم أن خلقتهم من‬
‫رأس ”براهم“ (‪ )Brahma‬وأن هذا اإلسم كناٌة عن القوة المسماة‬
‫”طبٌعة“‪ ،‬والرأس عالوة الحٌوان‪ ،‬فالبراهمة نقاوة الجنس ولذلك صاروا‬
‫عندهم خٌرة اإلنسز والطبقة التً تتلوهم ”كشتر“ (‪ )Kshatriya‬خلقوا‬
‫بزعمهم من مناكب براهم وٌدٌه ورتبتهم عن رتبة البراهمة غٌر متباعدة‬
‫جدا‪ ،‬ودونهم ”بٌش“ (‪ )Vaisya‬خلقوا من رجلً براهم‪ ...‬ثم أصحاب‬
‫المهن دون هؤالء غٌر معدودٌن فً طبقة غٌر الصناعة وٌسمون‬
‫”أنتز“‪ ،‬وهم ثمانٌة أصناف بالحرف‪... ،‬وكلهم جنس واحد ٌمٌزون‬
‫بالعمل‪[ .‬وهم المعروفون بطبقة ”شودر“ (‪)p. 76-77( .])Shudra‬‬

 It is worth noting that Al-Bīrūnī relates an important
narration based on their scripture that:
‫ فقال بعضهم إنه‬.‫وأما الخالص فقد اختلفوا فٌمن هو معد له من هذه الطبقات‬ 
‫ وقال المحققون‬.“‫لٌس لغٌر البراهمة وكشتر ما الٌمكنهم فقط من تعلم ”بٌذ‬
‫منهم إن الخالص مشترك الطبقات ولجمٌع نوع اإلنس إذا حصلت لهم النٌة‬
.‫بالتمام‬
 As for the liberation, the Indians dispute among
themselves on for which caste it is provided. Some of
them maintain that it is not for non-Brahmins and non-
Kshatriya, simply because it is impossible for them to
learn Veda. However, the learned among them said that
it is common to all castes and all human beings as long
as they have sound intention.

‫ اعرف الخمسة والعشرٌن معرفة تحقٌق ثم‬:“‫ وذلك بداللة قول ”بٌاس‬
‫ وبداللة مجٌئ ”باسدٌو“ من‬،‫انتحل أي دٌن شئت فإنك متخلص ال محالة‬
‫ إن هللا ملً بالمكافأة من غٌر حٌف وال‬:‫نسل ”شودر“ وقوله ألرجن‬
‫محاباة ٌحتسب بالخٌر شرا إذا نسً فٌه وبالشر خٌرا إذا ذكر فٌه ولم‬
‫ٌنس وإن كان فاعله ”بٌشا“ أو ”شودرا“ أو امرأة فضال أن ٌكون‬
)p. 79-80( .“‫”برهمنا“ أو ”كشترا‬
 It is based on the statement by “Viyasa”: “Be
knowledgeable of twenty five firmly, then subscribe

to any religion you wish, certainly your are
liberated.” And it is based on the fact that Vasudeva,
a descendant of a Shudra family, had said to Arjuna:

 “God distributes recompense without
injustice and without partiality. He reckons
the good as bad if people in doing good
forget him; he reckons the bad as good if
people in doing bad bad remember him and
do not forget him, whether those people be
Vaisya or Shudra or woman. How much
more will this be the case when they are
Brahmin or Kshatriya.”

‫‪‬‬ ‫‪As usual Al-Bīrūnī tries to compare between‬‬
‫‪the Greeks and Indians. He finds that with‬‬
‫‪regard to the laws, the Indians were quite‬‬
‫‪similar to the Greeks. He says:‬‬
‫فهذا حال هؤالء [الٌونانٌون] وعلى مثله أمر الهند فإنهم ٌرون‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫الشرٌعة وسننها صادرة عن ”رشٌن“ الحكماء قواعد الدٌن دون‬

‫الرسول الذي هو ”ناراٌن“ المتصور عند مجٌئه بصور اإلنس‪،‬‬
‫ولن ٌجًء إال لحسم مادة شر ٌطل على العالم ‪ ...‬فألجل هذا وقع‬
‫االستغناء عن الرسل عندهم فً باب الشرع والعبادة‪ ،‬وإن وقعت‬
‫الحاجة إلٌهم مصالح البرٌة‪.‬‬

 The Indians are like the Greeks in that they
view Law and its legality are originated from
the wise men or sages, the “Rshis”, who are the
pillars of religion. The role of the prophet who
appears in the human form, Narayana, is very
specific, that is to rescue the world from the
evils and calamities and not to give laws…
therefore according to them with regard to law
and worship there is no need for them (p. 81).
 Pertaining to the issue of abrogation, Al-Bīrūnī
relates that it seems not impossible.

 This is because they view that all things are
originally lawful (mubāḥ) before the coming of
Vasudeva, and then become unlawful, such as the
meat of cow and some forms of marriage contracts.
 Al-Bīrūnī says:
.)p. 83( ‫ فلهذا ٌتخٌل من كالمهم جواز النسخ‬
 On the subject of castes and their moral obligations,
Al-Bīrūnī relates the conversations of Arjuna and
Vasudeva that each caste has its own sets of laws
and ethics and its members are expected to conform
to these strictly.

 Al-Bīrūnī also observes that e ach caste has its own
mode of living and daily routine. (pp. 452-459)
 As for the Brahmins , they divide their life-span into
four phases. (pp. 452-457)

 Al-Bīrūnī too notes that the Indian judicial system
was already well established during his time:

‫ القاضً ٌطالب المدعً بالكتاب المكتوب على المدعى‬.‫ فً الدعاوى‬
‫ فإن لم ٌكن‬،‫علٌه بالخط المعروف المرشح ألمثاله والبٌنة المثبتة فٌه‬
‫فالشهود بغٌر كتاب وال أقل فً عددهم من أربعة فما فوقها إال أن تكون‬
‫ فإن عجز المدعً عن إقامة‬...‫عدالة الشاهد مقررة عند القاضً فٌجٌزها‬
...‫البٌنة لزم المنكر الٌمٌن‬

 Al-Bīrūnī describes also the Indian customary laws
regarding menstruation and confinement after birth
as well as the rites that accompany a birth.
 Divorce is unlawful. Only death can separate the
couple.
 Man can marry upto 4 wives. More that that is
unlawful.
 A widow cannot remarry; she can choose either to
live the life of a miserable and badly treated widow
or be burned alive together with the cremation of
her husband. (pp. 469-472)

 Al-Bīrūnī theories that the phenomenon of idol
worshipping exists because the uncultured minds
within many communities find it very difficult to
understand the abstract (‫)المعقول‬, and as such believe
in the sensibles (‫)المحسوس‬.
 According to him, that is how idolatry begins and
consequently becomes the practice of the
uneducated masses within a society.
 Usually idols are monuments of special persons in
the society whose memories the people want to
keep alive. What starts as monument eventually
becomes the object of worship.

‫معلوم ان طباع العامً نازع إلى المحسوس نافر عن المعقول الذي ال‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ٌعقله إال العالمون الموصوفون فً كل زمان ومكان بقلة‪ .‬ولسكونه إلى‬
‫المثال عدل كثٌر من أهل الملل إلى التصوٌر فً الكتب والهٌاكل كالٌهود‬
‫والنصارى ثم المنانٌة خاصة‪ ...‬وهذا هو السبب الباعث على إٌجاد‬
‫األصنام بأسامً األشخاص المعظمة‪ ...‬مذكرة أمرهم عند الغٌبة والموت‬
‫مبقٌة آثار تعظٌمهم فً القلوب لدى الفوت إلى أن طال العهد بعاملٌها‬
‫ودارت القرون واألحقاب علٌها ونسٌت أسبابها ودواعٌها وصارت‬
‫رسما وسنة مستعملة‪)p. 84-85( .‬‬
‫‪ With the Indians, Al-Bīrūnī relates, idolatry started‬‬
‫‪with King Ambarisha, a powerful, pious and great‬‬
‫‪king who abandoned his kingship and worldly‬‬
‫‪matters for devotion and worship until the divine‬‬
‫‪appeared to him in the form of Indra.‬‬

 Upon a request to immortalise that vision, he was
instructed to make an idol resembling it for him and
the others.
‫ فإن غلبك نسٌان اإلنسٌة فاتخذ تمثاال كما رأٌتنً علٌه وتقرب بالطٌب‬
‫واألنوار إلٌه واجعله تذكارا لً لئال تنسانً حتى إن عنٌت فبذكري وإن‬
)p. 87( .ً‫حدثت فباسمً وإن فعلت فمن أجل‬
 Another version says that it began with Narada,
Brahma’s son, who has no ardor except to get a view

of the Lord. All he managed to see was a luminous
human shape. Hence, this vision was immortalised
in the form of an idol. (p. 88)

 Al-Bīrūnī gives an elaborate account of Indian
idols and how they are made, giving such
details as the measurments for each idol, the
materials used, the procedures and rituals
involved, and the special qualifications
required of idol makers. (p. 88-96)
 However he emphasizes that like the Greeks,
idol worshipping is practiced only by the
uneducated Indians who are taken advantage
of by their priestly classes. (p. 85)

 Al-Bīrūnī’s Taḥqīq is written based on a wide
range of readings of Indian scriptures and
texts.
 Having mastered enough of the language, Al-
Bīrūnī embarked on examining the details of
their religion and traditions.
 The Arabic translation of two Indian scriptures,
Patanjali and Samkhya, by him (see p. 6) is a
concrete evidence of the above statement.

 In his Taḥqīq, there is ample evidence that he was well-
versed in the Gita, the Vishnu-Purana, Vishnu-Dharma,
Vayu-Purna, Aditya-Purana, Samhita, and on top of that,
the Vedas.
 Al-Bīrūnī begins his discourse on this subject in a
chapter, entitled: ‫فً ذكر بٌذ والبرانات وكتبهم الملٌة‬, with the
definition of Veda.
 He clarifies that:
‫ وهو كالم نسبوه إلى هللا تعالى من فم‬،‫”بٌذ“ تفسٌره العلم لما لٌس بمعلوم‬ 
‫ وٌتعلموه كذلك‬.‫”براهم“ وٌتلوه ”البراهمة“ تالوة من غٌر أن ٌفهموا تفسٌره‬
‫ وأقل من‬،‫ ثم ال ٌتعلم تفسٌره إال قلٌل منهم‬،‫فٌما بٌنهم ٌأخذه بعضهم من بعض‬
.‫ذلك من ٌتصرف فً معانٌه وتأوٌالته على وجه النظر والجدل‬

‫ ثم ال‬،‫ وٌعلمونه ”كشتر“ فٌتعلمه من غٌر أن ٌطلق له تعلٌمه ولو لبرهمن‬
‫ وإن‬،‫ٌحل لبٌش وال لشودر أن ٌسمعاه فضال عن أن ٌتلفظا به وٌقرآه‬
.‫صح ذلك على أحدهما دفعته البراهمة إلى الوالً فعاقبه بقطع اللسان‬
 (Veda means “knowledge of that which was before
unknown”. It is the word of God Almighty through
the mouth of Brahma, and recited by the Brahmins
without knowing of its meaning. They also learn it
among themselves and acquire it from each other.
Then, only few of them do learn its meaning and
interpretation. Even less than that are those who
attempt to explore its meanings and interpretations
through discussion.

 The Brahmins teach it to the Kshatriyas, thus the
latter learn it without any right to teach it, even to a
Brahmin. As for the Vaishiyas and the Sudras, it is
unlawful for them to hear it, what more to
pronounce and read it. And if any of them were
found doing so, the Brahmins would hand him/her
over to the authority, then he/she would be
punished severely, that is his/her tongue be cut off].
 Like most ancient texts, says Al-Bīrūnī, the Veda is
composed in metrical forms. In the beginning, in
order to preserve intonation, it was not allowed to
be written.

 However, according to the Indian traditions, the
Veda was lost (forgotten) many times, and finally,
Vasukra, a Kashmiri Brahmin, wrote it down.
 Al-Bīrūnī clarifies that Veda has four sections,
namely, Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, and
Atharvaveda. Each of them has its own way of
reading. (pp. 97-100)
 As for the Purana, which means the first and eternal,
there are 18, and most of them are named with the
names of animals, persons, and the angels. The
Puranas are human in origin, composed by the
Rishis (sages). (pp. 100-101)

 Al-Bīrūnī gives very brief explanation pertaining to
the other books. The Smriti is derived from the Veda,
and it contains injunctions and prohibitions. It is
said to have been composed by the twenty sons of
Brahma. (p. 101)
 The Samkhya and Nyayabhasa are books on divine
subjects and both were composed by Kapila.
 Patanjali is a book on Moksha.
 The Mimamsa by Jaimini is interpretations of the
Veda.

 Al-Bīrūnī also mentions about Bharata (widely
known Mahabharata), which is written by Viyasa.
According to him, it is a book that the Indians hold
with great veneration. It has 18 parts and a 100,000
slokas. (pp. 102-103)
 As regards the accuracy of Al-Bīrūnī’s translations
and comprehension of the scriptures, most scholars,
including Sachau, Chatterji and Jeffery, are of the
opinion that they are quite accurate, and that Al-
Bīrūnī is in fact very meticulous in his studies.
 They make these assertions bearing in mind the texts
and commentaries that were in use during the time of
Al-Bīrūnī .

 The bulk of the Veda is about the burnt sacrifices
(‫قرابٌن النار‬-sacrifices using fire), the description of
each of them, and its amount as well as its
period/duration.
 According to Al-Bīrūnī, as for the amount, there is a
great varieties, ranging from the simple/cheap to the
most expensive ones. So much so that only the great
kings can perform it. Such as Assamayata [‫اسمٌت‬-
asvamedha or horse-sacrifice?] which involves
certain animal/cattle to be set free to live in the
world without any trouble from any body. Thus, the
troops would escort it, and the Brahmins, behind
them, would perform burnt sacrifice upon its dung.

 There are varieties also in terms of period/time.
One of them is only affordable for one whose age is
very long above that which is common to people of
today (in the time of Al-Bīrūnī).
 Because of the above reasons, many of the sacrifices
are inapplicable and unaffordable, and are thus
discarded. And only few sustain and are practicable.
 Al-Bīrūnī relates that an important element in
Indian worship is the role of “fire” and reverence for
it.

 They regard fire as a mediator between themselves
and the Devas, and as such, they consider it pure and
therefore take great care not to let unclean things
touch it.
 According to the Indians, “fire” is consumer of
everything. Therefore, just like “water”, it becomes
impure/unclean (‫ )تتنجس‬because of its engrossment
with the ‫نجاسات‬.
 That is why the Indians would not take it easy in the
matter of fire and water if they are in the hand of
non-Indians. For they consider non-Indians as najis.

 According to them, what is consumed by fire
eventually goes to the Deva, because the fire
comes out from his mouth.
 The Brahmins feed the fire mainly with oil,
sandal, various seeds of wheat, barley, and
rice, while reciting certain mantras. (pp.
459-461)

‫‪‬‬ ‫‪Al-Bīrūnī begins his description of Indian‬‬
‫‪pilgrimage with:‬‬
‫لٌس الحج عندهم من المفروضات وإنما هو تطوع وفضٌلة‪،‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫وهو أن ٌقصد الحاج أحد البالد الطاهرة أو أحد األصنام‬

‫المعظمة أو أحد األنهار المطهرة‪ ،‬فٌغتسل بها وٌخدم الصنم‬
‫وٌهدي إلٌه وٌكثر التسبٌح والدعاء وٌصوم وٌتصدق على‬
‫البراهمة والسدنة وغٌرهم وٌحلق رأسه ولحٌته وٌنصرف‪.‬‬

 (Pilgrimage is not obligatory for the Indians,
but is a virtue. It is a ritual where a pilgrim
makes a way to one of the sacred places or
one of the glorified idols or one of the holy
rivers. So he would bathe in it and offer
service/gift to the idol, and recite mantras
(tasbīḥ) and supplication, and perform
fasting and alms-giving to the Brahmins and
to the others, and cut his head and beard,
and then disperse).

 Among the important things related to the
pilgrimage reported by Al-Bīrūnī is that
Vanarasi (Benares) for the Indians is like
Mecca for the Muslims, for the devout long
to pass their last days there. (p. 465)

 Al-Bīrūnī relates that alms-giving is
obligatory on the Indians and is carried out
every day. And a wealth cannot be delayed
until it completes a year, not even a month,
for nobody knows whether he will be living
any longer.
‫ وال ٌترك المال حتى‬،‫ الصدقة عندهم واجبة كل ٌوم بما أمكن‬
‫ فإن ذلك إحالة على مجهول ال‬،‫ٌحول الحول أو ٌمر شهر‬
.‫ٌعرف اإلنسان هل ٌبلغه‬

 However, Al-Bīrūnī’s description of Indian
alms-giving is very brief, that it is an obligatory
on the Indians except the Brahmins; and that it
is one sixth (1/6) of the wealth.
 In addition to that, Al-Bīrūnī describes the
distribution of wealth after being deducted for
alms-giving.
 Ribā (interest) is unlawful, except for Shudras
to certain limit. (p. 466-467)

 Al-Bīrūnī relates that:
‫اإلماتة فً األصل محظورة علٌهم باإلطالق كما هو على‬ 
‫ ولكن الناس ٌقرمون إلى اللحم وٌنبذون فٌه‬،‫النصارى والمانوٌة‬
‫ فٌصٌر ما ذكرناه مخصوصا‬،ً‫وراء ظهورهم كل أمر ونه‬
‫بالبراهمة الختصاصهم بالدٌن ومنع الدٌن إٌاهم عن اتباع‬
.‫الشهوات‬
 In principle, “killing” is absolutely prohibited
(ahimsa?) for them just like the case for the
Christians and the Manicheans. But people
cannot refrain from the meat ignoring all the
command and prohibition.

 Thus, the above prohibition is only observed
exclusively by the Brahmins, because of their
closeness to religion, and the religion’s
prohibition against them of following the
desires.
 Then, Al-Bīrūnī gives a brief description of
lawful and unlawful foods and drink, such as
killing with suffocation on some animal is
lawful; the dead of lawful animals is unlawful.

 Among the lawful animals are sheep, goat,
rabbit, buffalo, fish, bird.
 The unlawful are cow, horse, mule, donkey,
elephant, chicken, crow, all kind of egg.
 Spirit (khamr) is unlawful except for
Shudroid.
 As for the cow, it is said that it was lawful
before the Mahabharata.

 Marriage is a common practice among human
communities.
 Every community has its own customs,
regulations, formalities and ceremonies.
 As for the Indians, Al-Bīrūnī notes that they
have very complex customs and regulations,
starting from the proposal for marriage up to
child-birth.
 The Indians marry young and their marriages
are arranged by their parents.

 Marriages are forbidden among close relatives,
and marriages to strangers are highly
recommended.
 Polygamy (up to four) is allowed. In this
regards, Al-Bīrūnī relates different opinions
pertaining to the number of wives. According
to some, a Brahmin can marry with four, a
Kshatriya three, a Vaishya two, and a Shudroid
one.
 The Indian law only allow marriage wit the
same caste and lower.

 The lineage follows the caste of the mother.
 Divorce is forbidden, nothing can separate
the couple except death.
 A widow cannot remarry, she can choose
either to live the life of miserable and badly
treated widow, or to be burned alive
together with the cremation of her husband.
 Widows of kings are always burned with the
cremation of their husbands.

 Al-Bīrūnī, however, refutes the common
notion that the Indians allows prostitution,
but says that the punishment regarding it is
rather lax because the kings profit much
from such practices.
 Al-Bīrūnī also gives an insight into their
customs regarding menstruation (‫ )حٌض‬and
post-natal confinement (‫ )نفاس‬as well as the
rites that accompany them. (pp. 469-472)

 Al-Bīrūnī relates that:
‫ فإن‬،‫ األصل عندهم فً الموارث سقوط النساء منها ما خال االبنة‬
‫ فإن لم تكن‬،“‫لها ربع ما لالبن بنص على ذلك فً كتاب ”من‬
.‫متزوجة أنفق علٌها إلى وقت التزوٌج وكان جهازها من مٌراثها‬
 In principle, women are excluded in the law of
inheritance, except daughter. She got a quarter
of the son’s share according to the textual
evidence in the book of Manu. In case she is
unmarried, she will be supported for her
expenses until the time of her marriage, and
this is prepared from her share.

 A widow, if she chooses not to burn herself, is
under the responsibility of the heir in terms of
her expenses.
 The debts of the dead is also the responsibility
of the heir to pay back.
 Al-Bīrūnī reports that in the Indian custom, the
heirs below the dead person deserve
inheritance more than those above him, i.e.,
son and grandson deserve inheritance more
than father and grandfather.

 In addition to the responsibilities of the
heirs above, they have also to fulfill the
rights of the dead, such as to perform
certain rituals on certain prescribed days
after the death. (pp. 475-477)

‫‪‬‬ ‫‪As for their funerals, Al-Bīrūnī relates:‬‬
‫كانت أجساد الموتى فٌما مضى من األزمنة األولى تدفع إلى‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫السماء بأن تلقى فً الصحارى مكشوفة لها‪ ،‬وٌخرج المرضى‬

‫إلٌها وإلى الجبال وٌتركون فٌها‪ .‬فإن ماتوا كانوا كما قلنا وإن‬
‫أبلوا رجعوا بأنفسهم إلى منازلهم‪ ،‬ثم جاء بعد ذلك من تولى‬
‫وضع السنن وأمرهم بدفعها إلى الرٌح‪ ،‬فأقبلوا على بناء بٌوت لها‬
‫مسقفة بحٌطان مشبكة ٌهب الرٌح منها علٌها على مثال الحال فً‬
‫نواوٌس المجوس‪ ،‬ومكثوا على ذلك برهة إلى أن رسم لهم‬
‫”ناراٌن“ دفعها إلى النار‪ ،‬فمنذ ذلك الوقت ٌحرقونها‪.‬‬

 Initially bodies of the dead persons in the most
ancient times were exposed/offered to the sky
openly, such as to be put on the desert. And the sicks
were sent out to it and the moutains and then were
left there. If they died, then they would be as what
has been said, and if they recovered, they would
return back to their homes by themselves. Then
after that, came someone who set forth for them
their tradition commanding them to expose the dead
bodies to the wind. Therefore they built graves like
the Magians’ tower-graves, but Narayana appeared
and asked them to burn their dead. Since then they
burn their dead.

 The body is washed, embalmed and shrouded
before burning. They believe that the flames
will carry the soul of the dead person to God.
The ash and other remains are thrown to the
Ganges river.
 As for the living body, there is no right to burn
oneself or to end one’s life except for a widow
or a person who has no hope of his/her life
because of serious illness or extreme old-age.

 However, this is only for the Vaishyas and
Sudras exclusively who seek to be reborn
better. (pp. 477-481)

 Al-Bīrūnī relates that for the Indians all kinds
of fasting are supererogatory and none is
obligatory.
 The definition of fasting is:
.‫ والصوم هو إمساك عن الطعام مدة ما‬
 Fasting is to refrain from having food for
certain period/time.
 Al-B īrūnī explains different types of fasting for
different purposes, ranging from the moderate
(one day and one night) to the hardest one
(whole year). (pp. 481-483)

 Te normal fasts, observes Al-Bīrūnī, start
with an elaborate preparation on the eve of
the fast-day, and end the day after. The fast
day itself is lived through with abstinence,
worship and prayers.
 Particular merits are associated with
particular fasts.

 As for the Indian festivals, Al-Bīrūnī observes
that some are held in veneration of their
deities, some in commemorations of historical
events, while others are related to the seasons.
There are also those that are associated with
the celestial orders.
 From Al-Bīrūnī’s account of Indian festivities, it
seems that the deity Vasudeva is the most
venerated among all the Indian deities.

 This can be gathered from the number of
celebrations that are held for him, the
Gunalahid, a three-day celebration, the Hindoli-
caitra in memory of his infancy, the Puhi’i and
the Parrati.
 Al-Bīrūnī also enumerates some of those
festivals that are held for the female family
members of the gods, i.e., goddesses. The Dibali
is held in veneration of Lakshmi, the wife of
Vasudeva, where lamps are lit throughout the
night.

 Ibn Taymiyyah was born in Ḥarrān, in 661 AH (7th C/14th
C).
 His name is Taqiyy al-Dīn, Abū al-Abbās Ahmad ibn ʿAbd
al-Ḥalīm ibn ʿAbd al-Salām ibn Taymiyyah.
 Introduction to al-Jawāb al-Ṣaḥīḥ
 The complete title of the book is:
‫ الجواب الصحٌح لمن بدل دٌن المسٌح‬
 (The Correct Answer to Those Who Changed the
Religion of Christ)
 As stated by the author that the book/treatise is a
response to a treatise, Letter to A Muslim, from Cyprus
written by Paul of Antioch, which contains a number of
pseudo-argument for Christianity.

 It contains six chapters:
1. Prophet Muhammad SAAS is not sent to all
humankind but only to the pagan Arabs of
Jahilyyah. The Qur’an and reason prove this
exclusive mission.
2. Prophet Muhammad SAAS in the Qur’an
praises their religion.
3. Prophecies of the preceding prophets, such as
Torah, Psalms and Gospel, etc. testify their
religion and beliefs.

4. The affirmation of Trinity
5. The Christians are monotheists
6. The Christ came after Moses with most
complete Laws. Thus no need to have another
laws.
 However, al-Jawāb al-Ṣaḥīḥ is far more than a
rebuttal of Paul of Antioch’s 25-page treatise,
and it cannot be viewed simply as containing
Ibn Taymiyyah’s attitude towards Chrisianity.

 Methodology used by Ibn Taymiyyah in his
response is scientific (‫ )العلم‬and objective (‫)العدل‬.
‫ كان كالم أهل‬،‫ ولما كان أتباع األنبٌاء هم أهل العلم والعدل‬
‫ ال بالظن‬،‫اإلسالم والسنة مع الكفار وأهل البدع بالعلم والعدل‬
(p. 107) .‫وما تهوى األنفس‬
 In this work, Ibn Taymiyyah practices of citing
Paul of Antioch’s work verbatim and then
offering his own refutation of the points raised
in the cited passage.

 He was born in Antioch (c. 12th century), and a well-
known bishop of the city.
 According to Khoury, he lived between 543/1140
and 575/1180
 Towards the end of his life, he was appointed as
Bishop of Sayda.
 He was a prolific writer. A number of treatises to
defend his Christian beliefs are credited to him.
 These treatises amount to 24, but according to
Khoury, who edited them, only 5 of them are
confirmed to be his works.

 First pseudo-argument is: Prophet Muhammad
SAAS is not sent to all humankind but only to
the pagan Arabs of Jahiliyyah. The Qur’an and
reason prove this exclusive mission.
 The Qur’an (Qur’anic arguments):
1. Yusuf: 2, }‫{إنا أنزلناه قرآنا عربٌا‬
2. Al-Shuara’: 195, }‫{بلسان عربً مبٌن‬
3. Al-Qasas: 46, }‫{لتنذر قوما ما أتاهم من نذٌر من قبلك‬
4. Al-Sajdah: 3; Ali Imran: 164; Yasin: 6; Al-
Shuara’: 198-199; Al-Baqarah: 151.

 He concludes that based on these Qur’anic verses:
“we know that he was not sent to us, but to the
pagan Arabs of Jahilyyah of whom he said that there
had come to them no warner before him. We know
that he did not obligate us to follow him because
there had come to us before him prophets who had
preached and warned us in our own languages, and
who handed on to us the Torah and Gospel in our
own languages. And this is also what is clearly said
and asserted by this Arab man (Muhammad SAAS)
in Surah Ibrahim:4, ‫{وما أرسلنا من رسول إال بلسان قومه لٌبٌن‬
}‫ ;لهم‬and Al-Nahl:36, }‫ ;{ولقد بعثنا فً كل أمة رسوال‬etc.

 Rational argument: God is just. It is against
His justice to request a nation to follow a
man who did not come to them, and did not
bring a book in their own language.

 “In answer, we will begin by pointing out that
God disclosed that he (SAAS) was sent to them,
and to all mankind and jinn. We will show that
he never said that he was not sent to them, and
that there is nothing in this Book to indicate
that. We will show that the they have argued
from the verses whose meaning they have
misunderstood. They have omitted many
unambiguous texts in his Book which show
clearly that he was sent to them.” (p. 146)

 Generally, Ibn Taymiyyah’s response to the
first argumentation could be summerised in
the following:
 The Nature of Prophethood
 Qur’anic testimony for the universality of the
prophethood of Muhammad SAAS
 Signs of the prophethood of Muhammad SAAS
 Implications of denying Muhammad SAAS’s
prophetic call
 God’s treatment of those in error
 Causes of error among Christians and those like
them

 The discussion concerning anyone who taught
mankind that he was a messenger of God to
them – as did Muhammad SAAS and others like
Abraham etc.- ought to be based on two
principles:
1. That what he said in his message and his
command is known, and that what he
disclosed and what he commanded is known.
That is, did he say that he was the messenger
of God to all people or that he was only sent to
a specific group, and not to others?

2. That we know whether he is truthful or lying.
 So their claim has two alternatives : either
1. They hold that Muhammad SAAS himself did not claim
that he was sent and that only his community has made
that claim, or
2. They hold that he claimed that he was sent to them and
that he was lying in this claim.
 According to Ibn Taymiyyah, this in itself evidently
showed the falsity of their argument.
 The main reason is once they deny or doubt about the
prophethood of Muhammad SAAS, their argumentation
which is based on what has been brought up by him is
logically void and baseless.

 This is in contrast to the Muslims, for their
argumentation against ahl al-Kitab is
consistent with what was brought by the
prophets before Muhammad SAAS, and they
believe in them all.

‫‪‬‬ ‫‪There are abundant Qur’anic verses proving‬‬
‫‪the universality of the prophethood of‬‬
‫‪Muhammad SAAS, such as:‬‬
‫‪{ ‬وأوحً إلً هذا القرآن ألنذركم به ومن بلغ} األنعام‪19:‬‬
‫‪{ ‬وما أرسلناك إال كافة للناس بشٌرا ونذٌرا}‬
‫‪{ ‬قل ٌا أٌها الناس إنً رسول هللا إلٌكم جمٌعا}‬
‫‪( ‬فضلت على األنبٌاء بست ‪ ...‬وأرسلت إلى الخلق كافة)‬

 There are abundant signs of the prophethood
of Muhammad SAAS, which are called miracles
(‫)معجزات‬, such as:
 The splitting of the moon
 The foretelling of him by the People of the Book
and his prediction by the prophets
 The story of the elephant which God made
occure as a sign in the year of his birth
 His giving information about the unseen which
God had not given anyone to know or of which
no human was given knowledge

 He disclosed the past, like the stories of Adam, Noah,
Abraham and other prophets and their people. There
was no scholar in Mecca from whom he learned, he did
not even confer with anyone among them who knew the
Arabic language, and he himself was not conversant in a
language other than Arabic. He was not accustomed to
correspond nor to read any written book, etc. etc.
 The water sprang forth from between his fingers
 The biggest miracle is the Qur’an. Despite the strength of
their enmity against him and their eagerness for
something on which to challenge him, they were not able
to make an acceptable challenge.

 Because of this inability, they used to make a
statement which is completely baseless, such
as:
‫ فقد جاءوا‬،‫ {وقالوا إن هذا إال إفك افتراه وأعانه علٌه قوم آخرون‬
‫ وقالوا أساطٌر األولٌن اكتتبها فهً تملى علٌه بكرة‬.‫ظلما وزورا‬
}...‫ قل أنزله الذي ٌعلم السر فً السموات واألرض‬.‫وأصٌال‬
6-4 :‫الفرقان‬
 And they used to make black campaign against
him insulting him and branding him as kahin

(magician), sha’ir (poet), majnun (crazy), etc.

 Ibn Taymiyyah said that “If you reject Muhammad
SAAS, there does not remain any way by which you
can know the truthfulness of other prophets. It is
impossible to reject him and to hold for the
truthfulness of others than him. Anyone who
believes his falseness and believes other [prophet]
than him has no knowledge about the truthfulness
of others.”
 In short, he is disbeliever (‫)كافر‬, and those who are
like him are in error (opposite of knowledge).

 The sacred texts indicate that God only punishes
those to whom He has sent a messenger to establish
an argument against them; this is a principle which
must be accepted as proven by many sayings of God,
such as:
}‫ {وما كنا معذبٌن حتى نبعث رسوال‬
}‫ {لئال ٌكون للناس على هللا حجة بعد الرسل‬
 If this is the situation, it is obvious that the Qur’an
only establishes a case against someone that it
[actually] reaches. As Allah SWT said: “that by it I
might warn you and whomever it may reach.”(6:19)

 Basically Ibn Taymiyyah views that the
Christians are in astray (‫)الضالون‬. For they
oppose the Truth that has reaches them.
 They have committed double errors
(unbeliefs): (i) they changed the religion of the
first (their own) prophet, and (ii) they denied
the following prophet (Muhammad SAAS).
 Thus, they deserve punishment in this world
and hereafter. But this is a matter for Allah.

 It should be known that the cause of error
among Christians and similar extremists are
basically three:
1. Holding fast to complex, general, ambiguous
expressions (‫ )متشابهات‬handed down from the
prophets and foregoing straightforward
univocal expressions (‫)محكمات‬.
2. Belief in extraordinary wonders.
3. Information handed down to them which they
suppose to be truthful, but which is false.

 They say, referring to al-Ma’idah: 46-48, 68: “[The
Qur’an] proves that what we have is a blessing, and
it denies the accusation that there is tabdīl in our
Gospel and in the books we possess, and by its
confirming them it denies any alteration (taghyīr) of
what is in them.”
 One should say to them: Your view which you argue
here and elsewhere is either pure falsehood or is an
instance of where you have clothed the truth with
falsehood. If by your statement of the Qur’an’s
confirming those books you mean that it confirms
the Torah, the Gospel, and the Pslams which God
revealed to His prophets, this is undoubtedly so.

 But if they mean by it that the Qur’an approves of
what they hold as a religion which is opposed to
Muhammad’s religion after he had been sent, or that
it gives evidence for what they have innovated,
altered, changed apart from what the earlier
prophets have brought, then their statement is false.
 If by it they mean that the Qur’an confirms the
textual veracity (alfāẓ) of the scriptural books which
they now possess, this is something which some
Muslims will grant them and what many Muslims
will dispute.

 There are clear evidences, textual as well as
historical, of the corruption of the Gospel,
the Torah, or the Bible in general.
 In addition, many Qur’anic verses point out
this corruption clearly, such as Ali Imran:
71; al-Nisa’: 46; al-Ma’idah: 13, 15, 41, etc.
 Types of corruption: (i) text, and (ii)
meaning or interpretation.

 The Christians state: We have also found in
their Book that it says: “You will find the
most vehement of mankind in hostility to
those who believe [to be] the Jews and the
idolaters. You will find the nearest of them
in affection to those who believe [to be]
those who say: Lo! We are Christians. That is
because there are among them priests and
monks, and because they are not proud.”
(Al-Ma’idah:82)

 Ibn Taymiyyah replies: In answer to them the
completion of this passage should be pointed out:
 “When they listen to that which has been revealed to
the messenger, you see their eyes overflow with
tears because of their recognition of the Truth. They
say: Our Lord, we believe. Inscribe us among the
Witnesses.” (Al-Ma’idah:83-85)
 The Witnesses are those who have borne witness to
Muhammad of his messengership.
 Nothing in this praises Christians for having faith in
God or promises them salvation from punishment or
that they are deserving of a reward.

 The Christians state, It says in al-Baqarah:
 “Lo! Those who believe, and those who are Jews and
Christians and Sabeans – whoever believes in God
and the Last Day and does right – surely their
reward is with their Lord, and no fear shall come
upon them neither shall they grieve.”
 By this statement the Qur’an makes all people –
Jews, Muslims, and others – equal.
 Ibn Taymiyyah responds that there is no argument
in this verse for what they are trying to prove.

 For this āyah and the other in al-Ma’idah:69 simply
disclose that Jews, Muslims, Christians and Sabeans
are equal as long as they fulfill the main conditions,
namely (i) belief in Allah (ii) belief in the Last Day,
and (iii) good deeds.
 Christians maintain that Jews are unbelievers after
God’s sending Christ to them (after the abrogation
and corruption of their religion). by the same token,
Christians are unbelievers after God’s sending
Muhammad SAAS to them (after the abrogation and
corruption of their religion).

 Thus, if there is no praise in it for the Jews after the
abrogation and corruption of their religion, similarly
there is no praise in it for the Christians after the
abrogation and corruption of their religion.
 Actually the meaning of the verse refers to those
who believe in Muhammad SAAS, those Jews who
followed Moses, those Christians who followed
Christ, and those Sabeans who were ḥunafā’
(followers of Ibrahim and Isma’il); not to ahl al-kitāb
after the abrogation and corruption of their
religions.

 This is so because as stated elsewhere in the
Qur’an, their faith (dīn) is the same, that is
Islām. And in the sound ḥadīth, the Prophet
states: “O assembly of prophets, our religion
is one.” )‫(إنا معاشر األنبٌاء دٌننا واحد‬

 They believe that their God is one who has
three hypostases (‫)ثالثة أقانٌم‬, God the Father, the
Son, and the Holy Spirit.
 The Father is held by them to be the essence,
who is the source of the other two; the Son is
the speech, and the Holy Spirit is the life.
 Ibn Taymiyyah responds that:
1. They have no sound foundation for this belief,
neither rational nor revelational, except a text
in the Gospel: “Baptise in the name of the
Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit.”

2. They differ among themselves pertaining to the
explanation of the three hypostases. Some holds
the Father is existence, the Son is the Word, and the
Holy Spirit is life. Others hold the Father is
existence, the Son is the Word, and the Holy Spirit
is power. Still others hold the Father is Goodness,
the Son is the Judge, and the Holy Spirit is the all-
powerfull.
3. This statement , unless it was made by Christ,
cannot be held. Moreover, even if some individual
intended a true meaning by it, nevertheless this
expression is only understood by the application of
false meaning, that is God has wife and son.

 They claim that from the Father was born the Word,
and from Mary was born the human nature.
 If the divine nature united with the human nature of
Christ for a long time, what should prevent Him
from having united with the human nature of Mary
for a brief period?
 If it is true that this expression truly comes from
Christ who is inerrant, what he meant by it must
correspond to the rest of his teaching.
 It is found in their books that he called the Lord a
father and that he called His servants sons.

 Similarly, they said that God said in the Torah to
Jacob “You are my first-born son.”
 In the Psalms God said to David “You are my son and
My beloved.”
 In the Gospel in more that one place Christ says “My
Father and your Father,” as when he says “I am going
to My Father and your Father, to my God and your
God.”
 He calls God a Father to them just as he calls them
sons of God. If this is correct, then what he meant is
that God is the merciful sustainer. The son is the one
reared, the subject of mercy.

 Thus, “father” is the Lord, and “son” is Christ whom
God rears.
 As for the Holy Spirit, this expression is found in
more than one place in the books which they
possess, and by their own agreement it never means
the life of God. Rather, among them the Holy Spirit
takes up residence in Abraham, Moses, David, and
others of the prophets and holy persons.
 The Qur’an supported Christ with the Holy Spirit
(2:87; 2:253; 5:110). The Prophet spoke similarly to
Hassan ibn Thabit, “The Holy Spirit is with you as
long as you defend his prophet.”

 Hence, by the Holy Spirit may be meant the
holy angel such as Jibril.
 The hypostases (‫ )أقانٌم‬which they profess,
beside the falsity of this notion from reason
and revelation, are never mentioned in any
sacred book among them, nor is this
expression found in a single one of the books of
the prophets which they possess, nor in the
teaching of the apostles. Rather this is a term
which they have invented, and it is said to be
“Roman”.

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Dr.

Anis Malik Thoha

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 It is under this circumstances also that al-

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‫النسب ”جاتك“ (‪ )Jataka‬أي الموالٌد‪ ،‬وهذه الطبقات فً أول األمر‬

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knowledgeable of twenty five firmly, then subscribe

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‫الشرٌعة وسننها صادرة عن ”رشٌن“ الحكماء قواعد الدٌن دون‬

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four phases. (pp. 452-457)

was already well established during his time:

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Brahma’s son, who has no ardor except to get a view

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