Digital Logic and Circuits

Dr. Vijay Kumar

 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
A set of rules to perform logical addition and multiplication

The basis of Boolean algebra lies in the operations of logical addition,

or the OR operation; and logical multiplication, or the AND operation.
Both of these find a correspondence in simple logic gates.

The variables in a Boolean, or logic, expression can take only one of

two values, usually represented by the numbers 0 and 1.

These variables are sometimes referred to as true (1) and false (0).
This convention is normally referred to as positive logic.

There is also a negative logic convention in which the roles of logic 1

and logic 0 are reversed.

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 Truth Table
Analysis of logic functions, that is, functions of logical (Boolean)
variables, can be carried out in terms of truth tables. A truth table is a
listing of all the possible values each of the Boolean variables can take,
and of the corresponding value of the function.

The rules that define a logic function are often represented in tabular
form by means of a truth table

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 NAND and NOR Gates

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 UNIVERSAL GATES

Inverter using NAND AND using NAND

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 UNIVERSAL GATES
Inverter using NOR AND using NOR

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 XOR (Exclusive OR) Gate

XOR gate is used in half and full adder circuits

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Exercise:

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 De Morgan’s theorems

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The importance of De Morgan’s laws is in the statement of the duality
that exists between AND and OR operations: any function can be realized
by just one of the two basic operations, plus the complement operation.
This gives rise to two families of logic functions: sums of products and
product of sums.

Any logical expression can be reduced to either one of these two forms.
Although the two forms are equivalent, it may well be true that one of
the two has a simpler implementation (fewer gates).

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 Sum of Products (SOP) and Product of Sums (POS)

A function can be written as a sum of minterms, which is referred to

as a minterm expansion or a standard sum of products.

A function can be written as a product of maxterms, which is

referred to as a maxterm expansion or a standard product of sums.

All possible minterms and maxterms of two variable truth table

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 How to write a function
Minterms present in f (output function) correspond with the 1’s of f in
the truth table.

Maxterms present in f (output function) correspond with the 0’s of f in

the truth table.
output function

Proof: Z = X’Y + X (Y+Y’) = X’Y + X (1+Y)= X + Y(X+X’) = X+Y

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Example

Output can be
1or 0.

1 – is
represented by
product of
inputs.

0 – is
represented by
sum of inputs.

If the output is high for Row No. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7

What is the expression of logical function?

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 Canonical Forms
Minterm
A B C Minterm
– Product (AND function)
0 0 0 0 m0 ABC
– Contains all variables
1 0 0 1 m1 ABC
– Evaluates to ‘1’ for a
2 0 1 0 m2 ABC
specific combination
3 0 1 1 m3 ABC
Example
4 1 0 0 m4 ABC
A=0 A B C
5 1 0 1 m5 ABC
B=0 (0) • (0) • (0)
6 1 1 0 m6 ABC
C=0
1 • 1 • 1=1 7 1 1 1 m7 ABC
 Canonical Forms

Maxterm
A B C Maxterm
– Sum (OR function)
0 0 0 0 M0 A  B  C
– Contains all variables
1 0 0 1 M1 A  B  C
– Evaluates to ‘0’ for a
2 0 1 0 M2 A  B  C
specific combination
3 0 1 1 M3 A  B  C
Example
4 1 0 0 M4 A  B  C
A=1 A B C
5 1 0 1 M5 A  B  C
B=1 (1) + (1) + (1)
6 1 1 0 M6 A  B  C
C=1
0 + 0 + 0=0 7 1 1 1 M7 A  B  C
 Canonical Forms

Truth Table to Boolean Function

A B C F F  ABC  ABC  ABC  ABC

0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1
In SOP form

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 Canonical Forms
Sum of Minterms
A B C F F
F  ABC  ABC  ABC  ABC 0 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 0
F  m1  m4  m5  m7
2 0 1 0 0 1
F   (1,4,5,7)
3 0 1 1 0 1
• Product of Maxterms 4 1 0 0 1 0
F  ABC  ABC  ABC  ABC 5 1 0 1 1 0
F  ABC  ABC  ABC  ABC 6 1 1 0 0 1
7 1 1 1 1 0
F  ABC  ABC  ABC  ABC
F  ( A  B  C )( A  B  C )( A  B  C )( A  B  C )
F  M0 M2 M3 M6
F   (0,2,3,6)
 Standard Forms
Sum of Products (SOP)
AB(C  C )
 AB(1)
F  ABC  ABC  ABC  ABC
 AB
AC ( B  B)
 AC
BC ( A  A)
 BC
F  BC ( A  A)  AB(C  C )  AC ( B  B)

F  BC  AB  AC
 Standard Forms
Product of Sums (POS)

AB(C  C )

F  ABC  ABC  ABC  ABC

BC ( A  A)

AC ( B  B)
F  AC ( B  B)  AB(C  C )  BC ( A  A)

F  AC  AB  BC
F  ( A  C )( A  B)( B  C )
 Two - Level Implementations

Sum of Products (SOP)

B’
C

F  BC  AB  AC A
B’ F
Product of Sums (POS) A
C
A
C
A
F  ( A  C )( A  B)( B  C ) B’ F
B’
C
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Proof

X + X.Y = X (Y+Y’) + XY = XY +XY’ + XY = XY + XY’ = X

or

X’ + X.Y = X’ (1+Y) + XY = X’ +X’Y + XY = X’ + Y

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Exercise:

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Exercise:

Simplify:

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Exercise:

Simplify

F= ABC’ + AB’C + A’BC + ABC

Since X+X = X, ABC can be repeated many times

= ABC’ + ABC + AB’C + ABC + A’BC+ABC

= AB(C’+C) + AC(B’+B) + BC(A’+A)
= AB+ AC+BC

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Exercise:

1.

2.

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Exercise in Boolean Algebra

1. Determine the logic expression for the output Y, from the truth table
shown. Simplify and sketch the logic circuit for the simplified expression.

2. Prove the following Boolean identity :

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3. Simplify the following Boolean expression and draw the logic circuits
for the simplified expressions.

(a) (ABC+ABC+ABC+BC ) (b) B(A+C)+C(A+B)+AC

(c) (AB + C) (AB + D)

a)

a) B+AC

b) C+AB’

c) AB+CD

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Exercise:

Simplify

F= ((AB)’ + (AC)’)’

Using De Morgan’s Theorem

F= ((AB)’ + (AC)’)’
= (AB)’’ . (AC)’’
= (AB).(AC)
= A.B.C

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Exercise:

Simplify

1) F= (A+B).(A+B)’ = 0

2) F= A.B + (A.B)’ = 1

3) F= (A+B.C’).(A+B.C’) =A+B

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Exercise in Boolean Algebra

4. Design a logic circuit whose output is HIGH only when a majority of

the inputs A, B and C are HIGH.

5. Determine the Boolean expression for the logic circuit shown in Fig.
Simplify the Boolean expression using Boolean Laws and De Morgan’s
theorem. Redraw the logic circuit using the simplified Boolean
expression.

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 Minimization Technique
Logic Minimization: reduce complexity of the gate level implementation

• reduce number of literals (gate inputs)

• reduce number of gates

• reduce number of levels of gates

 KARNAUGH MAP (K-Map)

 TABULATION METHOD
(Quine-McCluskey Method)

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 Karnaugh map
The Karnaugh map (or simply a K-map) is similar to a truth table because it presents
all the possible values of input variables and the resulting output for each value.

The K-map is an array of squares (or cells) in which each square represents a binary
value of the input variables.

The number of squares in a Karnaugh map is equal to (2n) the total number of
possible input variable combinations (i.e number of squares is equal to the number of
rows in a truth table).

Indicate the input variables along the sides of the K-map. The binary values of input
variables are arranged based on gray code.

Ex. for two variables, the number of square is 22 = 4, for three variables, the
number of squares is 23 = 8 and for four variables, the number of squares is 24 = 16.
Truth Table K-map

A B Z Minterm
0 0 0 A’B’
0 1 1 A’B
1 0 1 AB’
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Manual Logic reduction K-map

Disadvantages: Advantages:

 Finding the suitable pair of terms is
difficult.
 If the suitable terms are not paired, it
will lead to long reduction process.
 In every two adjacent cells, one of the
variables has 1 and 0.
 All minterms which differ by one
variable are in adjacent cells.
 Through grouping, the changing
variable mapped by the loop can be
eliminated.

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 Two, Three and Four variable Karnaugh map and Minterms

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2-variable K-map 3-variable K-map

0 1

2 3

4-variable K-map

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Procedure in K-map

Step-1: Find the number of variables

Ex.

Step-2: Find the cells in K-map corresponding to the minterms. Enter 1’s
in that cells.

000 010 101 100 Binary value of input variables

corresponding to the Minterms
0 2 5 4 Cell number

Step-3: Group 1’s in the adjacent cells. Look for largest possible loop.
(8 cell, 4 cell, 2 cell).

Step-4: Form minimum number of loops.

Step-5: Write the reduced function from the K-map.

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 Rules for Grouping adjacent cells containing ones

1.No zeros allowed.

2.No diagonals.
3.Only power of 2 number of cells in each group.
4.Groups should be as large as possible.
5.Every one must be in at least one group.
6.Overlapping allowed.
7.Wrap around allowed.
8.Number of groups must be as fewer as possible.

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 Rules for Grouping adjacent cells containing ones

1. Groups may not include any cell containing a zero

2. Groups may be horizontal or vertical, but not diagonal.

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3. Groups must contain 1, 2, 4, 8, or in general 2n cells.

That is if n = 1, a group will contain two 1's since 21 = 2.

If n = 2, a group will contain four 1's since 22 = 4.

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4. Each group should be as large as possible.

5. Each cell containing a one must be in at least one group

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6. Groups may overlap.

7. Groups may wrap around the table. The leftmost cell in a row may be grouped with
the rightmost cell and the top cell in a column may be grouped with the bottom cell.

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8. There should be as few groups as possible, as long as this does not contradict any of
the previous rules.

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 Writing the logic function after grouping
Write the mintems corresponding to each loop by omitting the changing
variables.
for example A is a changing variable in red loop

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Mapping a Standard SOP Expression on the Karnaugh Map

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Mapping a Nonstandard SOP Expression on the Karnaugh Map

(Factorizing)

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Exercise:
Simplify the following SOP expression using the Karnaugh mapping
procedure :

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Exercise:

Write the logic functions from the K-map

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Exercise:
Shows a Karnaugh map of a sum-of-products (SOP) function. Determine
the simplified SOP function.

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 Mapping Directly on Karnaugh Map from a Truth Table
Exercise:
Implement the following Boolean expression using minimum number of 3-
input NAND gates.

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Exercise:

Consider a logic circuit with 4 input variables in which the output is high
when at least 3 inputs are high. Reduce the logic function using K-map.

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Exercise: Reduce the expression F = Σm(0,1,2,3,6,7,13,15) by mapping and
implement in NAND logic.

Enter 1 for given minterms in corresponding location and 0 for others.

Group the maximum number of 1s in the order of 2n.
Ensure that all the 1s must come under at least once in a group.
Simplify the resultant minterms using basic laws and OR the Result.
Implement the hardware.

CD 00 01 11 10
AB
Group I = A’B’C’D’ A’B’C’D A’B’CD A’B’CD’
00 1 1 1 1 = A’B’
0 1 3 2

1 Group II = A’BCD A’BCD’ A’B’CD A’B’CD’

01 0 4 05 1 = A’C
7 6
Group III = ABC’D ABCD
0 1 1 0 = ABD
11 12 13 15 14
F = A’B’+A’C+ABD
10 0 8 0 9 011 010
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 NAND Implementation

A’
B’

A’ F = A’B’+A’C+ABD

A
B
D

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1. Simplify the Boolean function
F(x, y, z) = (0, 2, 4, 5, 6)

Ans: Z’+XY’

2. Given the following Boolean function:

F = A'C + A'B + AB'C + BC
(a) Express it in sum of minterms,
(b) Find the minimal sum of products expression,

The function can be expressed in sum of

min terms form: F(A, B, C) = (1, 2, 3, 5, 7)

A ‘C + A 'B + AB'C + BC = C + A 'B

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Exercise:
Simplify the Boolean function

F(w, x, y, z)=  (0,1,2,4,5,6,8,9,12,13,14)

yz
wx 00 01 11 10
0 1 3 2
00

4 5 7 6
01

12 13 15 14
11

8 9 11 10
10

Ans: y' + w'z' + xz'

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Exercise:

Simplify the Boolean function

F = A'B'C' + B'CD' + A'BCD' + AB'C'

CD
AB 00 01 11 10
0 1 3 2
00

4 5 7 6
01

12 13 15 14
11

8 9 11 10
10

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Exercise: Simplify the following Boolean functions

1. F(A, B, C, D) = (0, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9,10,11,13,15)

CD 2. F(A, B, C, D) = (0,1,2,5,8,9,10)
AB 00 01 11 10
0 1 3 2 CD
00 1 1 1 AB 00 01 11 10
0 1 3 2
4 5 7 6 00 1 1 1
01 1 1
4 5 7 6
11 13 15 14 01 1
11 1 1
11 13 15 14
8 9 11 10 11
10 1 1 1 1
8 9 11 10
10 1 1 1
F = BD + B' D' + CD + AD
= BD + B' D' + CD + AB'
= BD + B' D' + B' C + AD
= BD + B' D' + B' C + AB' F = B'D' + B'C' + A'C'D

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Exercise:

CD
AB 00 01 11 10
0 1 3 2
00 1 1 1

4 5 7 6
01 1 1 1

12 13 15 14
11 1 1

8 9 11 10
10 1 1 1

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Exercise:

CD
AB 00 01 11 10
0 1 3 2
00

4 5 7 6
01

12 13 15 14
11

8 9 11 10
10
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