Module 2a - Intro Problem Solving

MODULE 2 2019 SEPT 17
PROBLEM SOLVING AND

PROGRAMMING
INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING
Problem Solving Phase

1. Define the problem
2. Find a solution to the problem (propose)
3. Determine which solution is most efficient (evaluate)
4. Represent the solution as an algorithm
5. Test the algorithm for correctness
Defining the problem

Defining the problem is the first step towards solving a problem. It is one of the most
important steps in problem solving as it leads to a clearer understanding of what is given and
what is required. If the programmer does not fully understand what is required, he/she cannot
produce the desired solution. Defining the problem involves dividing it into three (3) key
components.
1. What is given (input)

2. The expected result (output)
3. The task that must be performed to get from what is given to the expected results
(processing)
Input Keywords: read, accept, given, input, get

Output Keywords: print, display, output, show, write
Processing keywords: calculate, find, determine
These components are then placed into a “Defining Diagram” . This is a table with three columns
which represents input output and processing used in problem solving
ST JAGO HIGH SCHOOL 1 of 24

BUSINESS EDUCATION/INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY DEPT
Activity
Problem 1
Read three numbers, calculate and print their total
Problem 2
The cost of a new car is the sum of the wholesale cost, the local sales tax and the dealer’s mark
up. Assuming the dealers mark up is 10% of the wholesale cost and the sales tax is 6%. Design
a program to read the car id and the whole sale cost of the car and print the car id and the final
cost of the car.
Problem 3
Given three integers representing the age of three boys, write a program to find and display their
average age as well as the age of the oldest boy.
Problem 4
An architect’s fee is calculated as a % of the cost of a building. The fee is made up as follows:
8% of the first $5000 of the cost and 3% on the remainder. The architect has hired you to design
a program that will accept the cost of a building and calculate and display the architect’s fee.
Problem 5
Design an algorithm that accepts two values, the hourly rate and the number of hours worked by
an employee. If the number of hours exceeds 40, then the excess hours should be paid at an
overtime rate of twice the hourly rate. Calculate the wages including overtime if any for an
employee.

Solution: Problem 1
Read three numbers, calculate and print their total.
Identify the input 3 numbers

Identify the output The total
List the processing steps get numbers, add them
Defining Diagram
INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT
Three number Get three numbers Total
Add numbers

Finding a solution to the problem
Finding a solution to the problem is the “how” of solving the problem. The first thing to do in
finding a solution is to do the problem at hand and take notes of each step as you go along. It is
required that you use sample input data i.e. actual numbers/figures to be used with the problem.
Determine which solution is most efficient
Having found a solution to the problem, the programmer should not stop there. He/she should
explore alternative solutions to arrive at the most efficient solution. Here are some points to
consider when developing an algorithm solution:
- Is there another way to get the results?

- Can you make the solution more general, for example, would it work if there were 100
integers instead of 3?
- Can you reduce the number of steps and it still make sense/work?
- Can you make it more robust? i.e. would it work if incorrect data is entered/can it survive
unexpected results?
Represent the solution as an algorithm
4. The solution is then represented as an algorithm. An algorithm is a sequence of

instructions/list of steps designed to solve a problem.
Characteristics of an algorithm
a. It must be precise/exact
b. It must be unambiguous/clear
c. It must be finite i.e. it must have an end
d. It must be in a logical sequence i.e. it should pass the flow of control from one process to
another.
Testing the algorithm

5. Testing the algorithm is done by using what is called a trace table, which is an important tool
for testing the logics of an algorithm for correctness.

Problem solving concepts
Variables
A variable is a symbolic name assigned to a memory location that stores a particular value that
changes during execution.
Example: We get three (3) numbers we could call them, num1, num2, num3
num1 2
Variables num2 7
num3 4
RULES FOR CREATING VARIABLES

- Variables must start with a letter
- Can consists of letters, numbers and an underscore
- May be any length (short is good)
CHOOSING GOOD VARIABLE NAMES

It is good practice to choose variable names that reflects the kind of data that is being stored. It
helps the programmer as well as the reader to understand the solution better if the variable name
reflects what they store. For example the variable name ‘sum’ clearly indicates that a total value
is being stored. If instead the name ‘x’ to store total, this is not clear of what is being stored to
the reader of the program.
Constant
This is a symbolic name assigned to a memory location that
stores a particular value that will never change during In programming, a literal value is
program execution. For example average=sum/n written exactly as it is meant to be
interpreted. In contrast, a variable is a
 Where n is three and will always be three unless the name that can represent different
amount of numbers to be averaged is changed. values during the execution of the
program and a constant is a name that
represents the same value throughout a
Literal
program. But a literal is not a name -- it
In an algorithm, a literal is a notation for representing a fixed
value in the algorithm, pseudocode, or source code. is the value itself.
NUMBER LITERALS are simply written using numerals (and a decimal point and minus sign for real number
and negative numbers respectively).

A STRING LITERAL is always placed in quotation marks. The quotation marks allow the computer to
distinguish a literal string (text) from variables and program code.
In the steps below
 The items highlighted in bold blue are literals

 The items in red are constants
 The items in green are variables
START
welcome_message  “Hello class, this is my programme”
cost_of_ticket  10.5
PRINT welcome_message
PRINT “Please enter the number of students”
GET num_students
totalCost  num_students * cost_of_ticket
PRINT “Cost for the entire class: $ ”
PRINT totalCost
STOP

DATA TYPES
A data type in a programming language is a set of data with values having predefined characteristics. The
data type of a value (or variable) is an attribute that tells what kind of data that value can have and what
operations can be performed on the data. Examples of data types are: integer, floating point unit number
(simply called a real number), character, string, and Boolean.
Data type Description Example 1 Example 2 Not an example

(wrong!!)
integer Whole numbers -55 44 15.11
Real (float) Numbers with fractional parts 10.15 5.0 59.11.2016
character a single letter or character ‘a’ ‘@’ ‘aaa’
string A group of characters ‘apple pie’ ‘john’ Total
Boolean Two possible values exactly opposite TRUE FALSE 77
to each other
Numeric data can take mathematical operations (addition, subtraction etc) and comparison operations
(greater than, less than etc).
String data do not support mathematical operations. Strings can be concatenated (join), separated (split),
compared, the case can be changed and a few other operations.
Tips
Boolean data can only be inverted or compared.
 Gender is not Boolean.
 Telephone number is not a
number.
OPERATORS
Please read through the notes on operators at this point. (What is here is merely a summary)
An operator is a symbol which represents a function or process.
  ASSIGNMENT OPERATOR used to assign a value to a variable

 = EQUIVALENCE OPERATOR used to test if two values are equal
 + ADDITION OPERATOR used to sum two values
 / DIVISION OPERATOR used to find the number of times a divisor can go into a dividend
 MOD MODULO OPERATOR used to find the remainder when dividend is shared by divisor

VARIABLE DECLARATION
A variable declaration is an instruction to the computer to prepare a memory location. It has 3 essential
components and must come before the variable is used.
1. The keyword that identified it as a declaration (usually VAR or VARIABLE)

2. The variable name
3. The variable type
Examples
 VAR num1 as INTEGER

 VARIABLE name AS STRING
Often times we omit the variable declaration in writing pseudo code but this must be done when writing
PASCAL.
VARIABLE INITIALIZATION
Initialization is the first instance in which a variable is assigned a value. It is normal to initialize numbers
to 0 (zero) (real numbers to 0.0) and strings to the ‘’ (empty string).
Examples
 Age  0
 Num1  0.0
 Name  ‘’
Remember the arrow is used for assignments.

Representing an Algorithm
Algorithms maybe represented as:
1. Pseudocode
2. Flowchart
Pseudocode
This is an imitation program written using mathematical notations and English-like statements to
describe the logics to solve a problem or carry out a procedure
Flowchart
This is a pictorial representation of an algorithm. It uses different geometric shapes to show each
step in the solution to a problem.
TERMINATOR SYMBOL : AN OVAL
Used to begin and end an algorithm
PROCESS SYMBOL: A RECTANGLE
This is used to indicate the processing (assignments,

initializations and calculations etc)
INPUT/OUTPUT SYMBOL: A PARALLELOGRAM
Used to indicate the input and output of the algorithm
DECISION SYMBOL: A DIAMOND
Used to make decisions between two options, yes or

no (if statements and loops)
DIRECTIONAL ARROW/FLOW OF CONTROL :
Used to show the flow from one step (symbol) to the next

Developing Algorithms
An algorithm contains one or more of the following statements
a. Input statement
b. Assignment statements
c. Output statement
d. Control statements/structures
INPUT STATEMENT
This is used to get data from outside the computer via some input device into a variable for
manipulation.
E.g. Read variable_name

Read Salary
ASSIGNMENT STATEMENT
This is used to give initial value to variables, and change the value assigned to a variable. The
assignment has two parts, the left value and the right value.
The left value refers to the variable as the storage location An expression is a statement which is
where the right value refers to what will be stored. The evaluated to produce a value.
right value refers to a value, which maybe the result of an
expression or the content of another variable. An expression is a combination of one or more literal
values, constants, variables, operators, and functions
Example that the computer interprets and computes to produce
Variablename (left value)  expression (right value) (to return) another value. This process, as with
Days  28 mathematical expressions, is called evaluation.
Rate  500
Salary  days * rate
OUTPUT STATEMENT
The output statement is used to get information to the programmer or the computer user. Output
can be in the form of sound, text, voice and graphics. For our purpose output will be in the form
of text or values.
Example
Print “literal statement”, variable_name
Print “Your age is”, age

When a program or a pseudocode encounters a ‘print’ statement, it is interpreted as follows:

send the information that follows “Print” to the output device using the following guidelines
- If the information is between quotes, print the information as is

- If the variable is part of the information that follows “Print”, print the contents of the
variable
- Variables are not included between quotes but separated by a comma
CONTROL STRUCTURE /STATEMENT
During the execution of a program, the computer executes each statement in order and takes the
actions that have been prescribed by the programmer. The control structures used in programs
are:
1. Sequencing
2. Selection/Decision/Branching
3. Iteration/Repetition/Looping

Sequencing
Instructions are executed one after the other in order they are given, this is called sequence.
Each instruction will be executed in the order that it appears.
Flow Chart Pseudo code

BEGIN
Cook dinner
Eat dinner
Clean up
END
ACTIVITIES
1. Write a pseudocode algorithm to read two numbers and find their sum
2. Write a pseudocode algorithm to calculate the salary of a day’s worker. Input to the
pseudocode are the hours worked for the day and the hourly rate.
3. Write a pseudocode algorithm to read three numbers and find and display their product,
sum and average.
4. Write a pseudocode algorithm to calculate and display the cost of a product given the
quantity and the unit price.

Selection
We know that you are able to set and retrieve variables inside your program; however for a program to be really
useful it has to be able to make decisions based on the values of those variables.
The selection control structure is the presentation of a condition and the choice between two (or sometimes more)
actions. The choice made depends on whether the condition is true or false.

BEGIN
IF Exercises are confusing THEN
Review chapter
ENDIF
END
Note that in this example there is no ELSE action. If you want to execute instructions when the condition is false,
these actions can be contained in an ELSE clause of the IF statement as shown below.

…
IF student_grade >= 60
Print “Passed”
Else
Print “Failed”
END IF
…
Block: compound
statements. That is, one
or more statements
treated as a unit.

Repetition
Repetition is also known as Iteration or Looping. A loop is the presentation of a set of instructions to be performed
repeatedly (zero or more times) as long as a condition is true.
TYPES OF LOOPS
Loops are described as definite or indefinite depending on how it is controlled; and post-tested or pre-tested
depending on when the condition is checked before (pre) or after (post) the block (loop body) is done.
Loop Condition Tested Control When to use

FOR Pre-tested Definite When you know exactly how many times (integer,
numeric) you plan to repeat the body before the start of the
loop.
WHILE Pre-tested Indefinite When the condition will change during the body but you
may want to check the condition and actually skip the
body if the condition is false.
REPEAT Post-tested Indefinite When the condition will change during the body but the
body has to be done at least once first
FOR LOOPS
The for loop behaves like a while loop (it is a pre-test loop) but with syntax specialized for creating a counter-
controlled loop (the body of the loop is typically executed a specific number of times).
FOR [initialize clause] TO [termination value] DO

body_of_loop
END FOR
 The initialize clause (an assignment statement) executes only once and is typically used to set the initial
value of the counter variable.
 The termination clause tests the counter variable to see if it has reached its final value.
 This test occurs before the statements in the body of the loop are executed (making it a pre-test loop).
 The update clause typically increments the counter and is executed immediately after the statements in the
body of the loop.
For example, the loop below will execute exactly 10 times.
This for loop is a shortened for writing It can be written as a while loop as
FOR counter  1 TO 10 DO FOR counter  1 WHILE counter <= 10 counter  1
PRINT counter PRINT counter WHILE counter <= 10
END FOR counter  counter + 1 PRINT counter
END FOR counter  counter + 1
END WHILE

The variable, counter, indicates the number of times the statements in the body of the loop has already been
executed. It starts at one. The execution of this looping structure proceeds as indicated in the table below (reading
right to left and top to bottom).
Iteration Initialization Condition Body_of_Loop Update

Set counter to 1
1 counter (1) <= 10 is true PRINT counter (output 1) Add 1 to counter
10 counter (10) < =10 is true PRINT counter (output 10) Add 1 to counter
counter (11) <= 10 is false Skip

WHILE LOOPS
The while loop is a pre-test loop; the condition is tested before the statements While there are more items on my
in the body of the loop are executed. While the test condition is true, execute shopping list Purchase next item and
the statements in the body of the loop. The loop terminates when the cross it off my list.
condition evaluate to false. Because the test precedes the body of the loop,
the statements in the body will never be executed if the condition is false the WHILE items on list DO
Purchase next item
very first time it is tested.
Cross off purchased item
END WHILE
Do next thing in my day
In the while loop, the program goes back and retests the condition after the
block (body) has been executed and will do the body again if the condition is still true.
REPEAT LOOPS Repeat purchase next item and cross it

off my list until there are no items on
The repeat loop is a post-test loop; the condition is tested after the my shopping list
statements in the body of the loop have been executed. As long as the test
condition is true, the program will go back and repeat the body of the loop. REPEAT
The loop terminates when this condition becomes false. Because the test Purchase next item
follows the body of the loop, it (the body) will always be executed at least Cross off purchased item
once. UNTIL no items left on list
Do next thing in my day

…
REPEAT Post-tested loop
Dial number
IF call answered THEN
Definite loop
got_answer  true
ENDIF
UNTIL got_answer = true
..
…
WHILE got_answer = false Pre-tested loop
Dial number
IF call answered THEN Definite loop
got_answer  true
ENDIF
END WHILE
..

Activity
Write out the following flowchart in structured English pseudo code.
Controlling a Loop
In order to function correctly, loops need to be controlled.
Controlling a loop involves 3 steps:
1. Initialize the loop control variable - i.e. declaring the variable and setting its starting value.
2. Test the loop condition - should the loop actions be executed?
3. Update the loop control variable if the loop runs - generally this involves incrementing the variable by 1,
but can be done differently.
For example, in pseudocode:
START
INITIALISE i = 0 // 1 - initialise the loop control variable
WHILE i < n // 2 - test the loop condition
Run loop actions
Add 1 to loop control variable // 3 - update the loop control variable
ENDWHILE
END
START
INITIALISE i = 0 // 1 - initialise the loop control variable
REPEAT
Run loop actions
Add 1 to loop control variable // 3 - update the loop control variable
UNTIL i > n // 2 - test the loop condition
END

When constructing a solution to a programming question that contains a loop, ask yourself the
following questions:
1. What type of loop do I need? definite or indefinite?

2. Does the question require any input? Yes or no? If the answer to the question is yes
then for a, for loop your first input statement must take place somewhere immediately
following the beginning of the loop. If your loop is a while loop, then you will have to
use an input statement:
i. Before the beginning of the loop
ii. Towards the end of the loop
3. Do I need to count anything? If yes, how many? For each item to be counted you need
to initialize each counter variable before the start of the loop and you need to put each
counter construct inside the loop
4. Do I need to sum or accumulate any value? Do I need a product, average etc? If yes,
how many? For each value to be accumulated you need to initialize an accumulator to 0
outside the loop and you need to place an accumulator construct inside the loop.
5. Is there any condition or conditions specified by the question? If yes, for each counter,
accumulator or print statement within the loop block, ask yourself, under what condition
does it do this?
6. Do I need to print anything? If yes, where do I put my print statement? Inside the loop
or outside the loop? A print statement placed inside a loop will be execute (carried out)
each time the loop block is repeated.
7. What action must I perform when the loop terminates? You may need to calculate an
average, a difference or print a value.

Control Structure Revision

No standard for pseudocode syntax exists. However, there are some commonly followed conventions to help make
pseudocode written by one programmer easily understood by another programmer. Most of these conventions follow
two concepts:
 Use indentation to show the action part of a control structure

 Use an ending phrase word to end a control structure
The sequence control structure simply lists the lines of pseudocode. The concern is not with the sequence category
but with selection and two of the iteration control structures. The following are commonly used ending phrase-
words:
Control Structure Ending Phrase Word

IF THEN ELSE ENDIF
REPEAT UNTIL
WHILE ENDWHILE
FOR ENDFOR
So...Which Loop Should I Use?
In summary, use:
 A for loop for counter-controlled repetition - i.e. when the loop needs to run a certain number of times.
 A while loop when it is possible that the loop may never execute.
 A repeat loop when the loop must execute at least one time.

Specialized Control Concepts & Structures

INCREMENT- to gradually increase a numeric value, most often but not always by 1. E.g. counter  counter + 1
DECREMENT- to gradually decrease a numeric value, most often but not always by 1. E.g. counter  counter - 1
COUNTER
When one needs to count how many times a program executes a loop (without using a counted loop), one uses a
counter. Counters need two things in order to function: 1) an Initial Value, and; 2) an Incremental Value. The initial
value is usually (but not always) zero, and must be located outside the loop. It tells the program what number to
begin counting at. The incremental value, on the other hand, tells the program what to count by (usually 1, but it
could be any number) and must be located inside the loop.
ACCUMULATOR
The most elementary use for an accumulator is adding a sequence of numbers. The numerical value in the
accumulator increases as each number is added.
START
var answer: string
var gasbill, totalbill: real
var billnumber:int
Initialize the accumulator
totalbill  0
Initialize
accumulatorthe counter
billnumber  1
repeat counter
PRINT "Enter the value of gas bill number ", billnumber, "."
PRINT "Type 0 to exit program."
READ gasbill
if gasbill = 0 then
EXIT
end if
totalbill  totalbill + gasbill accumulator
billnumber  billnumber + 1 counter (increment)
PRINT "Do you want to exit (Y/N)"
READ answer
UNTIL answer = "Y"
billnumber  billnumber - 1 decrement
PRINT "You had ", billnumber, "gas bills."
PRINT "they totalled ", totalbill, "dollars."
STOP

Activity
Problem
 A college has a list of test results (1 = pass, 2 = fail) for 10 students

 Write a program that analyzes the results
 If more than 8 students pass, print "Raise Tuition"
Notice that
 The program must process 10 test results

 Counter-controlled loop will be used
 Two counters can be used
 One for number of passes, one for number of fails
 Each test result is a number—either a 1 or a 2
 If the number is not a 1, we assume that it is a 2
QUESTIONS
1. Write a pseudocode algorithm to read 100 numbers and find their sum.
2. Write a pseudocode algorithm to read a sequence of numbers terminated by 999. The
pseudocode should count and print the number of the negative values and zero values.
The algorithm should also print the sum of the positive numbers.
3. Write a pseudocode algorithm to read the name and test scores for ten students. Each
student does three tests. The pseudocode must print the name of the student with the
highest average. The data will be read in the following form:
Name, Score1, Score2, Score3, Name, Score1, Score2, Score3 etc

Appendix
http://dsearls.org/courses/C121CompSci/Overview/ControlStructures/ControlStructures.htm
IF THEN ELSE
FOR LOOP
WHILE vs REPEAT

CONNECTORS

References
 https://ritterit-programming.wikispaces.com/05.+Control+Structures
 http://dsearls.org/courses/C121CompSci/Overview/ControlStructures/ControlStructures.htm
 http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/accumulator
Additional Reading
 http://www.bbc.co.uk/education/guides/zrxncdm/revision/3
 http://www.bbc.co.uk/education/guides/zrxncdm/revision/6


Module 2a - Intro Problem Solving

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MODULE 2 2019 SEPT 17

PROBLEM SOLVING AND

Problem Solving Phase

Defining the problem

1. What is given (input)

Input Keywords: read, accept, given, input, get

ST JAGO HIGH SCHOOL 1 of 24

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Read three numbers, calculate and print their total.

Identify the input 3 numbers

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Finding a solution to the problem

Determine which solution is most efficient

- Is there another way to get the results?

Represent the solution as an algorithm

4. The solution is then represented as an algorithm. An algorithm is a sequence of

Testing the algorithm

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Problem solving concepts

RULES FOR CREATING VARIABLES

CHOOSING GOOD VARIABLE NAMES

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In the steps below

 The items highlighted in bold blue are literals

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Data type Description Example 1 Example 2 Not an example

An operator is a symbol which represents a function or process.

  ASSIGNMENT OPERATOR used to assign a value to a variable

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1. The keyword that identified it as a declaration (usually VAR or VARIABLE)

 VAR num1 as INTEGER

Remember the arrow is used for assignments.

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Algorithms maybe represented as:

TERMINATOR SYMBOL : AN OVAL

Used to begin and end an algorithm

PROCESS SYMBOL: A RECTANGLE

This is used to indicate the processing (assignments,

INPUT/OUTPUT SYMBOL: A PARALLELOGRAM

Used to indicate the input and output of the algorithm

DECISION SYMBOL: A DIAMOND

Used to make decisions between two options, yes or

DIRECTIONAL ARROW/FLOW OF CONTROL :

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E.g. Read variable_name

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When a program or a pseudocode encounters a ‘print’ statement, it is interpreted as follows:

- If the information is between quotes, print the information as is

CONTROL STRUCTURE /STATEMENT

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Flow Chart Pseudo code

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Flow Chart Pseudo code

Flow Chart Pseudo code

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Loop Condition Tested Control When to use

FOR [initialize clause] TO [termination value] DO

For example, the loop below will execute exactly 10 times.

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Iteration Initialization Condition Body_of_Loop Update

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REPEAT LOOPS Repeat purchase next item and cross it

Flow Chart Pseudo code

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