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The four major actions that occur in the GI tract are

1.c Àecretion
2.c Digestion
3.c Absorption
4.c Motility

The GI system produces secretions which are involved in digestion and

absorption, from the mouth to the anus. Àecretions are under neural and or
hormonal control. The Upper GI tract is under i   control and the lower GI
tract is under
 i control.

GI system may be viewed as a chemical factory, which converts raw materials into
useful products and contains a waste disposal system. In this system, the
constituent items will be represented as:

1.c aw materials ʹ food

2.c Grinding and chopping instruments ʹ teeth
3.c Lubricating fluids ʹ saliva and other secretions
4.c Conduits , pipes ʹ GI tract, blood vessels
5.c Mixer ʹ stomach, small intestine
6.c Waste separator ʹ various parts of the intestine


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Àaliva is produced by three types of glands:

1.c  c i which produce serous saliva. These are also the
glands that are infected when you have the mumps
2.c The Àici which produce a viscous saliva
3.c The paired Ài ci  ci are located
beneath the floor of the mouth and produce a mixed type of
secretion
Other small glands found on the hard palate, tongue, buccal mucosa and lips also
produce saliva.

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They posses

1.c nzymes (salivary amylase and lingual lipase)

2.c Proteins
a.c Mucin
b.c IgA
c.c Lysozyme
d.c Proline rich proteins
3.c Lactoferrin.
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Lingual lipase, salivary amylase Initiate the digestion of carbohydrates
in the mouth
Mucines These glycoproteins protect and
lubricate the buccal cavity
IgA Protects the mouth against bacteria
and viruses
Lysozymes Attack by lysis of bacterial walls
Proline rich Proteins Inhibit precipitation of calcium in saliva
thus preventing dental caries
Lactoferrin Displays bacteriostatic action through
its binding with iron

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!   - Active Process whose center lies in the medulla.

Àalivary secretion is mainly mediated by the parasympathetic division of the

autonomic nervous system (it is also mediated to a lesser extent by the
sympathetic nervous system). When we ingest food, chemoreceptors and
mechanoreceptors in the mouth send signals to the salivatory nuclei in the brain
stem (pons and medulla). As a result, parasympathetic nervous system activity
increases and impulses sent via motor fibres in the `
  

        trigger a dramatically increased output of watery
(serous), enzyme rich saliva. Postganglionic fibres innervate parotid gland

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Preganglionic fibres originate in upper three or four thoracic roots (specifically

fibers in T1 to T3) and terminate in the superior cervical ganglion. Àtimulation
causes the release of thick, mucin-rich saliva. xtremely strong activation of the
sympathetic division constricts blood vessels serving the salivary glands and
almost completely inhibits saliva release, causing a dry mouth (^  .
Dehydration also inhibits salivation because low blood volume results in reduced
filtration pressure at capillary beds.

Postganglionic fibres innervate the salivary glands

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Marked increase in production of watery saliva. There is a significant increase in

vasodilation (X 5) that occurs secondary to the release of VIP (Vasoactive
Intestinal Peptide).

À À simulation ʹ releases a small amount of viscous saliva, rich in organic

material. P À stimulation releases a stronger amount for a longer period of time.

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Cellular Mechanisms

euroeffectors released from P À nerve terminals (e.g. acetylcholine (ACh),

noradrenaline, substance P and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP), all

 salivary amylase production and the flow of saliva.

Acetylcholine, noradrenaline ʹ when acting on the () alpha adrenergic receptors

and substance P, all increase salivary secretion by raising the levels of intracellular
calcium in the serous acinar cells, resulting in a larger volume of serous saliva

oradrenaline acting on (
beta receptors, and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide

increase the levels of CAMP in the acinar cellar which results in the release of
amylase rich saliva.


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Process of chewing

Àherrington established this unilateral reflex in 1917

Êc Most often is a voluntary procedure that involves skeletal muscles of the

mouth and jaw.
Êc Mastication allows for more efficient digestion by the breakdown of large
food particles into smaller fragments which are lubricated by saliva prior to
swallowing.

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Process of swallowing

The process of swallowing is a highly ordered tri-phasic sequence of events that is

facilitated by the higher centres of the brain. It results in the propulsion of food
from the mouth to the stomach while simultaneously inhibiting respiration.


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Êc The swallowing reflex is triggered by stimulation of tactile receptors near

the pharyngeal opening.
Êc Àensory (afferent) impulses travel to the swallowing centre in the medulla
and lower pons via Cranial nerves 5,9 and 10.
Êc Motor (efferent) impulses then pass to the pharyngeal musculature via
cranial nerves five, seven and twelve.
Êc espiration is inhibited during swallowing by impulses from cranial nerve
nine.
Êc Àensory nerve supply of the larynx is via cranial nerve ten (vagus is both
sensory and motor)
Êc Àuperior laryngeal never (branch of C À) can be electrically stimulated to
produce swallowing movements

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1.c Oral phase (Buccal Phase)

a.c Voluntary
b.c Bolus of food separated in the mouth by the tongue
c.c Bolus moved upward and backward onto hard palate
d.c Forced into the pharynx
e.c Àtimulation of tactile receptors initiates swallowing reflex

2.c Pharyngeal Phase

a)c eflex
a)c Occurs within two seconds
b)c espiration is inhibited by reflex action
c)c Àoft palate is pulled upward
d)c Palatopharyngeal folds move inward
e)c Vocal cords are pulled together
f)c piglottis covers larynx
g)c Larynx moves up towards the epiglottis
 h)c Upper oesophageal sphincter relaxes to receive bolus
i)c Bolus forced deep into pharynx by contraction of superior constrictor
muscles
j)c Muscle contraction initiates peristaltic wave through a relaxed upper
oesophageal sphincter

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eflex

a)c Upper oesophageal sphincter constricts by reflex after the food has
passed through.
b)c Peristaltic wave travels down the oesophagus into the stomach in about
ten seconds
c)c Oesophageal distension initiates secondary peristalsis at the site of
distension partially mediated by the enteric nervous system

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Peristalsis involves the aboral (away from the mouth) wave like propulsion of GI
contents, caused by the alternate contraction and relaxation of the circular and
longitudinal muscles of the oesophagus and small intestine.

^
  
       

1899 ʹ Bayliss and Àtarling described peristalsis in experiments with dogs

Law of the intestine

Presence of food (irritation) causes impulses to be transmitted up and down the

small intestine producing excitation (contraction) about the stimulus and
inhibition (relaxation) below.

Àummary
Introduction

Production of saliva

Constituents of saliva

Control of salivary secretion

Mastication

Deglutition

Peristalsis

46-49, do fifty and 51 from the objectives.