Space Diplomacy

There are various definitions and characteristics of diplomacy, most of them being more of a
reflection of ambiguity of the term and activities related to it than exact definition of the term itself.
First of all, diplomacy can be perceived as the way of conducting international relations by
negotiations, but it can also be seen as being a method of managing these international relations by
diplomats and other commissioned delegates. In a very specific understanding, diplomacy is also a
skill and art of diplomats. In a book “A Dictionary of Diplomacy”, diplomacy is defined as either:
“The conduct of relations between sovereign states through the medium of officials based at home or
abroad, the latter diplomacy being either members of their state’s diplomatic service or temporary
diplomats” or “any attempt to promote international negotiations (particularly in circumstances of
acute crisis), whether concerning inter- or intra-state conflicts”.1 American politician and diplomat
George Kennan defined the role of diplomacy in one of his speeches as follows: “This is the classic
function of diplomacy: to effect the communications between one’s own government and other
governments or individuals abroad, and to do this with maximum accuracy, imagination, tact, and
good sense.”2

For the purposes of this work, diplomacy shall be perceived as a method of conducting foreign
policy of states with an aim to achieve certain goals by negotiations between two states (bilateral
diplomacy) or more states (multilateral diplomacy).

The art of diplomacy has a long history being dated back to the very beginning of existence
of first states, as keeping relations with other entities was crucial not only for achieving particular
goals but for formal recognition and survival of the state. Diplomatic practice was developed in many
ancient civilizations and states, such as in Assyria, India or Greek city-states such as Athens or Sparta.
The oldest documented record of correspondence that might be referred to as “diplomatic” is Amarna
letters from the 14th century BCE that were exchanged between the administration of Egypt and
different Egyptian representatives in Canaan and Amurru, as well as between Egypt and various
different states such as Babylon or Hittite Empire.3 Since then, diplomacy has evolved to a form we
know today, with specially appointed people representing their leader of king and in possession of
some kind of immunity. In the middle ages, offices of these representatives, predecessors of modern-
time embassies started to be established, mostly between various Italian republics.4

1
Berrige, G. R., James, A., A Dictionary of Diplomacy, Palgrave, 2003, p. 70
2
“George Kennan On Diplomacy As a Profession”, American Foreign Service Association, http://www.afsa.org/george-
kennan-diplomacy-profession
3
J. Black, J., A History of Diplomacy, University of Chicago Press, 2010
4
Mattingly, G., Renaissance Diplomacy, Dover Publications, 1955
 As mentioned above in this subchapter, defining diplomacy is a complicated task and the same
goes for modern diplomacy. What can be perceived as “modern” diplomacy has many formats and
types. Bilateral diplomacy is the oldest format of diplomacy and the term usually refers to
negotiations between two states. Another format, multilateral diplomacy (negotiations between more
states) had evolved in 17th Century and is closely connected to another new form of diplomacy –
conference diplomacy, that was used for the first time after the end of European 30-year war during
legal construction of so called Westphalian peace. Another example of one of the first conferences
that served diplomatic purpose was Vienna Conference in 1815 when European states and kingdoms
needed to put Europe back to order after the dominance of Napoleonic empire that was defeated only
2 months before the conference in Waterloo.5 Real aggrandizement of conference and later summit
diplomacy however happened only very recently in 20th century and is connected mostly with
formation of international organizations with global reach such as League of Nations or later United
Nations.

There are another, well known types of diplomacy serving specific purposes for mostly
bilateral relations between states. Economic diplomacy, for example, refers to a set of official
activities aimed at promoting foreign economic cooperation in a peaceful way, as well as it refers to
using economic tools (investments etc.) for achieving foreign goals of a country. Defense diplomacy,
evolving from 19th century refers to activities aimed at cumulating information with military
character; public diplomacy, type of diplomacy mostly interconnected with evolution of the process
of globalization, is a tool of asserting foreign policy objectives and might be defined as targeted
presentation of state (using many platforms such as mass-media) in order to inform and manipulate
public and public opinion in a foreign state. One type of public diplomacy is cultural diplomacy,
referred to as a set of activities aimed at the development of cultural relations and activities between
states in abeyance with the objectives of foreign policy of a certain country.6

International relations and politics in general undergo systematic transformation and evolution
and the same applies to diplomacy. Many various factors contribute to the transformation and
development of diplomacy. With many new global issues emerging - including exploration and the
use of outer space, traditional diplomacy is not capable of coping with them and new types of
diplomacy emerge. As science, technology and international politics are related and affect as well as
influence each other, one of these new types of diplomacy is science and technology diplomacy
(sometimes referred to as only science diplomacy). S&T diplomacy is widely used by many states,
as they started to realize the potential that scientific cooperation - in this case mostly exchange of

5
Kauffman, J. Conference Diplomacy: An Introductory Analysis, Palgrave, 1996
6
Holmes A., , Rofe, S., Global Diplomacy: Theories, Types, and Models, Westview Press, 2015
2
scientific advancements has for building interstate relations7. Even though S&T diplomacy is used
by many international actors, there is lack of research and absence of materials regarding this area of
international relations - probably because, as Caroline Wagner puts it, science and politics are “uneasy
partners”8. Emerging science and technology diplomacy can be seen as a part of public diplomacy
and a component of “soft power”, therefore the main task of it is to assert foreign policy objectives.
For Eugene Skolnikoff, emeritus professor of political science at MIT, one of the founding fathers of
the term and until now one of the most influential scholars of S&T diplomacy, “scientific and
technological leadership needs to be regarded as a new precondition for sovereignty, power, and
international influence”9.

Science and technology diplomacy might be analyzed and studied from two points of view,
each setting distinctive tasks for both actors representing academia and politics. However, both of
these points of view have political meaning and are derived from the political aspect. Firstly, it can
be perceived as science for diplomacy – in this case actors (mostly governments of states) use
cooperation in scientific field in order to improve foreign relations among countries (mostly economic
and security ambitions of states). Science for diplomacy might therefore be very beneficial not only
for states and other international actors but it suggests that the work of scientists will be supported in
order to achieve certain objectives. It can however imply that scientists have to adapt to some form
of political thinking and that can impede with their work. Second approach can be characterized as
diplomacy for science – it is referring to a diplomacy that tries to facilitate scientific cooperation. In
this case countries are trying to aid and back research and development, mostly by rising the funding
or helping to build and maintain scientific contacts. However, logic implies that this approach has to
have its own political aspects as well. This taxonomy is widely used and mentioned in every research
dedicated to S&T diplomacy, sometimes adding third approach that can be explained as a dimension
called science in diplomacy, referred to as an attempt of science to advise and provide information in
order to support given foreign policy objectives.10

Space diplomacy shall be considered to be an integral part of S&T diplomacy, as space

technologies and space exploration are undoubtedly an issue closely related to science and are an
aspect of research and development and therefore of science and technology. As we mentioned,
research on the topic of S&T diplomacy is rather sparse, in case of space diplomacy we might talk

7
Ruffini, P., Science and Diplomacy: A New Dimension of International Relations, Springer, 2017
8
Wagner, C.S., International collaboration in science and technology: Promises and pitfalls, Anthem Press, 2002, p.8
9
Fähnrich, B., Science Diplomacy - Investigating the Perspective of Scholars on Politics, Public Understanding of
Science, Volume 26 Issue 6, August 2017, p. 4
10
Flink. T.,, Schreiterer, U., Science diplomacy at the intersection of S&T policies and foreign affairs: toward a typology
of national approaches, Science and Public Policy, Volume 37, Issue 9, November 2010, Pages 665–677
3
even about more sparse research. Academia regarding this issue is not well developed, probably
because space as an object of international relations is rather new phenomena, dating only half a
century back when states became interested in experimenting with ballistic missiles and later with
direct exploration of space and advancement of space technologies. However it seems that the world
and academia in particular tend to overlook the potential of outer space as segment of national power
with capability to pursue national interests.11

Space diplomacy can be defined as a part of S&T diplomacy and as a complex of bilateral or
multilateral, both civilian and military state activities aimed at encouraging a dialogue /cooperation/
in the field of space exploration and exploitation in order to help reaching foreign policy goals of a
country. If we define diplomacy as an art of negotiations with an attempt to converge national
interests, in case of space diplomacy national interests of states are converged in space and space
cooperation. Applying the same taxonomy that is widely used in the case of S&T diplomacy, this
definition would serve the meaning of space for diplomacy and for the purposes of this work this
dimension will be applied. Huge potential lies in space for countries to pursue their foreign policy
objectives mostly by cooperation – such as in the case of ultimately successful Apollo-Soyuz
program. This joint test project of USA with USSR was conducted in the midst of Cold war in 197512
and undoubtedly both countries profited from it – in Soviet Union at that time of space race, national
pride was often measured by successes in the field of outer space exploration and scientific
partnership and friendship with a country considered to be an enemy quickly helped to transform their
relationship into mutual respect. The more recent example of application of cooperation in space with
the goal to pursue own foreign policy objectives is the example of India, pursuing its national interest
in dominance in the region of South Asia profiting from its advancement in science and technology
and mostly in space technology, such as in the case of GSAT-9 satellite launched in 2017 by Indian
Space Agency (ISRO) with main objective to provide various communication applications in Ku-
band with coverage over South Asian countries13. China has been also successful in using outer space
in order to advance its influence in various regions of the world – selling satellites to countries such
as Nigeria or Pakistan they are giving a signal to other countries that their partnership with the
particular country is more developed. China also very recently started operating its space control base
in Argentina´s remote region of Patagonia with declared purpose to help reaching the far side of the
Moon by Chang´e 4 mission14. Government of Argentina is enthusiastically supporting China´s

11
Whiting, S., Space and Diplomacy: A New Tool for Leverage, Taylor & Francis, 2003
12
“The Apollo-Soyuz test project: ideal science diplomacy”, USC Centre for Public Diplomacy,
https://www.uscpublicdiplomacy.org/blog/apollo-soyuz-test-project-ideal-science-diplomacy
13
“GSAT-9”, ISRO, https://www.isro.gov.in/Spacecraft/gsat-9
14
“China Planning Probes, Manned Missions, Ultimately a Base on Moon”, Sputnik News,
https://sputniknews.com/science/201810011068500311-China-Probes-Manned-Missions-Base-Moon/
4
megalomaniac project allowing it to fulfill China´s far reaching plan in the region and grow influence
in Latin America – region where many countries are still considered to be diplomatic allies of
Taiwan.15

Other dimension of space diplomacy observable is the dimension of diplomacy for space –
referring to a special kind of diplomacy that facilitates states and other actor´s behavior in outer space,
mostly in case of space legislation such as the one formulated in Outer Space Treaty in 1967. This
treaty, until this day signed by 102 countries established what we nowadays might identify as
diplomacy for space – principles such as that outer space shall be free for exploration and use by all
States; States shall not place nuclear weapons or other weapons of mass destruction in orbit or on
celestial bodies or station them in outer space in any other manner or the principle that States shall
be liable for damage caused by their space objects16.

As in the case of S&T diplomacy, applying space diplomacy by states in order to help them
achieve their foreign policy goals implies the political character space has in this case. Many times in
this work this political character is compressed into so-called space policy that might be defined as
political process of setting aims, principles and priorities in the field of outer space and
implementation of those. If we accept such definition, space diplomacy serves as an implementation
of such policy. Therefore often in the work, space policy of a country must be analyzed in order to
pave a way to understanding of space diplomacy and approach towards application of smart power
that are just an implementation of such policies.

With legal measures accepted by states being members of COPUOS that prevent use of
military power or any other non-peaceful use of outer space, collaboration in space have prospects to
promote peace and cooperation between states and space diplomacy has perspective to open or
maintain communication channels even between countries with some form of animosity. Use of space
for common good of the human race might be perceived as an effective tool of soft power, mostly for
countries with developed technologies able to share their research and development in space industry
with other countries. However, many states have their space technology developed to a level that
allows them to use it for military purposes – and other states are well aware of this fact. This means
there is another possible point of view – for the countries with most developed space technology and
research space diplomacy became an effective tool of so called smart power.

15
Prasad, B., A Latin American Battle: China vs. Taiwan, The Diplomat, https://thediplomat.com/2017/08/a-latin-
american-battle-china-vs-taiwan/
16
Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon
and Other Celestial Bodies, unoosa.org, http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/gares/ARES_21_2222E.pdf
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