Vectors 37

volume per unit time traversed by the area S is a cylinder

of base area 5 and slant height v (see Fig. 2.16), or S . v.
The rate at which volume is swept out is therefore
dV (2.11)
-=S'v
dt
Vector Product 1 There is a second product of two vectors
that is widely used in physics. This product is vector rather
than scalar in character, but it is a vector in a somewhat
restricted sense. The vector product A X B is defined to be a
vector normal to the plane that includes A and B with magni-
tude ABlsin (A,B) I as in Fig. 2.17a:

Ie = A X B = CABjsin (A,B)I] (2.12)

We read A X B as "A cross B." The sense of C is deter-

mined as a matter of fixed convention by the right-hand-thread
rule: The vector A in the first position in the product is rotated FIG, 2,16 Rate dV/dt at which area S moving With veloc-
by the smallest angle that will bring it into coincidence with Ity V sweeps out volume
the direction of B. The sense of C is that of the direction of
motion of a screw with a right-hand thread (the standard thread
in the United States) when the screw is rotated in the same
direction as was the vector A, as shown in Fig. 2.17b on the
next page.
Let us state the rule for the direction of C in another way:
First, place together the tails of vectors A and B; this defines
a plane. Vector C is perpendicular to this plane; that is, the
vector product A X B is perpendicular to both A and B. Rotate
A into B through the lesser of the two possible angles-curl
the fingers of the right hand in the direction in which A was
rotated, and the thumb will point in the direction of
C = A X B. Note that because of this sign convention B X A
is a vector opposite in sign to A X B (see Fig. 2.17 c):
B X A = -A X B (2.13)
Thus the vector product is not commutative. It follows from
Eq. (2.12) that A X A = 0, so that the vector product of a
vector with itself is zero. The vector product does obey the
distributive law:
A X (B + C) = A X B + A X C C = AB sinO

lThis secllon (pages 37 to 40) can be omitted at thiS time. The vector product
IS used In Chap 3 (page 71), which can also be omitted, only beginning In Chap
6 (page 185) IS it essential FIG, 2,17 (a) Vector product C =A X B.
>
38 Chapter 2

The somewhat tedious proof may be found in any book on

vector analysis.!

Vector Product in Cartesian Components Just as we found

in Eq. (2.6) the direction cosines of a vector A, we can find
the sines of the angles that A makes with the cartesian axes.
This is inconvenient and the sines can more easily be found
from the cosines. However, it is often useful to have the expres-
sion for the vector product of two vectors in terms of their
components:

A X B = (Axx + AS + Azz) x (Bxx + ByY + Bzz)

= (x X y)AXBy + (x X z)AxBz + (y X z)AyB z
+ (y X x)AyBX + (z X x)AzBx + (z X y)AzB y
x x
where we have used the result X = y X Y= X = O. z z
The question arises: What is x X y? Is it z or - z? We make
x z
the choice that X y = + and construct the coordinate di-
rections accordingly. This is called a right-handed coordinate
system 2 and is used conventionally in physics. We agree to work
only in the right-handed coordinate system, which is the kind
shown in Fig. 2.lOa and b.
x z
Now X = -y, y X Z = x,
and so on, and we see that
Right-hand-thread rule. A X B = x(AyBZ - AZB y)
+ Y(AzB x - AxBz) + z(AXB y - AyBx) (2.14)
FIG. 2.17 (cant'd.) (b) Methods of determining direction
Note that if the indices are cyclic with xyz, the term enters
of vector A X B
the vector product with a positive sign; otherwise the sign is
negative. If you are familiar with determinants, you can con-
firm readily that the representation

IFor example. see C. E Weatherburn. "Elementary Vector AnalYSIS." p 57.

(c) Vector product B X A IS opposite to A X B.
G Bell & Sons. Ltd. London. 1928. J G Coffin. "Vector AnalYSIS."' p 35.
John Wiley & Sons. Inc. New York. 1911
2 How would we communicate our definition of n9ht-handed to a creature In
another solar system In our galaxy? We can do thiS by using circularly polarIZed
radiO waves. The signal carnes a message that tells the remote observer In
which sense we defined the waves to be polarIZed The remote observer will
have constructed two receivers. one With the correct sense and one With the
Incorrect sense. In terms of signal strength. Any method requires clear instruc-
tions In the onglnal analySIS of the spectroscopic Zeeman effect. ItS discoverer
Incorrectly assOCiated a positive sign to the oscillating charges In atoms be-
cause he misunderstood the sense of circularly polarIZed radiation [See
P Zeeman. Philosophical Magazme. (5)43: 55 and 226 (1897) In a Similar
connection the first Telstar transmission on July 11. 1962. was poorly re-
ceived In Great Britain because "of the reversal of a small component in the
aenal feed which arose from an ambiguity In the accepted definition of the
sense of rotation of radiO waves' Times (London). July 13. 1962. P 11.]
 Vectors 39

'x
(2.15)

is equivalent to Eq. (2.14) and it is easier to remember. C=AXB

Applications of the Vector Product In the following para-

graphs we treat several applications of the vector product.
Area of a parallelogram. The magnitude B
IA X BI = ABlsin (A,B) I
is the area of the parallelogram with sides A and B (or twice
/"
.I""C-
A/


/
the area of the triangle with sides A and B)(see Fig. 2.18a). t Parallelogram
The direction of A X B is normal to the plane of the
parallelogram; thus we may think of A X B as the vector FIG. 2.18 (a) Vector area of parallelogram IS C =A X B
= AB IsinOI C
area of the parallelogram. Because we have given signs to
the sides A and B, the vector area comes endowed with

a direction. There are physical applications where it is
convenient to be able to give a direction to an area [see
Eq. (2.11)].
2 Volume of a parallelepiped. The scalar
/
I(A X B) 0 CI = V /
/

is the volume of the parallelepiped of which A X B is the

area of the base and C the slant height or edge (Fig. 2.18b).
If the three vectors A, B, and C lie in the same plane, the
volume will be zero; thus three vectors are coplanar if and
only if (A X B) C = o.
0

We note from inspection of the figure that

(b) A X B 0 C = base area X height = volume of parallele-
A (B X C) = (A X B) C
0 0
piped.
so that the dot and the cross in the scalar triple product
may be interchanged without altering the value of the
product. However,
Ao(B X C) = -Ao(C X B)
A scalar triple product is not altered by permuting cycli-
cally the order of the vectors, but it is reversed in sign if
the cyclic order is changed. (Cyclic permutations of ABC
are BCA and CAB; noncylic orderings of ABC are BAC,
ACB, and CBA.)
3 Law of sines. Consider the triangle defined by C = A + B
(Fig. 2.18c), and take the vector product of both sides of (c) Law of sines of triangle.
the equation with A: Note sin (A,B) =
sin ['77 - (A,B)].
40 Chapter 2

A X C = A.X A +A X B
Now A X A = 0, and the magnitudes of both sides must
be equal so that
AC sin (A,C) = AB sin (A,B)
or
sin (A,C) sin (A,B)
(2.16)
B C
This is known as the law of sines of a triangle.
4 Torque. The idea of torque is familiar from most introduc-
tory courses in physics. It is particularly important in the
N=rXF=r'XF motion of rigid bodies discussed in Chap. 8. The torque
is referred to a point and has a convenient expression in
terms of vectors
FIG. 2.18 (cant'd.) (d) Torque as a vector product
(2.17)
where r is a vector from the point to the vector F. From
Fig. 2.18d we see that the torque has a direction perpen-
F=!L
c vXB dicular to r and to F. Note that the magnitude of N is
rF sin a and r sin a is the length of the perpendicular from
the point (0 in the figure) to F. In the figure r sin a =
r' sin a'. Hence the torque both in direction and in magni-
tude is independent of the point along F to which r is
drawn.
5 Force on a particle in a magnetic field. The force on a point
electric charge moving with velocity v in a magnetic field
B is proportional to v times the perpendicular component
of B; in terms of the vector product (see Fig. 2.18e).

(e) Force on positive charge moving In a magnetic field

F = !Lv X B (gaussian units)
c
(2.18)
F=qvXB (mks units)
Here q is the charge on the particle and c is the speed
of light. This force law is developed in detail in Volume
2 and is used in Chap. 3 (page 70).
o
VECTOR DERIVATIVES

FIG. 2.19 (a) The pOSition PI of a particle at time t 1 The velocity v of a particle is a vector; the acceleration a is
IS specified by the vector r(t 1 ) relative to the fixed ongin at also a vector. The velocity is the time rate of change of the
pOint 0 position of a particle. The position of a particle at any time
 Vectors "

o
o

(b) The particle has advanced to P2 at time t 2 (c) The vector -1r IS the difference between r(t2 ) and r(t j )

t can be specified by the vector r(t), which goes from a fixed

point 0 to the particle as in Fig. 2.19a. As time advances, the
particle moves and the position vector changes direction and
magnitude (Fig. 2.19b). The difference between r(t2 ) and r(t 1 )
is a vector as in Fig. 2.19c:
= r(t2 ) - r(t1 )
If the vector r can be regarded as a function (a vector function)
(d) -1r IS the chord between the pOints Pj and P2 on the
of the single scalar variable t, the value of will be completely
trajectory of the particle
determined when the two values t 1 and t 2 are known. Thus
in Fig. 2.19d is the chord P1P2 . The ratio

is a vector collinear with the chord P1P2 but magnified in the

ratio 1/ As approaches zero, P2 approaches P1 and the
chord P1P2 approaches the tangent at Pl' Then the vector
dr
will approach dt

which is a vector tangent to the curve at P1 directed in the (e) As -1t =

t2 - t1 0, the vector -1r/M collinear with the
sense in which the variable t increases along the curve (Fig. chord approaches the velocity vector dr/dt collinear with
2.1ge). the tangent to the trajectory at POint 1\
,
42 Chapter 2

Velocity The vector

dr lim
dt - Clt--->O !::'t

is called the time derivative of r. By definition the velocity is

dr (2.19)
v(t) dt

The magnitude v = Ivl of the velocity is called the speed of

the particle. The speed is a scalar. In terms of components we
write
r(t) = x(t)x + y(t)y + z(t)z (2.20)

and

elr elx
- =
elt
V = -x
elt
A

+ -ely
elt
A elz
y + -z =
dt
A

v x
x
A

+ v YY + v z z
A A

(2.21)

V = Ivl = yv x 2 + V Y2 + V z 2
where we have assumed that the unit vectors do not change
with time, so that
dx dy dz
-=0=-=-
dt elt dt
In general, we may write, without expressing r in compo-
nents as in Eq. (2.20),
r(t) = r(t)r(t)
where the scalar r( t) is the length of the vector and r( t) is a
vector of unit length in the direction of r. The derivative of
r( t) is defined as
dr _ r ] _ lim r(t + !::.t)r(t + t::.t) - r(t)r(t)
elt - elt r(t) (t) - Clt--->O t::.t
(2.22)
We may rewrite the numerator,l retaining only the first two
terms in the series expansions of r(t + !::.t) and r(t + !::.t):

[r(t) + + - r(t)r(t)

= t::.t(dr r + r dr ) + (!::.t?(elr elr)

dt dt elt elt

lSee page 53 at the end of this chapter for expansion In series

 Vectors 43

When this is placed in Eq. (2.22), the second term in the

quotient goes to 0 as I::1t 0 and we have

v = dr = dr I' + r d I' (2.23)

dt dt dt

Here dr/dt represents the rate of change of direction of the

unit vector r. This is an example of the general rule for differ-
entiation of the product of a scalar a(t) and a vector b(t)

ab = da b + a db (2.24)
dt dt dt
One contribution to the velocity in Eq. (2.23) comes from the FIG. 2.20 (a) M IS the change In the unit vector i
change in the direction 1'; the other contribution comes from
the change in the length r.
Since we shall apply the form of Eq. (2.23) for v (particu-
larly in Chap. 9 for motion in a plane), we develop here an
expression of that form for dr/dt utilizing the unit radial vector
I' and a unit vector perpendicular to it that we shall call 8.
In order to make clear these unit vectors and their time
derivatives, consider the motion of a point on a circular path;
in this case the unit vector I' will change in a time interval
I1t by a vector increment 111' to become I' + 111', as shown in
Fig. 2.20a. If I::1t is chosen so small as to approach zero, then
111' takes the direction of the transverse unit vector 8 shown
in Fig. 2.20b.
Furthermore, as I1t and correspondingly 118 approach zero,
the magnitude of M becomes simply
(b) The unit vector (j IS perpendicular to i and In the direc-
IMI = 11'1118 = 118 tion of increasing ()

(because 11'1 = 1) and so the vector M and the ratio M/l1t

become

When we pass to the limit of I1t 0, we obtain for the I' unit
vector time derivative

dr = dO 8 (2.25)
dt dt
By similar arguments utilizing Fig. 2.20c it is readily shown
that the 8 time derivative is
d8 --r
dO.
(2.26)
dt dt (c) t::,(j IS the change in the unit vector (j


44 Chapter 2
I
Now when we consider a point moving in a plane on any
path, as suggested by Fig. 2.21, we recognize that the velocity
vector v at any instant is composed of the radial component
vector dr/dd and the transverse component vector r dr/dt =
r dO / dt O. The latter vector utilizes Eq. (2.25). Thus the expres-
sion for v in the form of Eq. (2.23) is

"t v = dr = dr r + r dB 0
.-_.
elt cit elf
. .. -
(2.27)

Acceleration Acceleration is also a vector; it is related to

v just as v is related to r. We define acceleration as
dv d 2r (2.28)
a=-=-
2
- dt dt

FIG. 2.21 Components of velocity vector In terms of r Using Eq. (2.21) we obtain, in cartesian components,
and {j

(2.29)

For the future (Chap. 9) we also need a in terms of rand B;

from Eq. (2.27)

dv = d 2r r + dr dr + dr dO 0 + r d 2B 0 + r dO dO
dt dt2 dt dt dt dt dt2 dt dt
By reference to Eqs. (2.25) and (2.26) for dr/dt and dO/dt, we
bring this expression into the terms
2 2
a = dv = d r r + dr dO 0 + dr dO 0 + r d B 0 _ r(dO)2 r
dt dt2 dt dt dt dt dt2 dt
Then, by collecting terms and a little rearranging, we write
this in the usual fashion:

(2.30)

This expression is useful in the example of motion in a circle

(given below) and particularly in the study of the motion of
a particle about a center of force (given in Chap. 9).

EXAMPLE
Circular Motion This example (shown in Fig. 2.22) is extremely
important because of the many cases of circular motion in physics
and astronomy. We want to obtain explicit expressions for the veloc-
 Vectors 45

ity and acceleration of a particle moving at constant speed in a

circular orbit of constant radius r. A circular orbit can be described
by
r(t) = rr(t) (2.31)

where r is constant and the unit vector r rotates at a constant rate.

We can treat this problem in either of two ways: by using the
expressions in terms of rand B, Eqs. (2.27) and (2.30), or by using
axes x and y fixed in space and Eqs. (2.21) and (2.29).
Method 1 Since r is constant, Eq. (2.27) gives us simply
v = r dB / dt 6. It is customary to designate the angular velocity dB / dt
by the Greek letter w. It is measured in radians l per second (rad/s)
and in our present consideration is constant. Thus v = rw6 and the
constant speed of the particle is
v = wr (2.32)

For the acceleration we utilize Eq. (2.30), which becomes with

constant r and constant dB / dt = w

Ia = -rw 2 r I (2.33)

Thus the acceleration is constant in magnitude, and it is directed

toward the center of the circular path.
Method 2 In terms of cartesian components we write the posi-
tion vector of the particle at any time t in its circular motion in
the form of Eq. (2.20):
r(t) = r cos wtx + r sin wty (2.34)
y
The velocity vector, as given by Eq. (2.21), is then, with r constant,
dr .
= --;It = - wr Sill wtx + wr cos wty (2.3.5)
A A
V

The speed v is the magnitude of this velocity vector

v = = wrVsin 2 wt + cos 2 wt = wr (2.36)

in agreement with Eq. (2.32). The vector v can be shown to be

perpendicular to r by the fact that the scalar product of these vectors

is zero.
In keeping with Eq. (2.29) we find the acceleration vector as
the time derivative of v. Differentiation of Eq. (2.35) gives

a = dv = _ w2 r cos wtx - w2 r sin wty

dt
-w 2 (r cos wtx + r sin wty)
-w 2 r = -w 2 rr (2.37)
FIG.2.22 Particle moving with constant speed In a CIrcle
of radius r The constant angular velocity IS w The particle
velocity and acceleration are shown as derived In Eqs.
lSee page 52 at the end of thiS chapter for explanation of radians (2 31) to (2 38)
46 Chapter 2

This is identical with the result obtained by Method 1 in Eq. (2.33).

The acceleration has the constant magnitude a = w 2 r, and it is
directed toward the center according to - t By using v = wr from
Eq. (2.36) or (2.32) we may write the acceleration magnitude as

a=-
v2 (2.38)
r
It is called the centripetal (center-seeking) acceleration, and it may
be familiar to you from high school physics.
The angular velocity w has simple connection with the ordinary
frequency f. In unit time the vector r in Eq. (2.34) sweeps out w rad,
so that w denotes the number of radians swept out per unit time.
But the ordinary frequency f is defined as the number of complete
circles swept out per unit time. Since there are 27T rad in one cycle,
we must have
27Tf = w
The period T of the motion is defined as the time to complete one
cycle. We see from Eq. (2.34) that one cycle is completed in a time
T such that wT = 27T, or

For numerical orientation, suppose that the frequency f is 60

revolutions or cycles per second (60 cps). Then the period

T = t= ;::::; 0.(1l7 s

and the angular frequency is

w = 27Tf;::::; .377 rad/s
If the radius of a circular orbit is 10 cm, then the velocity is
v = wr;::::; (377)(10) ;::::; 3.8 X lO3 cm/s
The acceleration at any point of the orbit is
a = w2 r;::::; (377)2(10) ;::::; 1.42 X 106 cm/s 2
In Chap. 4 a numerical example is worked out which shows that
the acceleration of a point fixed on the surface of the earth at the
equator due to the rotation of the earth about its own axis is about
3.4 cm/s 2 •

INVARIANTS

We have mentioned (page 28) that independence of the choice

of coordinate axes is an important aspect of the laws of physics
and an important reason for using vector notation. Let us
consider the value of the magnitude of a vector in two different
coordinate systems that have a common origin but are rotated
 Vectors 47

with respect to each other as in Fig. 2.23. In the two coordinate

systems z
A
z'

and
A = + + (see Fig. 2.23)
Since A has not changed, A 2 must be the same and so
A x2 + A y2 + A z2 + +
/
,\ -- --
<--:t'(.\
= I
I ,
,

In other words the magnitude of a vector is the same in all

cartesian coordinate systems that differ by a rigid rotation of 'y p1,n,
the coordinate axis; this is called a form invariant. Problem
20 (at the end of this chapter) provides a method of verifying
xyplane

this invariant. It is evident from its definition that the scalar

product given in Eq. (2.7) is a form invariant and the magnitude
of the vector product is still another form invariant. We assume FIG. 2.23 The vector A can be descnbed In coordinates
that there is no change in scale; for example, the length repre- xyz or coordinates x'y'z' obtained from xyz by an arbitrary
rotation We say A2 IS form invanant with respect to the
senting one unit is unchanged by the rotation.
rotation ThiS meansA x 2 + A/ + A/ =
+ +

We sometimes speak of a scalar function of position, such

as the temperature T(x,y,z) at the point (x,y,z) as a scalar field.
Similarly, a vector whose value is a function of position, such
as the velocity v(x,y,z) of a particle when at the point (x,y,z),
is spoken of as a vector field. Much of the subject of vector
analysis is concerned with scalar and vector fields and with
differential operations on vectors, which are discussed fully in
Volume 2.

Examples of Various Elementary Vector Operations We consider

the vector (Fig. 2.24)
A = 3x + y + 22: 2z
(1) Find the length of A. We form A2: -----y
A2 = A· A = 32 + F + 2 = 14
2

so that A = Vi4 is the length of A. .

y
(2) What is the length of the projection of A on the xy plane?
x
The vector which is the projection of A on the xy plane is 3x + y;
the square of the length of this vector is 3 2 + 12 = 10.
(3) Construct a vector in the xy plane and perpendicular to A.
We want a vector of the form FIG. 2.24 The vector A = 3x + y + 22: and ItS proJec-
tion on the xy plane.