Biotechnology and Society

Dr. W. McLaughlin
Course outline

l Overview
l History of biotechnology
l Elements of biotechnology
l Genetic engineering: Successes and problems
l Environmental issues
l Trade issues
Overview

l BIOTECHNOLOGY – technologies that involve

the use of living organisms or products from
living organisms in order to benefit humans
usually for medical, agricultural and industrial
application
Overview

l Science based technologies, such as

recombinant DNA techniques, biochemistry,
molecular and cellular biology, microbiology,
and genetics
Impact on society

l Biotechnology has made it possible to detect,

and in some cases treat, diseases such as
sickle-cell anemia, and cystic fibrosis
l Genetic tests used to track down criminals in
assault cases based on the uniqueness of their
DNA
l Genetic counselling provides advice on
heritable diseases, and genetic screening of
workers in possible risk industries
Impact on society

l Concerns about biotechnology and genetic

engineering
– Novel DNA
– Antibiotic resistance genes
– New proteins
– Escape of genes in the environment
– Reduction in biodiversity
Impact on society

l Many countries are actively reviewing the

safety and ethics of biotechnology research
and its applications
l Some countries have established research
guidelines, biosafety framework
l Ban work on stem cell research
History of biotechnology

l 1953 Unraveling the double helix. James

Watson and Francis Crick deduced the
structure of the DNA molecule - a double helix
l 1967 Cracking the the genetic code. Har
Khorana, Robert Holley, and Marshall
Nirenberg decipher the mechanism that
enables DNA to be translated into proteins
History of biotechnology

l 1968 Stanley Cohen determines that bacteria

carry genes for antibiotic resistance on
plasmids. Plasmids were purified and
reinserted into other bacterial cells, transferring
antibiotic resistance in the process.
l 1970 Restriction enzymes discovered. Boyer
isolates the "Big Daddy" of restriction enzymes,
EcoR1. In the following years, hundreds of
different restriction endonucleases are found
that cleave DNA at specific sites.
History of biotechnology

l 1972 Recombinant DNA technology begins:

Paul Berg splices together two blunt-ended
fragments of DNA from the SV40 virus and E.
coli, creating a recombinant
l 1972 Cloning: Cohen and Boyer discuss ways
to combine plasmid isolation with DNA splicing
- the basis of the biotechnology industry.
History of biotechnology

l 1975 DNA sequencing developed: Gilbert

and Maxam of Harvard Univ. and Sanger of
Cambridge Univ. simultaneously come up with
two techniques for determining the exact
sequence of bases that make up a gene.
History of biotechnology

l 1975 Monoclonal antibody technology

developed: Milstein, Kohler and Jeme fused
immortal tumor cells with antibody-producing
B-lymphocyte cells to produce "hybridomas"
that continuously synthesize identical (or
"monoclonal") antibodies.
History of biotechnology

l 1978 Human insulin cloned into E. coli

l 1982 Human insulin or Humulin the first
recombinant DNA drug approved by FDA
l 1986 The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
developed by Kary Mullis and revolutionizes
molecular biology
History of biotechnology

l 1989 The Human Genome Project (HGP)

begins. A plan to "map” human genes by the
year 2005. Anticipated cost: $3 billion
l 1990 First use of gene therapy to treat
human patient. A 4-year-old girl with ADA
deficiency is the first recipient of gene therapy.
History of biotechnology

l 1994 Brave new foods: FlavrSavr tomato, the

first transgenic food introduced to the
supermarket shelves.
l 1996 First mammal cloned from adult cells:
Dolly, a lamb cloned from an udder cell of an
adult sheep born 6 years earlier.
History of biotechnology

l 1996 Development of the GeneChip®:

Breakthrough in gene expression and DNA
sequencing technology with the introduction of
DNA chips, small glass or silica microchips that
contain thousands of individual genes that can
be analyzed simultaneously
History of biotechnology

l 2003: The Human Genome Project

completed: The International Human Genome
Sequencing Consortium announced the
successful completion of the Human Genome
Project more than two years ahead of schedule
for a cost substantially less than the original
estimates.
l 2003: 50th anniversary of the discovery of the
structure of DNA
Deoxyribonucleic Acid - DNA

l Made up of structures called nucleotides

l A nucleotide consists of three things:
• A nitrogenous base, which can be either (A)
adenine, (G) guanine, (C) cytosine, (T) thymine
• A five-carbon sugar
• One or more phosphate groups
Cloning

l Reproductive cloning is a technology used to

generate an animal that has the same nuclear
DNA as another currently or previously existing
animal.
l Dolly was created by reproductive cloning
technology
Cloning

l Therapeutic cloning, also called "embryo

cloning," is the production of human embryos
for use in research.
l The goal of this process is not to create cloned
human beings, but rather to harvest stem cells
that can be used to study human development
and to treat disease.
Recombinant DNA technology

l The terms "recombinant DNA technology,"

"DNA cloning," "molecular cloning,” or "gene
cloning" all refer to the same process
l The transfer of a DNA fragment from one
organism to a self-replicating genetic element
such as a bacterial plasmid
l Plasmids are used to generate multiple copies
of the same gene
Recombinant DNA technology

l When segments of foreign DNA are transferred

into another cell or organism, the substance for
which they code may be produced along with
substances coded for by the native genetic
material of the cell or organism. Thus, these
cells become "factories" for the production of
the protein coded for by the inserted DNA
Monoclonal antibodies

l Monoclonal antibodies are widely used as

diagnostic and research reagents. Their
introduction into human therapy has been
much slower.
l Some monoclonal antibodies have been
introduced into human medicine
Uses of monoclonal antibody

l Suppress the immune system to prevent

rejection after organ transplant, e.g. kidney
l Boost the immune system
l Kill malignant tumour cells e.g. cancer cells
l Reduces heart attacks
l Used to deliver drugs to target site
Drug delivery
Problems with MAb

l Mouse antibodies are "seen" by the human

immune system as foreign, and the human
patient mounts an immune response against
them, producing HAMA ("human anti-mouse
antibodies")
l Very few humans wants to be used to make
MAb
Recombinant
proteins
Biotechnology in agriculture
Biotechnology

l Reasons for developing transgenic plants

– To improve agricultural, horticultural and ornamental

value of a crop plant
– Can act as a living bioreactor
– Means of studying the action of genes
Crops and traits
GM Crops Traits
____________________________________________________
Canola Herbicide tolerance; modified seed fatty acid content
Maize Herbicide tolerance; resistance to corn root worm;
resistance to European corn borer
Melon Delayed ripening
Papaya Resistance to viral infection
Potato Resistance to Colorado potato beetle; resistance to
potato leafroll luteovirus
Rice Herbicide tolerance; Beta-carotene
Soya bean Herbicide tolerance; modified seed fatty acid content
Squash Resistance to viral infection
Tomato Delayed ripening; delayed softening
Transformation

l Prepare plant tissue

l Co-cultivate with
special bacteria
l Agrobacterium
Selection of transformed tissue

l Selection of
transformants on
kanamycin media
l Regeneration of
whole plants by
tissue culture
Regenerate Transgenic plant
Delayed ripening in Tomato

l Introduction of a gene
that results in
degradation of a
precursor of the plant
hormone, ethylene
l Production of tomatoes
for human consumption,
either fresh or processed
l Agritope Inc. USA
Resistance to Colorado potato beetle

l Introduction of a toxin gene

from a bacteria that results
in insect resistance in
potato
l Production of potatoes for
human consumption and
livestock feed including
potato process residue
l Monsanto Company, USA
Herbicide tolerance Corn

l Glyphosate herbicide
tolerance
l Production of Z. mays
for human consumption
(wet mill or dry mill or
seed oil), and meal and
silage for livestock feed
l Monsanto Company,
USA
Papaya Resistant to viral infection

l Resistance to papaya
ringspot virus (PRSV)
l Production of papaya for
human consumption,
either fresh or processed
l Cornell University, USA
& UWI, Jamaica
Virus resistant tomato

l Insertion of a mutant
gene from the virus to
prevent replication
l Production of
tomatoes for human
consumption, either
fresh or processed
l UW-Madison, Hebrew
Univ., UWI
Benefits of the New Technology

l Higher yields & lower pesticide usage

– Provide indirect benefits for consumers and the

environment through lower usage of pesticides and
there are higher yields due to reduced pest losses.
Benefits of the New Technology

l More Nutritious Foods

– increasing the levels of essential amino acids,

vitamins, bio-available iron and to reduce toxicity
– more nutritious harvested products that keep much
longer in storage and transport.
Benefits of the New Technology

l Utilization of marginal lands

– produce plants that are more tolerant to drought,

salt and heat stresses, toxic heavy metals
Problems with rDNA technology

l Instability in transgene expression

l Interruption or silencing of existing genes
l Activation of silent genes
l Expression of anti-nutrients
Unanticipated effects in transgenic
crops

l Canola – overexpression of phytoene synthase

resulted in X500 increase in levels of α and β-
carotene
l Maize – the stems of Bt maize contain more
lignin
l Potato – expressing kanamycin showed
changes in phynotypic and yield performance
Concerns

l Food safety
l Allergic reaction – Cry9C protein in Starlink
corn
l Use of antibiotic marker genes
l Negative impact non-target species – Bt corn
l Creation of super weeds - gene flow
l Creation of new viruses - recombination
Food safety

l Unsafe for human consumption ?

– Allergic reaction to new proteins

– 60% of processes foods in supermarkets in the USA
contain a GM ingredient
– Soy, corn, canola and some fresh vegetables
Allergic reaction

l Cry9C a protein in Starlink corn

l Insecticidal protein shares properties with
proteins that are known food allergen
l Not licensed for human consumption
l “Taco Bell Home originals”
Antibiotic marker genes

l Antibiotics – kanamycin, hygromycin,

tetracycline, ampicillin
l Used to identify plants carrying the transgene
l Presence of the gene in the gut could enter gut
organism, increase resistance
l WHO report that antibiotic genes are safe
Impact on non-target species

l Pollen from GM corn contains the insecticidal

Bt toxin thought to be a danger to the monarch
butterfly
l Milkweed with pollen from Bt corn plants could
kill monarch catapillars that fed on them
l Six recent studies finds that pollen from
varieties of Bt corn most commonly grown in
the USA do not contain enough toxin to harm
monarchs.
Super weeds

l Herbicide resistant GM crops

l Insect resistant GM crops
l Gene flow between trangenics and traditional
maize in Mexico
l Gene flow - natural process
New viruses

l Recombination through horizontal gene

transfer
l Naturally occurring viruses and spread to new
hosts
Regulating Biotechnology

l Cartagena Protocol
l CODEX Alimentarius
l National Biosafety Committee-NCST
Cartagena Protocol

l Trade related treaty

l Regulation on the transboundary movement of
living modified organisms
l Risk assessment system based on science
intended to assure the safety of products to be
imported
CODEX Alimentarius

l Human health risk analysis of GM foods

l Case-by-case assessment
l Evaluate direct and unintentional effects
l Toxicity
l Allergenicity
l Changes in nutritional properties
l Gene stability
NBC - NCST

l Permission to import GMOs

l Risk assessment
l Environmental impact assessment
l Monitor imports and uses of transgenic crops
European Union vs. USA

l EU ban the importation of GM foods for sale

l Strong support by consumers
l Call for labeling of products derived from GMO
l Label if there is >1% GM material in the foods
Additional resources

l http://www.who.int/fsf/Gmfood/codex_index.ht
m
l http://www.foodstandards.gov.uk/gmdebate/?vi
ew=GM%20Microsite
l http://greennature.com/article299.html
l http://www.doh.gov.uk/cmo/gmfood.htm
l http://www.who.int/fsf/GMfood/FAO-
WHO_Consultation_report_2000.pdf