HEBREW LITERATURE

HISTORY AND BACKGROUND

Hebrew literature, the body of written works produced in the Hebrew language and distinct
from Jewish literature, which also exists in other languages.

Literature in Hebrew has been produced uninterruptedly from the early 12th century BC, and
certain excavated tablets may indicate a literature of even greater antiquity. From 1200 BC to c.
AD 200, Hebrew was a spoken language in Palestine, first as biblical Hebrew, then as Mishnaic
Hebrew, a later dialect that does not derive directly from the biblical dialect and one that gained
literary status as the Pharisees began to employ it in their teaching in the 2nd century BC. It was
not revived as a spoken language until the late 19th century, and in the 20th century it was
adopted as the official language of the new State of Israel. The latter event gave impetus to a
growing movement in Hebrew literature centered in Israel.

Hebrew literature is not synonymous with Jewish literature. Some Hebrew writing was produced
by the Samaritans and in the 17th century by Protestant enthusiasts. Jews also produced
important literatures in Greek, Aramaic, Arabic, Judeo-Spanish (Ladino), Yiddish, and a number
of other languages. Apart from the Aramaic writings, however, such literatures always served
only that part of Jewry using the language in question. When the community ceased to exist, the
literature produced in that language was forgotten (or, in the case of Greek Jewish literature,
became part of Christian tradition) except for whatever part of it had been translated into Hebrew
and thus became part of Hebrew literature.

The Hebrew language, though not spoken between c. AD 200 and the late 19th century, has
always adapted itself to the needs of changing literary tastes. In the Bible it develops from a
simple and earthy idiom to a language suitable for the expression of sophisticated religious
thought without losing the poetic force and rhythmic fullness that characterizes it. Mishnaic
Hebrew is pedestrian and exact, and yet it can reach heights of irony or of warmth. In medieval
poetry Hebrew allows extravagant displays of verbal artistry but also, in northwestern Europe, a
simplicity equal to that of the spoken languages of its milieu. One generation of translators in the
12th century created a scientific Hebrew that is not inferior to contemporary Arabic or Latin in
precision or syntactic refinement. The 17th–19th centuries saw the formation of a stately, rigid,
classical style based on biblical Hebrew, but at the same time eastern European mystics made the
language serve the expression of their love of God. Literary Hebrew in the 20th century draws
upon ancient literature to a marked degree, with styles often modeled upon ancient predecessors.
The modern period has also evolved a new type of language for nonliterary writing, while in
novels the style is often based upon the spoken language.

The end of the 19th century saw the emergence of the first masters of Hebrew literature:
Seforim, Yoseph Hayim Brenner, the poets Hayim Nahman Bialik and Saul Tchernichovsky, the
more experimental writer Uri Nissan Gnessin, and the fantastical Shmuel Yosef Agnon. At the
same time, Zionism was advancing its dream of a New Hebrew culture in Palestine with the
developing Modern Hebrew language at its core, and these writers received encouragement and
inspiration from this movement.

Talmudic literature

In contrast to the works of the Bible and the Second Temple were the collections of writings
concerned with Jewish civil and religious law. Whereas the former were lengthy writings bearing
the imprint of their authors or editors, early rabbinic literature consisted entirely of collections of
individual statements loosely strung together. The individual paragraphs exhibit the influence of
Hellenistic rhetoric. Collections that follow the arrangement of biblical books are called Midrash,
as opposed to works such as the Mishna, where the material is arranged according to subject. The
Mishna was the main work of the period c. 100 BC–AD 200. The following period, AD 200–
500, was notable for two main innovations: the appearance of an additional literary centre in
Babylonia, where Jewry flourished in contrast to its subjugation under the oppressive rule of
Rome and, later, Byzantium in Palestine; and the literary use of the spoken local dialects of
Aramaic alongside Hebrew. The Talmuds produced by Palestine and Babylonia in this period
contained a large proportion of Haggada, statements dealing with theological and ethical matters
and using stories, anecdotes, and parables to illustrate certain points. This material was later an
influence on Hebrew fiction of the Middle Ages and of the modern period.
Piyyuṭim

Synagogues began in this period to appoint official precentors, part of whose duty it was to
compose poetical additions to the liturgy on special sabbaths and festivals. The authors were
called payṭanim (from Greek poiētēs, “poet”), their poems piyyuṭim. The keynote was messianic
fervour and religious exuberance. Besides employing the entire biblical, Mishnaic, and Aramaic
vocabularies, the payṭanim coined thousands of new words. Such poems, presupposing a highly
educated audience, abound in recondite allusions and contain exhaustive lists of rites and laws. It
is known that the most outstanding poets—Phineas the Priest, Yose ben Yose, Yannai, and
Eleazar ha-Kalir, or ben Kalir—lived in that order, but when or where in Palestine any of them
lived is not known. The accepted datings are 3rd century and 5th–6th century AD. Many
piyyuṭim are still used in the synagogue.

Beginnings of the Haskala movement

In the Berlin of Frederick II the Great, young intellectuals from Poland and elsewhere, brought in
as teachers, met representatives of the European Enlightenment; they came under the influence
of Moses Mendelssohn and also met some representatives of Italian and Dutch Hebrew cultures.
One, a Dane, Naphtali Herz Wessely, who had spent some time in Amsterdam, wrote works on
the Hebrew language, and another, an Italian, Samuel Aaron Romanelli, wrote and translated
plays. Out of these contacts grew Haskala (“Enlightenment”), a tendency toward westernization
that venerated Hebrew and medieval western Jewish literature. Among German Jews, then
already in rapid process of Germanization, this Hebrew movement had no place. The
Enlightenment was introduced in Galicia (Austrian Poland), a centre of Ḥasidism, by the Edict of
Toleration (1781) of the emperor Joseph II. By supporting some of its aims, Hebrew writers
incurred hatred and persecution. Their chief weapon was satire, and the imitation by Joseph Perl
of the Epistolae obscurorum virorum (1515; “Letters of Obscure Men”) of Crotus Rubianus and
the essays of Isaac Erter were classics of the genre. One poet, Meir Letteris, and one dramatist,
Naḥman Isaac Fischman, wrote biblical plays.
From the beginning, the prospects for modern Hebrew literature–particularly prose–were bleak.
Could a non-spoken language reflect communal experiences? There were logistical problems as
well. The first writers of modern Hebrew literature primarily used biblical Hebrew, but biblical
Hebrew was not suited to modern literary needs. Its vocabulary was archaic and its syntax
clumsy. Shalom Yakov Abramowitz–better known by the name of his famous protagonist
Mendele Mokher Seforim (Mendele the Book Seller)–took monumental steps in trying to solve
these problems. Instead of restricting himself to biblical Hebrew, Seforim relied heavily on the
Hebrew of rabbinic literature, particularly the Mishnah(redacted c. 200 CE). Rabbinic literature
discusses the minutiae of everyday life, and thus it provided him with an extensive lexicon

Sources: https://www.britannica.com/art/Hebrew-literature/The-period-of-retrenchment-1200-
1750 & https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/hebrew-literature/

CHARACTERISTICS AND FEATURES

THE HEBREWS

 Believed in Jehovah, an unseen God who was never identified with images or sacrifices
 The worship of Jehovah was tied with right behavior in compliance with the Ten
Commandments.
 First rulers were the patriarchs.

MEDIEVAL HEBREW LITERATURE

 During the medieval period, the majority of Jewish and Hebrew was composed in Islamic
North Africa, Spain, Palestine, and Middle East.
 Many works of medieval philosophical literature such as Maimonides Guide to the
Perplexed and the Kuzari, as well as many works of fiction, were written in Judeo-Arabic
 One work of fiction which was written in Hebrew was the “Fox Fables” by Berechiah
ben Natronai ha-Nakdan, Hebrew fables which resemble Aesop’s fable.
 Much medieval Jewish poetry was written in Hebrew, including the liturgical Piyyutim in
Palestine in the 7th and 8th centuries by Yose ben Yose, Yanai, and Eleazar Kalir.
  This litturgy was compiled in book form as “the siddur” by rabbis including Amram
Gaon and Saadia Gaon.

MODERN HEBREW LITERATURE

 In addition to writing traditional rabbinic literature in Hebrew, MODERN Jews

developed new forms of fiction, poetry, and essay writing which are called “Modern
Hebrew Literature”

HEBREW LEADERS

KING SAUL

Was the first king of the United Kingdom of Israel (Israel and Judah). His reign, traditionally
placed in the late 11th century BCE, supposedly marked a transition from a tribal society to
statehood.

Saul's life and reign are described primarily in the Hebrew Bible. According to the text, he was
anointed by the prophet Samuel and reigned from Gibeah. He fell on his sword (committing
suicide) to avoid capture in the battle against the Philistines at Mount Gilboa, during which three
of his sons were also killed. The succession to his throne was contested by Ish-bosheth, his only
surviving son, and his son-in-law David, who eventually prevailed. According to the Hebrew text
of the Bible Saul reigned for two years, but scholars generally agree that the text is faulty and
that a reign of twenty or twenty-two years is more probable.

KING DAVID

He becomes a favorite of King Saul and a close friend of Saul's son Jonathan. Worried that
David is trying to take his throne, Saul turns on David. After Saul and Jonathan are killed in
battle, David is anointed as King. David conquers Jerusalem, taking the Ark of the Covenant into
the city, and establishing the kingdom founded by Saul. As king, David commits adultery with
Bathsheba, leading him to arrange the death of her husband Uriah the Hittite. David's son
Absalom schemes to overthrow David. David flees Jerusalem during Absalom's rebellion, but
after Absalom's death he returns to the city to rule Israel. Because David shed much blood,[6]
God denies David the opportunity to build the temple. Before his peaceful death, he chooses his
son Solomon as successor.

David is richly represented in post-biblical Jewish written and oral tradition, and is discussed in
the New Testament.

David is discussed in the Quran as a major prophet and figures in Islamic oral and written
tradition as well. The biblical character of David has inspired many interpretations in art and
literature over centuries.

KING SOLOMON

He church of the Hebrew was called Jerusalem Temple (the 1st temple was built by King
Solomon)

It was covered with gold (Jerusalem Temple)

He is described as king of the United Monarchy, which broke apart into the northern Kingdom
of Israel and the southern Kingdom of Judah shortly after his death. Following the split, his
patrilineal descendants ruled over Judah alone.

He is portrayed as great in wisdom, wealth and power beyond either of the previous kings of the
country, but also as a king who sinned. His sins included idolatry, marrying foreign women.
According to the biblical account, Solomon had 700 wives and 300 concubines.

Solomon is associated with the peak "golden age" of the independent Kingdom of Israel as well
as a source of judicial and religious wisdom. According to Jewish tradition, King Solomon wrote
three books of the Bible:

• Mishlei (Book of Proverbs), a collection of fables and wisdom of life

• Kohelet (Ecclesiastes), a book of contemplation and his self-reflection.

• Shir ha-Shirim (Song of Songs), an unusual collection of poetry interspersed with verse,
whose interpretation is either literal (i.e., a romantic and sexual relationship between a man and a
woman) or metaphorical (a relationship between God and his people).
Hebrew Literature

Tanakh

Most important work (Jewish Bible

 Mishna

The Mishna, compiled around 200 CE, is the primary rabbinic codification of laws as derived
from the Torah.

Talmud

Collection of treatises which are chiefly dedicated to the laws and legends of the Jews

Form is precise terminology and strict logic.

Regarded as an extensive commentary on the Bible

Discussion is its hallmark

Historical Development

1. The Biblical Period

2. Post Biblical Period
3. Middle Ages

Biblical Period

 Ancient Hebrew historiography

 Greater part of the Bible is history
 Written in rhythmic prose
 Prophecy is written on the parallelistic form of poetry

Post-Biblical Period
  Extension of the Biblical Period
 Many apocryphal and apocalyptic books were patterned after the Biblical prototype
 SEPTUAGINT, Greek translation of the Bible, is the cornerstone of the literature of the
Jews
 Most popular literature is the HALAKAH, from the Hebrew Halak, meaning to go or a
rule to go by.
 Another is the HAGGADAH, from higgid, to tell, talks about folklore, ethics, poetry, and
science.

Middle Ages

 Literal interpretation of the Koran

 Adapted from Western cultures
 Hebrew Literature

 The Language and Alefbet -23 consonants, including which has a two- fold sound
 4 have secondary vowel values
 Written from right to left -Alef (first letter). Tav (last letter)
 Each letter has numerical values
Hebrew Literature

• consists of ancient, medieval, and modern writings in the Hebrew language

• written by Jews on Jewish themes in any language; works of a literary character written by
Jews in Hebrew or Yiddish or other recognized languages, whatever the theme; literary works
written by writers who were essentially Jewish writers, whatever the theme and whatever the
language

• Characterized by love of God, being emotional, showing great love of the country and (poetry)
having no rhyme or regularity of rhythm

Ancient Hebrew Literature

- began with oral literature of the LeshonHaKodesh (ׁ‫ש ֶק ֹודֲֶׁׁש ֹוןהל‬, “The Holy Language” Important
works:

• Tanakh (the Hebrew Bible)

• Mishna - primary rabbinic codification of laws as derived from the Torah

Foundations of Hebrew Literature

• Bible (Tanakh) – which are chiefly dedicated to the ancient history of the Jews, their laws and
social aspirations - written Torah (Teachings of Law)

• Talmud - collection of numerous treatises which are chiefly dedicated to the laws and legends
of the Jews

- marked by it precise terminology and strict logic. It is predominantly prosaic oral Torah

- codification of laws (Mishna)

- commentary on the Mishna (Gemara)

ACTIVITY

INSTRUCTION: Answer the following questions. Justify your answer with minimum of
three (3) sentences, maximum of five (5) sentences.

1. Differentiate Hebrew literature from the other literatures that had been discussed in this
subject.

2. What is the difference between the writings of the Bible and Second Temple?

3. What are the common themes of Hebrew’s literature?

4. It is the Hebrew Bible.

5. List down the names and authors of fables who resemble Aesop's fable.

6. What do you think is the moral lesson of the story?

7. For you, how can you show your loyalty and other characteristic toward someone whom really
important to you like Ruth has?

Prepared by:

NAZARENO, Danielle Joei R.

SAMANIEGO, Hanna Marie

DELOCANOG, Mar Pauline