Report on the Use of

Fly Ash in Concrete

Reported by ACI Committee 232

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American Concrete Institute
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 First Printing
American Concrete Institute
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April2018
ISBN: 978-1-64195-006-0

Report on the Use of Fly Ash in Concrete

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 ACI 232.2R-18

Report on the Use of Fly Ash in Concrete

Reported by ACI Committee 232

Karthik H. Obla, Chair Michael D. A. Thomas, Vice Chair

Robert E. Neal, Vice Chair Lawrence L. Sutter, Secretary

Thomas H. Adams Jonathan E. Dongell James S. Jensen Ava Shypula

Gregory S. Barger John M. Fox Tilghman H. Keiper Boris Y. Stein
Dale P. Bentz Thomas M . Greene Steven H. Kosmatka Oscar Tavares
James C. Blankenship Harvey H. Haynes Adrian Marc Nacamuli Paul J. Tikalsky
Julie K. Buffenbarger James K. Hicks Bruce W. Ramme Thomas J. Van Dam
Ramon L. Carrasquillo R. Doug Hooton Steve Ratchye Craig R. Wallace
Barry A. Descheneaux Morris Huffman Michael D. Serra Orville R. Werner

Consulting Members

Mark A. Bury Dean M. Golden G. Terry Harris Sr. Harry C. Roof

James E. Cook William Halczak Jan R. Prusinski Della M. Roy

Special acknowledgements to M. U. Christiansen and K. A. MacDonald for their contributions to this report.

Fly ash is used in concrete and other portland cement-based Keywords: alkali-aggregate reaction; controlled low-strength material;
systems primarily because of its pozzolanic and cementitious prop­ durability; fly ash; mass concrete; pozzolan; sulfate resistance; sustain­

erties. T hese properties contribute to strength gain and are known ability; workability.

to improve the performance of fresh and hardened concrete, mortar,

and grout. The use of fly ash typically results in more economical CONTENTS
concrete construction.
This report gives an overview of the origin and properties of fly CHAPTER 1 -I NTRODUCTION, SCOPE, SOURCES,
ash, its effect on the properties of hydraulic cement concrete, and AND SUSTAINA BILITY, p. 2
the selection and use offly ash in the production of hydraulic cement 1 . 1-Introduction, p. 2
concrete and concrete products. Information and recommenda­
1 .2-Scope, p. 3
tions concerning the selection and use of Class C and Class F fly
1 .3-Source of fly ash, p. 3
ashes conforming to the requirements of ASTM C618 are provided.
1 .4-Fly ash and sustainability, p. 7
Topics covered include a detailed description of the composition of
fly ash, the physical and chemical effects offly ash on properties of
concrete, guidance on the handling and use of fly ash in concrete CHAPTER 2-DEFINITIONS, p. 9
construction, use of fly ash in the production of concrete products
and specialty concretes, and recommended procedures for quality CHAPTER 3-FLY ASH COMPOSITION, p. 9
control. High-volumefly ash concrete is covered in a general way in 3 . 1-General, p. 9
this report; readers can consult ACI 232.3Rfor more information. 3 .2-Chemical composition, p. 1 0
3 .3-Crystalline constituents, p . 1 1
3.4-Glassy constituents, p . 1 3
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, and Commentaries are
intended for guidance in planning, designing, executing, and
3 .5-Physical properties, p . 1 5
inspecting construction. This document is intended for the use 3.6-Chemical activity of fly ash in hydraulic cement
of individuals who are competent to evaluate the significance concrete, p. 1 7
and limitations of its content and recommendations and who 3 .7-Future research needs, p . 1 8
will accept responsibility for the application of the material it
contains. The American Concrete Institute disclaims any and
all responsibility for the stated principles. The Institute shall
not be liable for any loss or damage arising therefrom. ACI 232.2R-18 supersedes ACI 232.2R-03 and was adopted and published April
2018.
Reference to this document shall not be made in contract
Copyright© 2018, American Concrete Institute.
documents. If items found in this document are desired by
All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by
the Architect/Engineer to be a part of the contract documents,
any means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by electronic
they shall be restated in mandatory language for incorporation or mechanical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound or visual
by the Architect/Engineer. reproduction or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless
permission in writing i s obtained from the copyright proprietors.
2 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)

CHAPTER 4-EFFECTS OF FLY ASH ON APPENDIX A-RAPID QUALIT Y CONTROL TESTS,

CONCRETE, p. 1 8 p. 54
4 . 1-Effects o n properties o f fresh concrete, p. 1 8 A . 1 -Loss on ignition, p. 54
4.2-Effects on properties o f hardened concrete, p . 20 A.2-Carbon analysis, p. 54
A.3-Particle size, p. 54
CHAPTER 5-CONCRETE MIXTURE A.4-Color, p. 55
PROPORTION ING, p. 26 A.5-Density (specific gravity), p . 55
5 . 1-General, p. 26 A.6-Fly ash adsorption, p . 55
5 .2-Considerations in mixture proportioning, p. 27 A.7-0rganic material, p. 5 5
A.8-Ca0 content, p . 55
CHAPTER 6-FLY ASH SPECIFICATIONS, TEST A.9-Presence of hydrocarbons (startup oil), p. 5 5
M ETHODS, AND QUALIT Y ASSURANCE/QUALIT Y A. 1 0-Presence o f ammonia (precipitator additive), p . 55
CONTROL, p. 27 A. 1 1-Calorimetry, p. 55
6 . 1-Introduction, p. 27
6.2-Chemical requirements, p. 28 CHAPTER 1 -INTRODUCTION, SCOPE, SOURCES,
6.3-Physical requirements, p. 29 AND SUSTAINA BILIT Y
6.4-General specification provisions, p. 30
6.5-Methods of sampling and testing, p . 30 1.1 -lntroduction
6.6-Source quality control, p. 30 Fly ash, a material resulting from the combustion of
6. 7-Startup, oil, and stack additives, p. 3 1 pulverized coal, is widely used as a cementitious and pozzo­
6.8-Rapid quality control tests, p . 32 lanic ingredient in concrete and related products. Fly ash is
introduced in concrete either as a separately hatched material
CHAPTER 7-FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ASTM C6 1 8, Class C or F) or as a component of blended
CONSTRUCTION, p. 32 cement (ASTM C595/C595M; ASTM C l 1 57/C l l 57M;
7 . 1-Ready mixed concrete, p. 32 ASTM C 1 600/C 1 600M).
7.2-Concrete pavement, p. 32 Fly ash possesses pozzolanic properties similar to the natu­
7.3-Mass concrete, p. 33 rally occurring pozzolans of volcanic or sedimentary origin
7.4-Roller-compacted concrete, p. 33 found in many parts of the world. Two thousand years ago,
7.5-Self-consolidating concrete, p. 33 the Romans mixed volcanic ash with lime, aggregate, and
7.6-High-volume fly ash concrete, p. 34 water to produce mortar and concrete (Vitruvius 1 960). In
7.7-High-performance concrete, p. 34 modem concrete, fly ash combines with calcium hydroxide
7. 8-Long-life structures, p. 34 (Ca(OH)2, also known as portlandite, which predominately
7.9-Bulk handling and storage, p. 35 results from the hydration of portland cement, and with
7. 10-Batching, p. 36 water to form additional cementing product. This process,
called the pozzolanic reaction, creates a finer pore structure,
CHAPTER 8-FLY ASH IN CONCRETE PRODUCTS, which in tum increases the durability of mortar and concrete.
p. 36 All fly ashes exhibit pozzolanic properties to some extent.
8 . 1-Concrete masonry units, p. 36 However, some fly ashes also display varying degrees of
8.2-Concrete pipe, p. 3 7 cementitious properties without the addition of Ca(OH)2 or
8.3-Precast/prestressed concrete products, p . 3 7 hydraulic cement. The cementitious nature of the latter type
8.4-No-slump extruded hollow core slabs, p. 38 of fly ash is primarily attributed to the presence of reactive
8.5-Concrete tile, p . 3 8 constituents such as calcium aluminate and calcium silicate
8.6-Miscellaneous concrete products, p. 3 8 phases, and calcium oxide. The role of fly ash in concrete
with hydraulic cement is summarized as:
CHAPTER 9-0THER USES OF FLY ASH, p . 38 a) Calcium and alkali hydroxides that are released into
9 . 1-Grouts and mortar, p. 38 solution in the pore structure of the paste by hydrating
9.2-Controlled low-strength material, p . 39 cement combine with the pozzolanic phases of fly ash,
9.3-Soil cement, p. 39 to form additional calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) gel
9.4-Plastering, p . 39 (cementing matrix)
9.5-Cellular concrete, p. 39 b) The heat of hydration helps to initiate the pozzolanic
9.6-Shotcrete, p. 39 reaction and contributes to the rate of the reaction
9.7-Waste management, p. 40 When concrete containing fly ash is cured, fly ash reac­
9. 8-Cements, p. 40 tion products fill spaces originally occupied by mixing water
but not filled by the hydration products of the cement, thus
CHAPTER 1 0-REFERENCES, p. 40 reducing the concrete permeability to fluids (Manmohan
Authored documents, p. 4 1 and Mehta 1 9 8 1 ). The slower reaction rate of fly ash,
when compared with hydraulic cement, limits the amount
of early heat generation and the detrimental effect of early

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 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)
temperature rise in massive concrete structures. Concrete
proportioned with fly ash can develop properties that are not
achievable through the use of hydraulic cement alone.
1.1.1 History-Fly ash from coal-burning electric power
plants became readily available in the 1 930s and, shortly
thereafter, the study of fly ash for use in hydraulic cement
concrete began (Davis et a!. 1 93 7; Stanton 1 940). This early
research served as the foundation for initial specifications,
methods of testing, and use of fly ash. Abdun-Nur ( 1 96 1 )
covers much of the early history and technology of using fly
ash in construction and includes an annotated bibliography
( 1 934-1 959). Since this early work, much research has been
performed regarding alkali-silica reaction (ASR) mitigation
using fly ash. A recent summary is provided by Thomas et
a!. (20 1 3).
Initially, fly ash was used as a partial replacement of
hydraulic cement, which is typically the most expensive
manufactured component of concrete. As fly ash usage
increased, researchers recognized that fly ash could impart
beneficial properties to concrete. Additional research was
done on the reactivity of fly ash with calcium and alkali
hydroxides in portland cement paste, and the ability of fly
ash to act as a mitigator of deleterious alkali-silica reactions
was identified (Davis et a!. 1 937). Other research has shown
that fly ash often improves concrete's resistance to deteriora­
tion from sulfates (Dunstan 1 976, 1 980; Tikalsky et a!. 1 992;
Tikalsky and Carrasquillo 1 993). Fly ash also increases the
workability of fresh concrete and reduces the peak tempera­
ture of hydration in mass concrete. The beneficial aspects
of fly ash were especially notable in the construction of
large concrete dams (Mielenz 1 983). Some major proj ects,
including the Thames Barrier in the UK (Newman and
Choo 2003) and the Upper Stillwater Dam in the United
States (Poole 1 995), incorporated 50 and 65 percent mass
replacement of hydraulic cement with fly ash to reduce heat
generation and decrease permeability, respectively. The
Iraivan Temple, built in Kauai, HI, in 1 999, has a foundation
composed of high-volume fly ash (HVFA) concrete with an
estimated service life of 1 000 years (Mehta and Langley
2000). This concept of HVFA concrete was adopted for
foundation construction of at least two additional temples in
the United State: one located in Chicago, IL, and the other
in Houston, TX (Malhotra and Mehta 20 1 2). In addition,
numerous proj ects in the United States have used HVFA
concrete for sustainable construction. More information on
HVFA usage is available in Chapter 7 and ACI 232.3R.
A new generation of coal-fired power plants were built in
the United States during the late 1 960s and 70s using effi­
cient coal mills and state-of-the-art pyroprocessing tech­
nology. These plants produce fly ash with a smaller average
particle size and lower carbon content. Fly ash containing
high levels of calcium oxide became available because of the
use of western U.S. coal sources, typically subbituminous and
lignite. Enhanced economics and improved technologies, both
material- and mechanical-based, have led to a greater use of
fly ash throughout the ready mixed concrete industry. Exten­
sive research has led to a better understanding of the chemical
reactions involved when fly ash is incorportated in concrete.
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3
Fly ash is used in concrete for many reasons (refer to
Chapter 4), including improvements in workability of fresh
concrete, reduction in temperature rise during initial hydra­
tion, improved resistance to sulfates, reduced expansion due
to alkali-silica reaction, and contributions to the durability
and strength of hardened concrete. In the 1 990s and 2000s,
some power plants made changes to co-fire coal with biomass
and to improve air quality by using scrubbers to reduce
sulfur oxide emissions (SO,), catalytic reduction equipment
to reduce nitrous oxide emissions (NOx), and various systems
to reduce mercury emissions. These additional systems have
the potential to alter the composition of the fly ash by incor­
porating such compounds as ammonia, sulfate, sulfite, alkalis,
and carbon residues. These changes should be considered
when selecting fly ash sources, as additional quality control
parameters may be required for acceptance.
1.2-Scope
The scope of this report is to describe the use and char­
acterization of fly ash, its properties, and its impacts on
concrete properties. Guidance is provided concerning
specifications, quality assurance, and quality control of fly
ash itself, as well as that of concrete and related products
produced using fly ash.
1.3-Source of fly ash
Due to the increased global use of pulverized coal as
fuel for electric power generation, particularly in China
and India, fly ash is available in many areas of the world.
Approximately 53.4 million tons (48.4 million metric tons)
of fly ash are produced annually in the United States (Amer­
ican Coal Ash Association 20 1 5). An estimated 27 percent of
that total is used in the production of cement, concrete, and
manufactured concrete products.
1.3.1 Production and processing-The ash content of
coals by mass may vary from 4 to 5 percent for subbitu­
minous and anthracite coals, to as high as 35 to 40 percent
for some lignites. The combustion process, which creates
temperatures of approximately 2900°F ( 1 600°C), liquefies
the incombustible minerals. Rapid cooling of these liquefied
minerals upon leaving the firebox causes them to form spher­
ical particles with a predominantly glassy structure. Many
variables can affect the characteristics of these particles.
Among these are coal composition, grinding mill efficiency,
the combustion environment (for example, temperature and
oxygen supply), boiler/burner configuration, mineral addi­
tions, processing conditions, and the rate of particle cooling.
Modem coal-fired power plants that bum coal from a
uniform source produce very consistent fly ash. Fly ash
particles originating from the same plant and coal source will
vary in size, chemical composition, mineralogical composi­
tion, and density. Particle sizes may run from less than 1 �-tm
to more than 200 f!m, and density of individual particles may
vary from less than 62.4 lb/ft3 (1 g/cm3 ) for hollow spheres
to more than 1 8 7 lb/ft3 (3 g/cm3 ) for fly ash with a prepon­
derance of solid spheres. The true density of bulk fly ash
produced by a single coal-burning plant will typically not
vary dramatically.
4 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)
- H�h
- - Voltage
Supp
----:.::
Flue Gas
Ash-Laden
� U.S. coal production fell below one billion short tons in the
Fig. 1 . 3. 1-Typical gas flow pattern through electrostatic
precipitator.
Collection of these particles from the furnace exhaust
gases is routinely accomplished by electrostatic or mechan­
ical precipitators or by bag houses. A typical gas flow pattern
through an electrostatic precipitator is shown in Fig. 1 .3 . 1 .
As fly ash particles are collected in a bag house or mechanical
precipitator, they segregate in sequential precipitator hoppers
according to their size and density; the larger and heavier
particles tend to accumulate closer to the fly-ash-laden gas
inlet, whereas the smaller and lighter particles tend to collect
farther from the inlet. In electrostatic precipitators, however,
the particle size and density trends in sequential hoppers are
disrupted due to the influence of the charged collection grids.
The fineness, density, and carbon content of fly ash can vary
significantly from hopper to hopper in both mechanical and
electrostatic precipitators. Hoppers can be selectively emptied
and transported to a main silo. Blending occurs as a natural
result of pneumatic material handling operations.
1.3.2 Impact of environmental regulations-Nitrous
oxide emissions are considered to contribute to the produc­
tion of ozone levels; along with SO., both are considered
to contribute to acid rain. Additionally, air regulations are
being implemented that further limit fine particulate and
mercury emissions.
It has been suggested that some approaches to pollution
reduction in coal combustion may modify the cementi­
tious or pozzolanic properties of fly ash. Changes in fly ash
glass content and mineralization, combined with changes in
particle size distribution and particle morphology, can affect
fly ash reactivity. The impact on reactivity can vary from
significant to inconsequential, depending on the specific
fuel and combustion modification system employed. Post­
combustion technologies for reducing NO, emissions and
mercury emissions may also impact fly ash quality. The
processes are summarized in the following sections.
1.3.2.1 SOx reduction technologies-To reduce SO, emis­
sions, the power-generating industry has adopted a two­
pronged approach. The first is a shift toward fuel sources
that are lower in sulfur content, and the second is to apply
technologies such as flue gas desulfurization (FGD). With
regard to low-sulfur coal sources, some coal-fired power
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+
- :L plants have shifted from the use of eastern and central U.S.
'="
coal sources in favor of western coal sources, primarily those
from the Powder River Basin (Energy Information Admin­
istration 20 1 5). Due to low natural gas prices, the increased
supply of natural gas due to fracking technology, and the
need to reduce C02 emissions from power generation, the
U.S. is expected to decrease its reliance on coal in future
years. In 20 1 3 (Energy Information Administration 20 1 5),
United States-3 . 1 percent lower than 20 1 2-with produc­
tion from the Western Region representing 53.8 percent of
the U.S. total.
FGD methods have been in place for many years as a result
of limits placed on SO, emissions as part of the Clean Air
Act (CAA). In general, SOx is removed from flue gases by a
variety of methods that include wet scrubbing using a slurry of
sorbent such as limestone or lime, spray-dry scrubbing using
similar sorbents, or dry sorbent injection systems (Nolan
2000). Normally, the by-product is a material that is currently
unusable for portland cement concrete. However, some FGD
materials have been used as a calcium sulfate source for the
cement and wallboard industries. The presence ofFGD mate­
rials in fly ash is detected by testing so3 levels.
Other approaches include the increased use of fluidized
bed combustors, which result in lower SOx production but
also result in production of fluidized bed combustor ash
that currently is not marketed for use in portland cement
concrete production. Reducing the excess air in the combus­
tion process also controls formation of SOx; however, limits
on excess air could lead to increases in unburned fuel, which
increases the loss on ignition (LOI) value or, theoretically,
could result in incomplete oxidation of mineral species.
Effects stemming from the latter concern have not been
reported in the literature reviewed.
1.3.2.2 NOx reduction technologies-The control of NOx
emissions is addressed primarily through the use of low-NOx
burners and a variety of downstream treatment technologies
including the use of over-fire air, selective catalytic reduc­
tion (SCR), and selective noncatalytic reduction (SNCR).
NO, forms during the combustion of coal as a result of two
primary mechanisms. Thermal NO, results from the oxida­
tion of nitrogen in air while fuel NOx results from oxidation
of nitrogen in coal. The first source, thermal NO" increases
exponentially with temperature and is controlled by moder­
ating flame temperature and oxygen concentration at the
burner (LaRue et a!. 200 1). Limiting the oxygen available
during the early stages of the combustion process controls
fuel NOx. Technologies that reduce oxygen availability at
the flame will effectively reduce NO" but as a by-product of
this process change, there tends to be an increased amount
of unburned fuel that can be found in the flue gases as either
carbon monoxide (CO) or as carbon particulate. Even with
the addition of over-fire air, higher unburned fuel amounts
occur with the same total amount of combustion air (LaRue
et a!. 200 1 ).
The basic principle of SCR is the reduction of NOx to N2
and HzO by the reaction ofNO, and ammonia (NH3 ) within a
catalyst bed. SCR catalysts are manufactured using ceramic
 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)
materials as a substrate, such as titanium oxide, and active
catalytic components are usually either oxides ofbase metals,
zeolites, or various precious metals (Institute of Clean Air
Companies 2008). In contrast, SNCR is a chemical process
that converts NOx into molecular N2 without the use of a
catalyst. A reducing agent, typically ammonia, is injected
into the flue gases at high temperatures-for example, 1 600
to 2 1 00°F (870 to l l 50°C) for the conversion of nitrogen
oxides into diatomic nitrogen (N2) and water (H20). SNCR
is selective in that ammonia reacts primarily with NOx and
not with oxygen or other major components of the flue gas.
In both SCR and SNCR, no solid or liquid wastes are gener-
ated except for spent catalyst in the case of SCR.
A problem associated with both approaches, especially
SNCR, is ammonia slip, where excess ammonia deposits
in the fly ash. In some fly ash, ammonium salts have been
detected at concentrations ranging from barely measurable
to levels exceeding several thousand parts per million (ppm)
(Brendel et al. 200 1 ). Low concentrations of ammonia have
no impact on concrete properties (Koch and Prenzel 1 989);
however, a strong ammonia odor can be emitted. Although
research has shown that this excess ammonia does not result
in decreased concrete performance (Van der Brugghen et
al. 1 995), it does create a potential work-place hazard, as
ammonia gas is released from the concrete mixture when
the ammonia-laden fly ash combines with the high-pH pore
solution that is created when portland cement is mixed with
water (Rathbone et al. 2002). Ammonia absorption is also
more concentrated in high-sulfur fly ash through the forma-
tion of ammonium salts, and in high-carbon fly ash through
adsorption of carbon. The latter problem can be addressed
during treatment of fly ash for carbon removal, including
carbon burnout (Giampa 2000). A rapid method for deter-
mining the ammonia concentration in fly ash as a means for
quality control of fly ash used for concrete was provided
by Majors et al. ( 1 999). When using fly ash containing
ammonia, consideration should be given to material char-
acteristics, applications, environment, and quality control
programs in place.
1.3.2.3 Mercury reduction technologies-Technologies
to achieve mercury reduction goals clearly pose the most
significant potential change to fly ash characteristics. The
majority of technologies being used or discussed include
various approaches to injecting activated carbon into the flue
gas stream to adsorb gaseous mercury. The activated carbon
may or may not be commingled with the fly ash, depending
on the technology used. Other techniques include capturing
the mercury as a result of other pollutant control measures,
so-called multi-pollutant control; concrete-friendly amended
silicate sorbents; and other methods in development (Ramme
and Tharaniyil 20 1 3).
Mercury (Hg) is volatilized from coal during combustion
and converted to elemental mercury (Hg0) vapor, referred to
as gaseous phase mercury. As the flue gas cools, the reduced
2
mercury (Hg0) oxidizes to ionic mercury (Hg +) and could
form mercury compounds that are in a solid phase at flue gas
temperatures, or it could occur as mercury that is adsorbed
onto the surface of other particles. The presence of chlo-
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5
rine in flue gas favors the formation of mercuric chloride
(HgCh) at flue gas temperatures (Miksche and Ghorishi
2007). Mercury oxidation reactions, however, are kineti-
cally limited and, therefore, mercury is present in the flue
2
gas as a mixture of species including Hg0, Hg +, adsorbed on
other particle surfaces, or as mercury compounds. Reports
indicate that most gaseous mercury in bituminous coal-fired
2
boilers is Hg +, whereas gaseous mercury in subbituminous
and lignite-fired boilers tends to be present as Hg0 (Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency 2002). The oxidation state of
mercury in the flue gas greatly determines the type of control
technology that can be used.
In the past, the general approach was to capture mercury
as a part of other pollution control strategies used to achieve
SO" NO" or particulate control. Selective catalytic reduction
results in mercury oxidation. Once oxidized, the mercury is
soluble in wet-scrubber solution and can be captured in the
wet scrubber. Note that reduced mercury (Hg0) is not soluble
in the wet-scrubber solution (Environmental Protection
Agency 1 997) . If the mercury is not oxidized in retention or
by SCR, then a wet scrubber is unable to efficiently remove
gaseous phase mercury. Mercury that has adsorbed onto solid
particles, or has formed other solid compounds, can be effec-
tively removed as a result of particulate removal in either an
electrostatic precipitator or fabric filter or baghouse. Again,
the mercury being oxidized is key, as the oxidized form
adsorbs on solids more readily and is also the form that is
required to precipitate mercuric compounds (Environmental
Protection Agency 1 997, 2002).
To achieve higher levels (that is, greater than 90 percent)
of mercury reduction, new technologies need to be employed
(Hinzy et al. 20 13; Wdowin et al. 20 1 4). The most economi-
cally feasible technology for existing power plants to meet
EPA mercury reduction requirements is by the use of acti-
vated carbon injection directly into the flue gas to adsorb
gaseous mercury. Activated carbon, most commonly in the
form of powdered activated carbon (PAC), is being evalu-
ated for use in power plants throughout the United States.
Where the activated carbon is injected in the process has a
large impact on whether acceptable fly ash is produced. The
simplest and most economical approach is for the activated
carbon to be injected prior to the primary particulate control
device (PCD), where it will then travel downstream and be
commingled and collected with the fly ash in the primary
PCD. In this case, the resulting fly ash will contain an
increased activated carbon fraction, thereby increasing the
fly ash LOI value (Pflughoeft-Hassett et al. 2008).
An alternative option is injection of activated carbon
after a primary PCD. The carbon is then removed with the
remaining fly ash in a secondary PCD. In this option, the fly
ash collected from the primary PCD will not be commingled
with the activated carbon. Accomplishing this approach
would require capital investment in a secondary PCD, if one
is not already being used in the process.
In response to the need to minimize LOI in fly ash, treat-
ment methods have been employed to treat the fly ash
resulting after activated carbon injection. These are the same
approaches used to reduce LOI from fly ash in general and
cCiC'iJ
6 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)
include carbon burnout, triboelectrostatic separation, and
activated carbon adsorption neutralization either by chem­
ical treatment or ozonation (Hill and Folliard 2006; Howard
et al. 20 1 3). When using thermal treatment methods, it is
vital that no mercury is released. Mercury is released from
fly ash in the temperature range of 572 to 752°F (300 to
400°C) (Rubel et al. 2003).
1.3.2.4 Carbon dioxide reduction technologies-To date,
C02 emissions from coal-fired power plants have not been
regulated. However, with the release of the EPA Clean
Power Plan in 20 1 5 , it is inevitable that such controls will
be put in place. Therefore, the power industry is investi­
gating methods to reduce C02 emissions. Most approaches
center on power generation efficiency improvements, carbon
capture, and sequestration.
Capture, sequestration, and separation methods for C02
emissions will differ much in the same way as mercury
capture technologies differ, depending on the flue gas
chemistry. Current options include physical and chemical
adsorption, distillation at low temperatures, gas separation
membranes, mineralization, and biomineralization. Some of
these technologies could create new or alter existing inor­
ganic phases in the fly ash.
1.3.3 Beneficiated fly ash-If the quality of some or all
of the fly ash produced is less than required by specification
or market standards, methods may be used to beneficiate
the fly ash. Low-calcium-content ashes that do not harden
under water may be used after long-term stockpile or pond
storage. Beneficiation and processing, however, are required
(McCarthy et al. 20 1 3). Properties that are commonly
controlled by beneficiation include fineness and LOI, an indi­
cator of carbon content. The physical and chemical properties
of fly ash can vary among individual precipitator or baghouse
collection hoppers. This phenomenon can be taken advantage
of in some operations to produce a high-quality fly ash. Where
the control and piping systems in the power plant allow, fly ash
can be selectively drawn from those hoppers that contain the
higher-quality fly ash while material of questionable quality
can be discarded or directed to other uses.
Air classification systems can be used to reduce the mean
particle size of fly ash to meet specification or market require­
ments. These systems separate particles based on the combi­
nation of particle diameter, shape, and apparent density
(Wills 1 979). Depending on the size, apparent density,
and distribution of particles containing carbon, LOI of the
processed fly ash can be increased, decreased, or unchanged
by this technique. In general, the finer the fly ash, the lower
the LOI and the greater the concrete's late-age compressive
strength. Increased fineness with spherical-shaped particles
also lowers the water demand and increases resistance to
sulfate attack in concrete (Electric Power Research Institute
200 1 ).
Numerous investigations have demonstrated that fly ash
performance can be enhanced by significantly shifting the
particle-size distribution to finer material (Butler 1 9 8 1 ;
Berry et al. 1 989; Obla et al. 200 1 b). Compared with a fly
ash with a mean particle diameter ranging from 1 5 to 35
f.!m, processed fly ash can be produced with a mean particle
(ciCiJ American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org
diameter of 2.5 to 4.0 f.!m. Particle-size reductions of this
magnitude have been achieved by methods of specialized
air classification systems (Cornelissen et al. 1 995 ; Hassan
and Cabrera 1 998) and micronization (Paya et al. 1 995 ;
Bouzoubaa et al. 1 997). These processed ultra-fine fly
ashes can provide water reductions of 1 0 to 1 2 percent in
mortar and reduce high-range water reducer demand in
concrete (Ferraris et al. 200 1 ). Kruger et al. (200 1 ) and Obla
et al. (2001 a,b) have demonstrated that ultra-fine fly ashes
contribute more toward concrete strength gain and permea­
bility reduction than unsized fly ash and will, when properly
proportioned, provide concrete characteristics comparable
to highly reactive pozzolans such as silica fume. Concrete
durability properties, such as resistance to alkali-silica reac­
tion (Berube et al. 1 995), sulfate attack (Shashiprakash and
Thomas 200 1 ), and concrete permeability (Obla et al. 2000)
are enhanced by ultra-fine fly ash.
Commercial technologies now available to reduce the
LOI of fly ashes without negative effects to other properties
include triboelectric separation (Whitlock 1 993) and thermal
beneficiation techniques (Cochran and Boyd 1 993 ; Knowles
2009). Triboelectric separation uses electrostatic charge
exchange between carbon and mineral particles occurring
due to contact during pneumatic conveyance. Bittner and
Gasiorowski ( 1 999) reported on a commercial triboelectric
process that uses a countercurrent moving belt to facilitate
the separation of carbon from fly ash in a high-voltage field.
Triboe1ectric separation systems have generated 500,000 tons
(450,000 metric tons) of fly ash per year. Triboelectric opera­
tions based on alternate designs have also been demonstrated
but not commercialized (Li et al. 1999; Soong et al. 1 999).
Thermal beneficiation is another means of reducing fly
ash carbon content. Different processes burn the residual
carbon in fly ash as a fuel source in an auxiliary fluid­
ized bed combustor or a turbulent reactor, producing a
pozzolan meeting the required carbon content. In the case
of the turbulent reactor, the residual carbon can be totally
removed (Knowles 2009). In the process, heat is recovered
and returned to the power plant that originally produced the
high-carbon fly ash. One commercially-operating facility has
reported processing capabilities of 1 80,000 tons ( 1 63 ,000
metric tons) per year (Electric Power Research Institute
200 1 ; Frady et al. 1 999). In addition to burning carbon, the
temperature of these thermal beneficiation processes can
remove ammonia from the fly ash (Giampa 2000). Fly ash
fuel reburn technology has been in commercial use at some
power plants since 1 999. High-LOI fly ash from other plants
and fly ash recovered from monofill landfills are introduced
in a metered proportion to the coal transported to pulverized
coal-fueled power plants to recover the energy, and alter the
resulting chemical and physical composition of the power
plant's conventional fly ash (Ramme and Tharaniyil 2004).
Froth flotation is a method derived from mineral
processing that separates carbon from fly ash by introducing
the fly ash into a slurry system. The slurry contains frothing
chemicals that facilitate the flotation of less-dense carbon
particles, whereas the inorganic fraction of fly ash is sluiced
to a collection area. The processed fly ash is dried before use
 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18) 7

(Groppo 2001 ). Froth flotation can be useful for removing Table 1.4. 1 -Considerations for a sustainable and
very fine carbon (Electric Power Research Institute 2001 ). resil ient structure design ( Brown 2006; AASHTO
The potential for a fly ash to impact the air-entrainment 2008)
level in concrete is not always a simple function of residual Environmental Social Economic
carbon, as indexed by LOI values. Hurt et al. ( 1 995) Ecology and Community
suggested that carbon in fly ash is heterogeneous, ranging Life cycle costs
biodiversity interaction
from coke-like to lacy in morphology. More recent studies
Landscape Community liveability Project management
point to the fact that fly ash from different sources can exhibit
Financial
a varying impact on air entrainment even though LOI values Storm water impacts Human health impacts
sustainability
are almost equivalent (Hill et al. 1 997, 1 998, 1 999). Other
research has highlighted the important role that total carbon Construction waste Historic and cultural
Economic analysis
management preservation
surface area, available surface area, and surface reactivity
play in the interaction between fly ash carbon and chemical Material use
Scenic and natural
Safety programs
qualities
air-entraining admixtures (Freeman et al. 1 997; Gao et al.
1 997). Studies indicate that modifying carbon surface prop­ Energy and carbon Safety Land use

erties without significantly reducing carbon mass potentially Reduce, recycle, and Operation and
Equity
affects the adsorptive properties of fly ash carbon (Sabanegh reuse management systems

et al. 1 997; Hill and Majors 200 1 ). Ozonation has been
suggested as a means for chemically passivating carbon
against chemical interaction with air-entraining admixtures
as a means for fly ash beneficiation (Hurt et al. 2000). Some
fly ash sources are treated with spray-applied admixtures
that adhere to the carbon and lessen its ability to impact the
air-entrainment level in concrete. A high-temperature air
slide for use in fly ash beneficiation for ammonia removal,
mercury removal, or both, from fly ash has also been devel­
oped (Ramme and Tharaniyil 20 1 3).
1.4-Fiy ash and sustainability
1.4.1 Sustainability considerations in structure design­
Awareness of sustainability has become much more preva­
lent in concrete construction. Concrete is a widely used
and often locally available material. Properly designed and
constructed concrete structures can provide the owner or
occupant with many years of service. Concrete using fly ash
benefits sustainable development by:
a) Possibly reducing the portland cement content, thus
lowering the C02 footprint of a cubic yard of concrete
b) Possibly reducing the demand for portland cement or
aggregate in concrete mixtures, ultimately reducing use of
virgin raw materials and the environmental burdens asso­
ciated with resource extraction, processing, as well as the
transportation associated with the manufacturing of portland
cement
c) Reducing the need for disposal of this viable indus­
trial by-product to landfill, thereby diverting materials from
landfill, reducing potential impacts to groundwater, and
encroaching upon valuable open space and biodiversity
d) Substantially enhancing concrete durability, thereby
increasing the functional service life of buildings and infra­
structures, thus lowering the embodied energy from new
construction and the energy and environmental impacts
from demolition (longer lasting structures are one of the
most effective strategies for minimizing environmental and
economic impacts)
e) Supporting the economy and reducing transportation
impacts; in most regions of the world, fly ash is a regionally
available material
Reduced energy and Stakeholder Bridge management
emissions involvement systems
Noise pollution Transportation impacts Energy efficiency
Resiliency Resiliency Resiliency
f) Requiring less water in manufacture because the concrete
typically will have a lower water content, often improving
strength and reducing permeability with durability benefits
Sustainability is an evolving term generally associated
with the availability and judicious use of finite resources and
with decision making that values and considers both present
and future generations (World Commission on Environment
and Development 1987). The terms "sustainability" and
"sustainable" mean to create and maintain conditions, under
which humans and nature can exist in productive harmony,
that permit fulfilling the social, economic, and other require­
ments of present and future generations (United States
Federal Register 2009).
Functional definitions that align with the three pillars of
sustainability, or the triple bottom line (that is, the Three
"E"s: environment, economics, and equity) can overlap
when the theoretical framework for sustainable decision
making is used and when an emphasis can be placed on each
of the pillars. However defined, for any process or product
to be truly sustainable, it should also have resilience against
external disturbances. Van Dam et al. (20 1 5 ) provides a
general discussion of the contributions of fly ash.
Sustainable and resilient design requires an integrated,
long-term, and holistic view of all phases of the proj ect:
planning, designing, constructing, maintaining, operating,
repair/rehabilitation, and final decommissioning and disposal
at the end of its service life. The responsibility of a sustain­
able design team does not lie solely with aesthetical impact
and functional performance, but also with key concerns such
as integration of context-sensitive solutions; awareness of
societal and biodiversity impacts; life cycle costing; climate
mitigation/adaptation; and minimizing the impact on the
environment, society, and the economy throughout the struc­
ture's life. Table 1 .4 . 1 summarizes numerous key consider­
ations for a sustainable and resilient structure design.

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8 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)

Table 1.4.2-Average environmental impacts Greenhouse Gas Poverty

Emissions
and water and energy savings for SCMs i n
Persistent Toxic
concrete per un it mass o f recovered mi neral Emissions

component substituted for cement at a 1 : 1 level

(Environmental Protection Agency 2008)
Fly ash Slag cement Silica fume
Material
Per metric ton Intensity
Water savings, L 376.3 1 45.2 -5 1 1 4

Water savings, in USD 0.20 0. 1 0 -3.20 Land Ecological Biodiversity Prosperity

Use Impacts & Ecological & Economic
Resilience Resilience
Energy savings, megajoules 4696 4221 32,9 1 5

Energy savings, i n USD 1 29 1 16 905 Fig. 1. 4.5-Typical categories of sustainability indicators

Avoided C02 emissions (Fiksel et al. 2013).
70 1 ,378 668,889 699,876
(GHG), g

Per pound
a landfill and operation of landfill equipment result in anthro­
pogenic C02 emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels in
Energy savings, in USD 0.059 0.053 0.4 1 1
the vehicles used to haul the wastes. Additionally, the diver­
Avoided C02 emissions sion of materials from landfills reduces potential impacts to
0.3 1 8 0.3 1 4 0.3 1 8
(GHG), lb
groundwater and encroachment upon valuable open space.
Per kilogram 1.4.4 Robustness and durability of.fly ash concretes-Fly
Energy savings, USD 0. 1 29 0. 1 1 6 0.905 ash plays a critical role in increasing the longevity of concrete
structures. The use of fly ash substantially enhances concrete
Avoided C02 emissions
0.71 0.669 0.699 durability, thereby increasing the functional service life of
(GHG), kg

Notes: Impact metncs based on representative concrete products. Negat1ve values

buildings and infrastructure (Malhotra and Ramezanianpour
represent an incremental increase in impacts relative to the use of portland cement. 1 994; Van Dam et a!. 20 1 5). Increases in service life lower
the embodied energy from new construction and the energy
1.4.2 Greenhouse gases and fly ash-The most effec­
and environmental impacts from demolition. The design of
tive means of decreasing both energy consumption and the
long-life structures and effective life cycle management of
production of greenhouse gases is to substitute supplemen­
existing structures are one of the most effective strategies for
tary cementitious materials (SCMs), such as fly ash, for a
minimizing environmental and economic impacts, as well
portion of the portland cement. SCMs incorporated into
as ensuring public safety, health, security, serviceability, and
cement-based building materials are added individually,
life-cycle cost effectiveness (Lounis and Daigle 2006, 20 1 0).
blended, or interground with portland cement.
1.4.5 Measurements of sustainability for construction­
The Environmental Protection Agency (2008) has calcu­
Several sustainability indicators are used by varying orga­
lated the environmental impact offly ash, silica fume, and slag
nizations in the United States and globally. Depending on
cement and expressed the result in energy efficiency savings
the perspectives of various stakeholder groups and inter­
and corresponding levels of reduced C02 emissions. These
ested parties, the preferred indicators can vary. Carefully
values are derived from life cycle inventory data and represent
chosen and implemented indicators can assist policymakers
the total life cycle savings of using SCMs as a replacement
(Singh et a!. 2009). Figure 1 .4.5 illustrates several common
for 1 metric ton of finished portland cement in concrete. Table
sustainability indicators (Mitchell et a!. 1 995; Niemeijer and
1 .4.2 summarizes energy savings and C02 emissions not
deGroot 2008).
occurring from portland cement manufacturing for each of the
In the construction industry, sustainable rating systems
three common SCMs at the following replacement rates: 30
such as LEED®, BREEAM®, CEEQUAL, and Envision™
percent ASTM C61 8 Class F fly ash, 50 percent slag cement,
have been developed to provide independent assessment
and I 0 percent silica fume. These rates can vary significantly
standards that evaluate, measure, and improve the perfor­
depending on the application and with ternary mixture use
mance of buildings, infrastructure, and communities. While
(that is, using two SCMs along with portland cement in the
each rating system may favor certain strategies over others,
same mixture) to achieve the desired properties. For example,
there are similar sustainability performance indicators when
very high replacement percentages of cement with Class C
evaluating building materials. Three performance indicators
fly ash can be appropriate for specific applications. Additional
predominate: reduced net embodied energy and carbon foot­
information is available in ACI 232.3R.
print of products, systems, or both (often stated as global
1.4.3 Reduction of waste stream materials to landfill-Fly
warming potential in units of C02 equivalents) (Hart 1 997;
ash is a by-product of coal-fired furnaces at power generation
Kibert 20 1 2; Pezzey 1 992; Orner 2008); reduced resource
facilities and its use in concrete and concrete product manu­
depletion (including increased recycled content) (Pezzey
facture enables the reduction of landfilled materials. Land­
1 992; Lippiatt 1 998; Hill and Bowen 1 997); and transpar­
filling is the most common waste management option for
ency in reporting environmental impacts (Kibert 20 1 2;
fly ash and a majority of the fly ash generated in the United
Berardi 20 1 2; Braune et a!. 2007).
States is disposed of in landfills. Transportation of fly ash to

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 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18) 9

Table 1.4.5a-Excerpt from example EPD showing potential environmental impacts for fly ash (Danish
Tech nological Institute 201 3)
Impact per tonne of fly ash

Impact category Total Loading at power plant Depot Transport

Global warming (GWP) kg C02 equivalent 3.92 1 .3 1 2.61 5 . 7 ] X J O-J

Ozone depletion (ODP) kg CFC- 1 1 equivalent IO 3.29 x 1 o-lo 10

9.88 X J O- 6 . 5 8 X J 0- 0
3 3 3
Acidification for soil and water (AP) kg so2 equivalent 7.26 x 1 o- 2 , 4 ] X J 0- 4.82 X J 0· 2.3 ] X J 0·5

3 4
Eutrophication (EP) kg P04 equivalent 1 .05 X J 0· 3.48 X J 0- 6.96 X I 0-4 6.06 X J 0-6

Photochemical ozone creation in 5

kg ethene equivalent 5.49 X I 0-4 1 .8 7 X I 0-4 3 . 73 X J 0-4 - J . J O X J 0·
tropospheric ozone (POCP)

7 7 7
Depletion of abiotic resources - elements kg Sb equivalent 3.29 X J 0· 1.10 X J 0- 2 . 1 9 X J 0- 0

Depletion of fossil resources MJ, net calorific value 43.3 14.4 28.8 0

Table 1.4.5b-Excerpt from example EPD showing resource consumption per declared unit of fly ash
(Danish Technological Institute 2013)
Consumption per tonne of fly ash

Resources Total Loading at power plant Depot Transport

Renewable primary energy MJ 15 4.9 10 0

Nonrenewable primary energy MJ 43 14 29 0

Renewable secondary energy MJ, net calorific value 0 0 0 0

Nonrenewable secondary energy MJ, net calorific value 0 0 0 0

Use of secondary material kg 0 0 0 0

Water M3 0.427 0. 142 0.285 0

Table 1.4.5c-Excerpt from example EPD showing generation of waste per declared unit of fly ash (Danish
Tech nological Institute 201 3)
Waste per tonne of fly ash

Waste categories Total Loading at power plant Depot Transport

Hazardous waste kg 0 0 0 0

Nonhazardous waste - from

kg 5.71 1 . 90 3.81 0
excavation o f resources

kg 7.95 X J O·l l 5 . 3 0 X J O·l

Nonhazardous waste - other 2.65 X J O· 0

Radioactive waste kg 0 0 0 0

Materials for reuse kg 0 0 0 0

Materials for recycling kg 0 0 0 0

Materials for energy recovery kg 0 0 0 0

Environmental product declarations (EPDs ), as defined
by ISO 14025 and ISO 2 1 930, are currently the method to
report environmental impacts in a formalized and compa­
rable structure.
Comparatively, a concrete EPD summary contains the
results of a life cycle assessment (LCA) (that is, ecobalance
and cradle-to-grave analysis of environmental impacts asso­
ciated with all the stages of a product's life from raw mate­
rial extraction through materials processing, manufacture,
distribution, use, repair and maintenance, and disposal),
conducted according to the ISO 1 4040 series and based
on a specified unit of one cubic meter or one cubic yard of
concrete, and a specified design strength and age, with addi­
tional options for performance. An example of this type of
declaration is shown in Tables 1 .4.5a through 1 .4.5d. Use of
fly ash in the concrete mixture design would require incor­
poration of the fly ash EPD into the concrete EPD.
CHAPTER 2-DEFINITIONS
Please refer to the latest version of "ACI Concrete Termi­
nology" for a comprehensive list of definitions .
CHAPTER 3-FLY ASH COM POSITION
3 . 1 -General
Fly ash particles consist of heterogeneous combinations of
amorphous (glassy) and crystalline phases. The largest frac­
tion of fly ash consists of glassy spheres of two types: solid

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10 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)

Table 1 4 Sd-Contents of a sample EPD for concrete (Danish Technological Institute 2013)
Name Abbreviation Unit
Mixture performance
28-day compressive strength cs psi

Total primary energy consumption TPE MJ

3
Concrete water use, batch CWB m

3
Concrete water use, wash cww m

Global warming potential GWP kg COreq

3
Mixture impacts, per m
Ozone depletion ODP kg CFC- 1 1 -eq

Acidification AP kg S02-eq

Eutrophication EP kg N-eq

Photochemical ozone creation/smog POCP kg 03-eq

particles and hollow particles called cenospheres. These Table 3.2-Example bu l k composition of fly ash
glassy phases usually comprise 60 to 90 percent of the total with coal sources
mass of fly ash, with the remaining fraction of fly ash made Northern Southern
up of a variety of crystalline phases. Crystalline phases can Bituminous Subbituminous lignite lignite
exist as independent particles or be commingled with the
Si02, percent 45.9 3 1 .3 44.6 52.9
glass phase as either a surface deposit or inclusion. Fly ash is
Al203, percent 24.2 22.5 1 5 .5 1 7.9
an inherently complex material to classify and characterize,
as the composition and mineralogy depend on numerous Fe203, percent 4.7 5.0 7.7 9.0

factors, including coal type, coal grinding mill efficiency, CaO, percent 3.7 28.0 20.9 9.6
coal feeding rate, combustion environment (for example,
so3, percent 0.4 2.3 1 .5 0.9
temperature and oxygen supply), type and configuration of
MgO, percent 0.0 4.3 6. 1 1.7
boiler/burner, and fly ash collection method.
'
Alkalis, percent 0.2 1 .6 0.9 0.6

3.2-Chemical composition Loss on igni-

3 0.3 0.4 0.4
Bulk chemical composition (Table 3.2) has been used by tion, percent

ASTM C6 1 8 to classify fly ash into two types: Classes C and Air perme-
F. The chemical composition data used to determine compli­ ability fineness, 403 393 329 256
ance with ASTM C6 1 8 do not directly address the reactivity m2/kg

of the particles, but are used as a quality control or quality Fineness,

1 8 .2 1 7.0 2 1 .6 23.8
assurance tool. Minor variations in the chemical composi­ percent

tion of a specific fly ash do not relate directly to the long­
term performance of concrete containing that fly ash. Fly ash
composition is reported as percent oxides by mass, although
the elements analyzed may not always be present in a pure
oxide form, and may be incorporated within glassy or other
mineral phases. The crystalline and glassy constituents that
remain after the combustion of the pulverized coal are a
result of materials with high melting points and incombus­
tibility. The amounts of the four principal constituents vary
widely. Typical values are Si02 (35 to 60 percent), Ah03
( 1 0 to 30 percent), Fe203 (4 to 20 percent), and CaO ( 1 to
35 percent). The sum of the first three constituents-Si02,
Ah03 , and Fe203-need to be equal to or exceed 70 percent
for the material to be classified as an ASTM C6 1 8 Class F fly
ash, whereas their sum need only exceed 50 percent for the
material to be classified as an ASTM C6 1 8 Class C fly ash.
Class C fly ashes typically have a higher CaO content than
a Class F fly ash.
The silica and alumina in the glass of fly ash, and Ca(OH)2
generated with hydration of portland cement, are primary
contributors to the pozzolanic reaction in concrete because
the amorphous silica and alumina combine with Ca(OH)2
Specific gravity 2.28 2.70 2.54 2.43
• Available alkalis expressed as Na20 equivalent.
and water to form calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) and
calcium aluminosilicate hydrates (Lothenbach et a!. 20 1 1 ).
The Si02 present in fly ash is due mainly to the clay
minerals and quartz in the coal. Anthracite and bituminous
(that is, high-rank) coals often contain a relatively greater
percentage of clay minerals in their incombustible fraction
as compared to subbituminous and lignite (that is, low-rank)
coals. Therefore, the fly ash from the high-rank coals is
richer in silica. The principal source of alumina (Ah03 ) in
fly ash is the clay in the coal, with some alumina coming
from the organic compounds in low-rank coal. The types of
clays found in coal belong to three groups of clay minerals:
smectites, illites, and kaolinite.
Northern lignites-for example, lignite coal sources in
North Dakota, Saskatchewan, and surrounding areas-typi­
cally contain smectite. Bituminous coal typically contains
only members of the illite group and kaolinite. This differ­
ence in types of clay helps explain the lower Ah03 in low­
rank coal fly ash. From the alumina/silica ratios of smectite
(0.35), illite (0. 6 1 ), and kaolinite (0.85), it is clear why lignite

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 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)
fly ashes usually contain 40 percent less analytic Al203 than
bituminous fly ashes (Diamond and Lopez-Flores 1 98 l a,b).
The Fe203 content of fly ash comes from the presence of
iron-containing materials in the coal. The sizes of particles
with highest concentrations of iron are typically in the range
30 to 60 J.lm, whereas the particles with a lower concentra­
tion of iron are typically smaller than 1 5 J.lm (Abad-Valle et
a!. 20 1 1 ; Hower et a!. 1 999; Zyryanov et a!. 20 1 1 ).
The source of the materials reported as CaO in fly ash is
primarily calcium carbonates and calcium sulfates in high­
rank coal and from organic calcium compounds in low-rank
coals. High-rank coals, such as anthracite and bituminous
coal, contain smaller amounts of noncombustible materials,
usually showing less than 5 percent CaO in the ash. Low­
rank coals can produce fly ash with up to 35 percent CaO,
depending on the geochemical character of the basin of coal
deposition. The southern lignite coals found in Texas and
Louisiana show the least CaO of the low-rank coals (for
example, 1 0 to 1 5 percent).
The MgO in fly ash is derived from organic constituents
and clay minerals, smectite or ferromagnesian minerals, and
sometimes dolomite. Magnesium oxide is usually minimal
in high-rank coals, but can exceed 7 percent in fly ashes from
subbituminous and northern lignites, which are lignite coal
sources in North Dakota, Saskatchewan, and surrounding
areas. Southern lignites from Texas and Louisiana have
MgO contents of less than 2 percent.
The S03 in fly ash from high-rank coal sources is primarily
a result of pyrite (FeS2) and, to a lesser degree, gypsum
(CaS04· 2H20) present in the coal. The sulfur in low-rank
coals comes primarily from organic compounds. The sulfur
is released as sulfur dioxide gas (S02) and precipitates onto
the fly ash or is scrubbed from the flue gases through a reac­
tion with lime and alkali particles.
The alkalis in fly ash from high-rank coal come primarily
from clay minerals. Alkalis in low-rank coals come primarily
from sodium and potassium-bearing constituents in the
coal. Alkali sulfates in northern lignite fly ash result from
the combination of sodium and potassium with oxidized
pyrite, organic sulfur, and gypsum in the coal. McCarthy
et a!. ( 1 984, 1 988) reported that Na20 is found in greater
amounts than K20 in lignite and subbituminous fly ash, but
the reverse is true of bituminous fly ash. Expressed as Na20
equivalent (percent Na20 + 0.658 x percent K20), alkali
contents are typically less than 5 percent but may be as high
as 10 percent in some high-calcium fly ashes.
The carbon content in fly ash is a result of incomplete
combustion of the coal and any organic additives injected
in the collection process, such as powdered activated carbon
when introduced into the flue gas to control mercury (Hinzy
et a!. 20 1 3). Carbon content is not usually determined
directly, but is often assumed to be approximately equal to
the LOI; however, LOI will also include any combined water
or C02 lost by decomposition of hydrates or carbonates that
are present in the fly ash. Fly ashes meeting the ASTM C6 1 8
specification are required to have less than 6.0 percent LOI.
ASTM C6 1 8 does provide for the use of Class F fly ash with
American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org
11
up to 1 2.0 percent LOI, if either acceptable performance
records or laboratory test results are made available.
The carbon produced by burning coal in a plant equipped
with a low-NOx burner is produced at somewhat cooler
and much more reduced conditions (that is, lower oxygen)
compared with traditional burners. The carbon associated
with a low-NOx fly ash is a more activated form than carbon
produced using traditional burners. Therefore, low-NOx
carbon has a greater propensity to adsorb liquid chemical
admixtures used in concrete, especially the air-entraining
admixtures (AEAs). This can result in higher and more vari­
able AEA dose requirements. Studies by Ley et a!. (2008)
have indicated that modification of the burning process,
such as employing low-NOx burners, may affect the interac­
tion between the produced fly ash and AEA. Because small
amounts of low-NOx carbon can lead to relatively large
increases in AEA in concrete, LOI may not be as useful in
monitoring fly ash as tests based on measuring the adsorp­
tion potential of the fly ash or mortar air content.
Minor elements that may be present in fly ash include
varying amounts of titanium, phosphorus, lead, mercury,
chromium, and strontium (Flues et a!. 20 1 3; Haykiri-Acma
et a!. 20 1 1 ; Hower et a!. 20 1 3 ; Li et a!. 20 1 2; Shah et a!.
20 1 2; Vassilev et a!. 2000). Some fly ashes also have trace
amounts of organic compounds other than unburned coal.
These additional compounds, such as ammonia, are usually
from NOx reduction systems or precipitator conditioning
additives and are discussed in 1 .3.2.
Table 3 .2 gives examples of North American fly ash bulk
chemical composition for different coal sources. Other refer­
ences that provide detailed chemical composition data are
also available (Bayat 1 998; Berry and Hemmings 1 983 ;
Chancey et a!. 20 1 0; Das and Yudhbir 2006; Hooton 1 986;
Hower et a!. 1 996; Levandowski and Kalkreuth 2009; Du
et a!. 20 1 3 ; Liu et a!. 20 1 3 ; McCarthy et a!. 1 984; Nathan
et a!. 1 999; Pietersen et a!. 1 992; Pipatmanomai et a!. 2009;
Sakorafa et a!. 1 996; Shehata et a!. 1 999; Sutter et a!. 20 1 3b;
Tang et a!. 20 1 3; Tikalsky et a!. 1 992; Tishmack 1 996; Tsub­
ouchi et a!. 20 1 1 ; Venkateswaran et a!. 2003 ; Williams et a!.
2005).
3.3-Crystal l i ne constituents
From the bulk elemental composition of fly ash, a division
can be made between the phases in which these chemical
compounds exist in fly ash. Developments in the techniques
of quantitative X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis have made
it possible to determine the approximate amounts of crystal­
line phases and amorphous contents in fly ash (Mings et a!.
1 983 ; Pitt and Demirel l 983 ; McCarthy et a!. 1 988).
Low-calcium fly ashes contain relatively inactive crys­
talline phases: quartz, mullite, ferrite spinel, and hematite
(Diamond and Lopez-Flores 1 98 l a; Sutter et a!. 20 1 3 a).
High-calcium fly ash can contain the previously mentioned
phases and may also contain additional crystalline phases
such as anhydrite, alkali sulfate, dicalcium silicate, trical­
cium aluminate, free calcium oxide, melilite gehlenite­
akermanite solid solution, merwinite, periclase, sodalite
and ye' elimite (McCarthy et a!. 1 984; Sutter et a!. 20 1 3 a).
cCiC'iJ
12 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)

Table 3.3a-Mineralogical phases in fly ash autoclave expansion. Lime in the form of Ca(OH)2 (slaked
Mineral name Chemical composition lime), however, does not contribute to autoclave expan­
sion. Soft-burned CaO hydrates quickly and does not result
Thenardite (Na,K),S04
in unsoundness in concrete. However, hard-burned CaO
Anhydrite caso.
formed at higher temperatures hydrates slowly after the
Tricalcium aluminate (C3A) Ca3Ah06 concrete has hardened. Demirel et a!. ( 1 983) hypothesized
Dicalcium silicate (C2S) Ca2Si0• the carbon dioxide-rich environment of the combustion
gases causes a carbonate coating to form on poorly burned
Hematite Fe203
CaO particles, creating a diffusion barrier that retards the
Lime CaO
hydration of the particle and thereby increases the potential
Melilite Ca2(Mg,AI)(AI,Si)20 7 for unsoundness. If free lime is present as highly sintered,
Merwinite Ca3Mg(Si04)2 hard-burned material, there is a potential for long-term dele­
terious expansion from its hydration. Although there is no
Mullite AI6SiPt3
direct way to separate soft-burned lime from the sintered
Periclase MgO
lime, McCarthy et a!. ( 1 984) noted that when hard-burned
Quartz Si02 lime is present, it is often found in the larger grains of fly
NasAisSi6o,.so. ash. If there is sufficient hard-burned CaO to cause unsound­
Sodalite structures Na6Ca2AI6Si60,.(SO.), ness, it can be detected as excessive autoclave expansion.
Ca8AI 1 20,.(S04)2 Ca(OH)2 is also present in some high-calcium fly ashes that
Ferrite spinel Fe304 have been exposed to moisture.
Portlandite Ca(OH),
Crystalline MgO (periclase) is found in fly ashes with
more than 2 percent MgO. Fly ash from low-rank coals
Ye 'elimite Ca.AI6(SO.)O 1 2
can contain periclase contents as high as 80 percent of the
MgO content. The periclase in fly ash is not free MgO like
Some of these additional phases (for example, tricalcium that found in some portland cements. Rather, the crystal­
aluminate) found in Class C fly ash are hydraulic, producing line MgO in fly ash is similar to the phase of MgO found in
cementitious materials in the presence of water, explaining slag cement and is nonreactive in water or basic solutions at
why Class C fly ash exhibits both cementitious and pozzo­ normal temperatures (Locher 1 960).
lanic properties. Excessive amounts of the C3A and CaO Phases belonging to the melilite group include:
compounds can also contribute to rapid set and high water­ a) Gehlenite Ca2Al(A!Si07)
demand characteristics, which may affect plastic shrinkage. b) Akermanite Ca2Mg(Sh07)
A list of crystalline mineral compounds found in fly ash is These phases have been detected in fly ash but are not
given in Table 3.3a. chemically active in concrete. Each of these phases can have
Alpha quartz, or crystalline silica (Si02), is present in all Fe substituted for Mg or AI. Merwinite is a common phase
fly ashes. This silica is a result of the quartz content in the in high-calcium fly ash and in the early stages of the devit­
raw coal that failed to melt during combustion. Quartz is rification of Mg-containing glasses. Northern lignites typi­
typically the most intense peak in the XRD pattern from the cally have higher MgO contents and lower Al203 contents
fly ash. than subbituminous-coal fly ash, allowing the merwinite
Mullite (3Al203 · 2Si02), which is a crystalline aluminosil­ phase to dominate over the calcium aluminate phase in the
icate, is found in substantial quantities only in low-calcium northern lignite fly ash. Merwinite is nonreactive at normal
fly ashes (Gomes and Francois 2000). Mullite forms within temperatures.
the glass spheres as they solidify around it. Mullite accounts The presence of calcium aluminate in high-calcium fly ash
for most of the alumina in fly ash but is not normally chemi­ was confirmed by Diamond (198 1 a) and others. The intense
cally reactive in concrete. XRD peaks ofthis phase overlap those ofthe merwinite phase,
In its purest form, magnetite (Fe3 04) is the crystalline making the quantitative interpretation difficult. McCarthy et
spinel structure closest to that found in fly ash. A shift in a!. ( 1 988), however, reported the calcium aluminate phase
the XRD spacing from that of pure magnetite indicates Mg is the dominant phase in fly ash with subbituminous coal
and AI substitution in the ferrite spinel structure (Gomes sources, and the merwinite phase is dominant in lignite fly
et a!. 1 999; Tevenson and Huber 1 986). The ferrite spinel ashes. Neither phase is present in low-calcium fly ash. The
phase found in fly ash is not chemically active. Hematite cementitious value of calcium aluminate contributes to the
(Fe203 ) can be formed by the oxidation of limonite, siderite, self-cementitious property of high-calcium fly ashes. The
or magnetite and is present in some fly ashes, though it is not calcium aluminate phase is extremely reactive in the pres­
chemically active. ence of calcium and sulfate ions in solution.
Coal fly ashes containing high calcium contents often Phases belonging to the sodalite group, which are formed
contain between 1 and 3 percent by mass anhydrite (CaS04). from melts rich in alkalis and calcium, have a low silica
The calcium acts as a scrubber for S02 in the combustion content. Nosean and Hauyne phases have been identified
gases and forms anhydrite. Crystalline CaO (free lime) is in fly ash by McCarthy et a!. ( 1 988). Some researchers
present in most high-calcium fly ashes and may be a cause of have found ye'elimite (Ca4Al6S016) in Class C fly ash, the

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 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18) 13

Table 3.3b-Qual itative XRD test results for 18 separate Class F fly ashes
Sum of oxides,
ID % mass Major phase(s) Minor phase(s) Other phase(s)
- -
FA-A 92.52 a-quartz, mullite

'
FA-C 88.99 a-quartz Mullite, ferrite spinel Hematite

Traces of lime, periclase and ferrite

FA-E 87.76 a-quartz Mullite, hematite, anhydrite '
spinel

'
FA-F 90.62 a-quartz, mullite Ferrite spinel Hematite

-
FA-G 89.89 a-quartz, mullite Ferrite spinel, hematite

'
FA-H 9 1 .26 a-quartz, mullite Lime Ferrite spinel

'
FA-I 89.45 a-quartz Mullite, ferrite spinel Trace anhydrite

FA-J 9 1 .90 a-quartz, mullite, hematite Ferrite spinel Trace lime

.
FA-K 83.50 a-quartz, mullite, hematite Anhydrite, ferrite spinel Trace anorthite, lime

FA-L 84.80 a-quartz, mullite, hematite, ferrite spinel Anhydrite, portlandite Lime

Trace anhydrite, trace lime, trace

FA-M 8 1 . 85 a-quartz Mullite, ferrite spinel, hematite .
periclase

-
FA-N 86.90 a-quartz, mullite, hematite, ferrite spinel Lime, anhydrite

'
FA-0 79. 8 1 a-quartz Mullite, lime, periclase, hematite Trace ferrite spinel, trace portlandite

Trace hematite, trace ferrite spinel, trace

FA-P 73.34 a-quartz Lime, periclase, anhydrite ' ' '
mullite, trace melilite, trace C3A

Mullite, lime, periclase, anhydrite, '

FA-Q 74.34 a-quartz trace melilite, trace C3A*
ferrite spinel

Ferrite spinel, hematite, anhydrite, '

FA-R 73.27 a-quartz Trace lime, trace merwinite
periclase

Mullite, anhydrite, lime, periclase, ' ' '

FA-S 70.55 a-quartz C3A, C4AF, trace hematite
ferrite spinel,

Mullite, anhydrite, hematite, ferrite ' ' '

FA-T 77.4 1 a-quartz Trace periclase, merwinite, anorthite
spinel

* Indicates likely but not absolutely confirmed due to low-mtens1ty profiles-for example, trace phases or convoluted profiles.

Note: Sum of the oxides is the sum of the Si02, Al203, and Fe203, expressed in percent mass (Sutter et al. 20 13a).

active constituent of Type K expansive cement. Ye 'elimite
reacts readily with water, lime, and sulfate to form ettringite
(Winburn et al. 2000).
Among the other phases found in fly ash are alkali sulfates
and possibly dicalcium silicate. Dicalcium silicate is a crys­
talline phase that is present in some high-calcium fly ashes.
Northern lignite fly ash often contains crystalline alkali
sulfates such as thenardite and aphthitilite.
Tishmack et al. ( 1 999) investigated high-calcium
Class C fly ashes derived from Powder River Basin coal,
which contain significant amounts of sulfur, calcium, and
aluminum, and thus are a potential source of ettringite in
concrete. Hydration products of fly ash water pastes contain
ettringite, monosulfate, and stratlingite (Bae et al. 20 14).
Portland cement/fly ash pastes were found to contain calcium
hydroxide, ettringite, monosulfate, and smaller amounts of
hemicarboaluminate and monocarboaluminate. The portland
cement/fly ash pastes generally formed less ettringite than
did the control cement pastes, but formed more of the mono-
sulfate phases. Sutter et al. (20 1 3a) performed a qualitative
XRD study of30 different fly ash sources: 1 8 Class F and 1 2
Class C. The ash sources in their study represented a broad
range of physical and chemical characteristics, as well as
geographic representation of the United States. The results
from this study are summarized in Tables 3 .3b and 3.3c.
Both tables are organized in order of decreasing value of the
sum of the oxides-for example, increasing CaO content.
As can be seen in these tables, in general, the mineralogy of
the coal fly ash samples becomes more complex as the CaO
increases. In the same study, four Class F and four Class C
fly ash sources were selected for quantitative X-ray diffrac­
tion (QXRD) analysis separately using Rietveld analysis
and the relative intensity ratio (RIR) method, which is based
on the work of Klug and Alexander ( 1 954). The results are
shown in Tables 3 .3d and 3.3e. When comparing the two
analytical approaches, there was generally good agree­
ment for the major phases, although minor phases showed
differences between the two analysis methods. To validate
application of the Rietveld analysis method for quantitative
XRD analysis of fly ashes, Winburn et al. (2000) performed
testing with a set of standard mixtures.
3.4-Giassy constituents
Fly ash consists largely of small glassy spheres that
form while the burned coal residue cools very rapidly. The
composition of these glasses depends on the composition of
the pulverized coal and the temperature at which it is burned.
Fly ash reactivity is strongly affected by the glass content

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14 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)

Table 3.3c-Qualitative XRD test results for 12 separate Class C fly ashes
Sum of oxides,
ID % mass Major phase(s) Minor phase(s) Other phase(s)
'
Anhydrite, lime, periclase, ferrite spinel, Trace mullite, trace thenardite, trace
FA-B 67.62 a-quartz '
hematite melilite

FA-U 65.80 a-quartz Lime, periclase, ferrite spinel, C3A Trace mullite, trace melilite

' '
FA-V 63.00 a-quartz Lime, periclase, ferrite spinel, C3A, melilite Trace mullite, C4AF, hematite

'
Trace lime, merwinite or C3A,
FA-W 62.83 a-quartz Anhydrite, melilite, periclase, ferrite spinel, "
hematite

Trace anhydrite, trace lime,

FA-X 6 1 .63 a-quartz Periclase, thenardite, melilite, ferrite spinel
merwinite or C3A, * trace mullite*

Lime, periclase, C3A, anhydrite, melilite,

FA-Y 62.77 a-quartz Ferrite spinel
mullite

'
Lime, periclase, anhydrite, melilite, ferrite merwinite or C3A, trace mullite,
FA-Z 6 1 .2 1 a-quartz '
spinel trace hematite, trace ye'elimite

Trace thenardite, trace hematite,

FA-ZA 55.32 a-quartz, C3A, lime, periclase Melilite, ferrite spinel, C4AF '
trace ye'elimite

Trace mullite, trace ferrite spinel,

FA-ZB 6 1 .66 a-quartz C3A, anhydrite, lime, periclase, melilite ' '
hematite, trace ye'elimite, C4AF

"
FA-ZC 53.09 a-quartz, C3A, lime, periclase Anhydrite, melilite, C4AF, ye'elimite Ferrite spinel, trace hematite

FA-ZD 54.27 a-quartz, C3A, lime, periclase, anhydrite Melilite, ferrite spinel, C4AF Ye'elimite

Trace anhydrite, melilite, merwinite

FA-ZL 6 1 .5 2 a-quartz Lime, periclase, ferrite spinel, Na-K sulfate '
or C3A, hematite*

"Indicates likely but not absolutely confirmed due to low-intensity profiles (for example, trace phases) or convoluted profiles.

Note: Sum of the oxides is the sum of the sio2, Al203, and Fe203, expressed in percent mass (Sutter et al. 2013a).

Table 3.3d-Summary of QXRD test results for the and glass composition. The major differences in fly ash glass
Class F fly ashes composition lie in the amount of calcium present in the glass.
Rietveld
Coal that contains relatively small amounts of calcium-for
method FA-H FA-M FA-0 FA-Q example, anthracite and bituminous or some lignite coals­
Quartz 1 0.8 1 6. 1 1 3 .4 1 1 .5
results in aluminosilicate glassy fly ash particles. Subbi­
tuminous and some lignite coals contain larger amounts
Mullite 1 5.8 1 .6 3.2 4.0
of calcium and produce calcium aluminosilicate glassy
Hematite 0.5 0.6 1 .0 BQL
phases in the fly ash (Roy et a!. 1 984). This can be seen in
Magnetite 0.2 0.6 0.2 BQL the ternary system diagram shown in Fig. 3 .4. The normal­
Anhydrite ND 0.4 0.7 0.8 ized average glass composition of high-calcium fly ash falls
Lime BQL BQL 0.6 0.2 within the ranges where anorthite to gehlenite are the first
Periclase NO ND 1 .0 1 .2
phases to crystallize from a melt, whereas the low-calcium
fly ashes fall within the regions of the diagram where mullite
Portlandite NO NO 0.6 NO
is the primary crystalline phase. The disordered structure of
C3A ND ND ND 2.8
a glass resembles that of the primary crystallization phase
Glass 73 81 79 80 that forms on cooling from the melt. In fly ash, the molten
RIR method FA-H FA-M FA-0 FA-Q silica is accompanied by other molten oxides. As the melt is
Quartz 1 1 .6 1 6.0 15.5 12.0 quenched, these additional oxides create added disorder in
Mullite 1 4.4 3 .2 3.8 3.6
the silica glass network. The greater the disorder and depo­
lymerization of the fly ash glass structure, the less stable the
Hematite BQL 0.7 1.1 BQL
network becomes.
Magnetite BQL 0.5 BQL BQL
To conceptualize the composition of the glass phase in a
Anhydrite NO 0.4 0.6 0.6 fly ash, the mass of crystalline compounds is subtracted from
Lime BQL BQL 0.7 0.4 the bulk mass to yield the mass of the glassy portion of the
Periclase NO NO 0.8 0.6 fly ash. Extending this analysis to chemical compounds, the
Portlandite NO ND BQL NO
crystalline composition can be stoichiometrically subtracted
from the bulk chemical composition to yield an average
C3A NO NO ND 2.0
composition of the glass for any given fly ash. This is
Glass 74 79 78 81
important when considering the level of reactivity of a fly
Notes: Results in percent b y mass (Sutter e t al. 2013a). BQL: below quantity limit, ash. Das and Yudhbir (2006) used the pozzolanic potential
and ND: not detected.

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 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18) 15

Table 3.3e-Summary of QXRD test results for the s;o.

Class C fly ashes

Rietveld
method FA-U FA-X FA-ZA FA-ZC
M u llite Field • M
Quartz 5.4 3.1 3.1 5.5 Anorthite Field • A

Mullite 3.5 ND ND ND Gehlenite Field - G

Hematite ND ND ND ND

Magnetite 0.3 0.2 BQL BQL

Anhydrite 0.7 0.5 2.0 2.6

Lime 0.2 BQL 0.7 1 .9

Periclase 1.1 1.3 2.5 4.1

... ··\. .......
\/ ····... ....... ··•·... ......
Gehlenite 0.4 1.1 0.5 1 .3 100 0
cao 0 10 20 30 40 so 60 70 80 90 100 AI20,
C3A 3.6 1.7 4.9 8.2

C4AF BQL ND 2.4 2.8

Fig. 3. 4-CaO-SiOrA/203 ternary system diagram.
Thenardite ND 0.7 0.6 BQL

Ye' elimite ND ND BQL 1 .6

properties of hardened concrete. This is due, in part, to the
Glass 85 91 83 72 influence of particle characteristics on the water demand of
RIR method FA-U FA-X FA-ZA FA-ZC the concrete mixture. The properties of a fly ash produced at
Quartz 5.0 2.4 2.6 5.2 a particular power plant can vary from another fly ash origi­
Mullite 2. 1 ND ND ND
nating from a different source. This is likely to be the case if
the power plants are burning different coals or operate using
Hematite ND ND ND ND
different combustion systems. Plants operating under similar
Magnetite BQL BQL BQL BQL
combustion regimes can produce fly ash with very similar
Anhydrite 0.4 0.2 1 .5 1 .9 chemical and physical characteristics. In addition, fly ashes
Lime 0.4 0.2 0.9 2.3 produced at different power plants, or at one plant using
Periclase 1 .0 0.9 2.1 3.7 different coal sources or different combustion conditions,
Gehlenite BQL 1.8 1 .6 3.0
may have different colors.
Fly ash color and the amount used can influence the
C3A 3.3 1.6 6. 1 9.6
color of the resulting hardened concrete in the same way as
c.AF ND ND 2.9 3.8
changes in cement or fine aggregate color. Fly ash color is
Thenardite ND 2.2 0.9 ND not an engineering concern unless aesthetic considerations
Ye' elimite ND ND BQL 1.1 relating to the concrete require maintaining a uniform color
Glass 88 91 82 69 in exposed concrete. A change in the color of a fly ash from a
Notes: Results m percent by mass (Sutter et a!. 2013a). BQL: below quant1ty hmil, particular source can indicate changes in coal source, carbon
and NO: not detected. content, iron content, or burning conditions and, therefore,
changed properties. Refer to Fig. 3.5 for examples of the
index ( 1 0 times the mole ratio of K20/Ah03 ) of Hubbard range in color seen with different fly ash sources.
et a!. ( 1 985) to estimate the glass content of fly ash. Fly ash 3.5.1 Particle shape-Particle size and shape charac­
glass content has been successfully determined by XRD teristics of fly ash depend on the source and uniformity of
(Ibanez et a!. 2013 ; Ward and French 2005). The composi­ the coal, the degree of pulverization before burning, the
tions of glassy and crystalline components of fly ashes have combustion environment (temperature level and oxygen
also been investigated using scanning electron microscopy supply), uniformity of combustion, and the type of collec­
(Kutchko and Kim 2006; Chancey et a!. 20 1 0; Aughenbaugh tion system used (mechanical separators, baghouse filters,
et a!. 20 1 3) and a combination of three-dimensional X-ray or electrostatic precipitators). Lane and Best ( 1 982) reported
computer tomography and electron probe microanalysis the shape of fly ash particles is also a function of particle size.
techniques (Hu et a!. 2014). The majority of fly ash particles are glassy, solid, or hollow,
Additional discussions on the glass phases existing in and spherical in shape as singles or clusters. Examples of
fly ash can be found in Aughenbaugh et a!. (20 1 3), Chat­ fly ash particle shapes are shown in Fig. 3.5 . 1 a and 3.5. 1b.
terjee (20 1 1 ), Hemmings and Berry ( 1 988), Hu et a!. (20 14), Fly ash particles that are hollow are translucent to opaque,
Kutchko and Kim (2006), Pietersen ( 1 993), Valentim et a!. slightly to highly porous, and vary in shape from rounded to
(2009), Chancey et a!. (20 1 0), and Zhu et a!. (20 13). elongated. The intergrinding of fly ash with portland cement
clinker in the production of blended cement has improved its
3.5-Physical properties contribution to strength (Diamond 1 982). Grinding further
The shape, size, particle-size distribution, and density of reduces particle size, breaks up cenospheres, and separates
fly ash particles influence the properties of freshly mixed, particles that have surface attractions.
plastic concrete, and the strength development and other

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16 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)

Ca0 =3 . 5% CaO = 5 . 3 % aO =2 . 3 % a = 1 . 5%

LOI = 0.25% L O I = 0. 80% L O I = 1 .22% L I = 3 . 3 2%

CaO = 1 4 .0% CaO = 1 3 .6% CaO = 1 4 . 3 % CaO = 3 . 0%

LOI = 0. 1 3% L0 1 = 0.45% LOI = 1 . 1 9% L O I = 2 1 . 34%

Examp les

of

Fly Ash

CaO = 29.2% CaO = 24.2% C aO = 24. 8% olor

LOI = 0 .20% LOI = 0 . 3 3 % LOI = 0 . 5 0%

Fig. 3. 5-Examples of the range in color seen between differentfly ash sources.

Fig 3.5. la-Fly ash at 4000 x magnification. Fig 3.5. 1 b-Fly ash showing plerospheres at 2000 x
magnification.
3.5.2 Fineness Individual particles in fly ash may range
-

in size from less than 1 �m to greater than 0.04 in. ( 1 mm).
A coarse fly ash often contains more plerospheres, which
are porous particles with surface openings, and are typically
filled with smaller particles (Fig. 3.5. 1b). Fly ash of 5 to 30
micron particle size is highly reactive compared to coarser
fly ash (Malhotra and Mehta 2002). In older plants where
mechanical separators are used, the fly ash is coarser than in
more modern plants that use electrostatic precipitators or bag
filters. Fly ash meeting ASTM C6 1 8 should not have more
than 34 percent of the particles retained on the No. 325 (45
�m) sieve. The No. 325 (45 �m) sieve analysis of fly ash from
a particular source will normally remain relatively constant,

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 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)
provided there are no major changes in the coal source, coal
grinding, process operations, or plant load. Minor variations
can be expected due to sampling techniques.
Fineness of a specific fly ash may influence concrete prop­
erties. Lane and Best (1 982) used ASTM C430 No. 325 (45
�m) sieve fineness tests results as a means to correlate the
fineness of Class F fly ash with certain concrete proper­
ties. For a particular source of fly ash, their data indicate
that concrete strength, abrasion resistance, and resistance to
freezing and thawing are a direct function of the proportion
of the fly ash finer than the No. 325 (45 �m) sieve. They
concluded that fineness within a particular source is a rela­
tively consistent indicator of fly ash performance in concrete
and that performance improves with increased fineness.
Fly ash fineness test methods, other than ASTM C430,
are the air-permeability test (ASTM C204), the turbidimeter
method (ASTM C 1 1 5/C 1 1 5M), and the hydrometer method
(ASTM C422). Fineness values obtained from these three
tests can differ widely, depending on the procedure used. The
test results are also strongly influenced by the density and
porosity of the individual particles. The air permeability test
procedure provides a rapid method for detecting changes.
Increased surface area, as determined by air permeability
tests, correlates with higher reactivity, especially when
comparing fly ashes from a single source. Exceptions to this
trend are found with some high-carbon fly ashes, which tend
to have high fineness values that may be misleading. Useful
information on size distribution of particles finer than No.
325 (45 �m) sieve can be obtained by sonic sifting and by
particle sizing equipment based on laser scattering (Popo­
vics 1 993). Data on the particle-size distribution of several
Class C and F fly ashes indicate that a large percentage of
particles smaller than 10 �m had a positive influence on
strength (Electric Power Research Institute 1 984).
3.5.3 Density-According to Luke ( 1 96 1 ), the density of
solid fly ash particles ranges from 1 23 to 1 88 lb/ft3 ( 1 .97 to
3.02 g/cm3 ), but is normally in the range of 137 to 175 lb/
ft3 (2.2 to 2.8 g/cm3 ). Some fly ash particles, such as ceno-
spheres, are capable of floating on water. High density is
often an indication of fine particles. Roy et a!. ( 1 984) indi-
cated that fly ashes high in iron tend to have higher densities,
and those high in carbon have lower densities. ASTM C6 1 8
Class C fly ashes tend to have finer particles and fewer ceno-
spheres; thus, their densities tend to be higher, in the range
of 1 50 to 175 lb/ft3 (2.4 to 2 . 8 g/cm3 ). A comparison of the
density of the fly ash before and after fine grinding in a ring/
puck mill can also give an indication of the ratio of solid
to hollow spheres present. An increased content of hollow
spheres, or higher surface area, has been linked to increased
reactivity characteristics.
3.5.4 Trace metals in.fly ash-Coal fly ash particles, much
like volcanic ash, are essentially insoluble aluminosilicate
glasses. Fly ash consists of limestone, iron, aluminum, silica
sand, and clay-essentially materials from the earth's crust
melted by the heat of combustion.
In addition, fly ash contains trace quantities, in the parts-
per-million range, of the oxidized forms of other naturally
occurring elements, including arsenic, boron, cadmium,
American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org
17
chromium, copper, lead, selenium, mercury, and zinc. These
same elements exist naturally in soil, rock, and coal. Fly ash
composition and mineralogy, including its trace element
content and form, varies among power plants and is primarily
related to that of the source coal and combustion conditions.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
reviewed extensive studies on fly ash for health and envi­
ronmental risks and has examined fly ash samples collected
from power plants around the country. In 1 999, the agency
determined that power plant fly ash is nonhazardous and
should be regulated accordingly. This determination culmi­
nated a 1 9-year review in accordance with the 1 980 Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act's Bevill Amendment, which
directed the EPA to review the issue and prepare a report to
Congress (EPA 530-S-99-0 10: 1 999).
In 20 14, the EPA published an updated study that
concluded as follows (EPA 530-R-1 4-00 1 :20 1 4):
Based on the analysis set forth in this document, the
evaluation concludes that environmental releases
of constituents of potential concern (COPC) from
coal combustion residuals (CCR) fly ash concrete
and flue-gas desulfurization (FGD) gypsum wall­
board during use by the consumer are comparable
to or lower than those from analogous non-CCR
products, or are at or below relevant regulatory and
health-based benchmarks for human and ecolog­
ical receptors. Thus, EPA supports the continued
beneficial use of coal fly ash in concrete and FGD
gypsum in wallboard. Furthermore, the Agency
believes that these beneficial uses provide signifi­
cant environmental and economic benefits, and
opportunities to advance Sustainable Materials
Management (SMM).
3.6-Chemical activity of fly ash i n hydraulic
cement concrete
The principal reaction products of fly ash with Ca(OH)2
and alkalis in concrete are similar to those of hydration of
portland cement, C-S-H, and calcium aluminate hydrates.
The morphology of the Class F fly ash reaction product is
suggested to be more gel-like and denser than that from port-
land cement (Idom 1 983). The reaction of fly ash depends
largely on breakdown and dissolution of the glassy structure
by the hydroxide ions and the early heat of hydration, both
generated from the hydraulic cement fraction. The reaction of
the fly ash continues to consume Ca(OH)2 to form additional
C-S-H, as long as Ca(OH)2 is present in the pore fluid of the
cement paste and there is sufficient remaining mixing-water-
filled space that can be occupied (Philleo 1991 ). Regourd at
a!. ( 1 983) indicated that a measurable, immediate chemical
reaction also takes place when fly ash is mixed with water,
preferentially releasing calcium and aluminum ions into
solution. This reaction is limited, however, until additional
alkalis, Ca(OH)2, or sulfates are available for reaction. The
amount of heat evolved as a consequence of the reactions
in concrete is usually reduced when fly ash is proportioned
together with portland cement in the concrete. The rate of
cCiC'iJ
18 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)
early heat evolution is reduced in these cases and the time
of maximum rate of heat evolution is retarded (Mehta 1 983 ;
Wei et a!. 1 984). When the quantity of portland cement per
unit volume of concrete is kept constant, the heat evolved is
increased by fly ash addition (Mehta 1 983). Ma et a!. ( 1 994)
ran an extensive calorimetric study of portland and blended
cements systems containing a Class F fly ash to determine
their activation energies. They reported that hydration
is controlled by the same mechanism for all the blended
cement systems tested.
Idom ( 1 984) suggested that, in general, fly ash reaction
with portland cement in modem concrete is a two-stage reac­
tion. Initially and during the early curing, the primary reac­
tion is with alkali hydroxides and, subsequently, the main
reaction is with Ca(OH)2• This distinction is not apparent
when research is conducted at room temperature, where the
slower Ca(OH)2 activation prevails and the early alkali acti­
vation is minimized (Idorn 1 984). For portland cement, the
pozzolanic reaction of fly ashes with lime and water follows
Arrhenius' law for the interdependence of temperatures and
the rates of reaction (Verbeck 1 960). An increase in tempera­
ture causes a more-than-proportionate increase in the reac­
tion rate.
Clarifying the basic principles of fly ash reaction makes it
possible to identify the primary factors that, in practice, will
influence the effectiveness of the use of fly ash in concrete.
These include:
(a) The chemical and phase composition of the fly ash and
of the hydraulic cement
(b) The quantity and type of chemical admixtures present
in the concrete mixture
(c) The alkali-hydroxide concentration of the reaction
system
(d) The morphology of the fly ash particles
(e) The fineness of the fly ash and of the hydraulic cement
Variations in chemical composition and reactivity of fly
ash affect early stage properties and the rheology of concrete
(Roy et a!. 1 982).
It is difficult to predict concrete performance through
characterization of fly ashes solely. Fly ash acceptability
with regard to workability, strength characteristics, and
durability should be investigated through trial mixtures of
concrete, mortar, paste, or all of these containing the fly ash.
Calorimetry of paste, mortar, or concrete can be very helpful
in judging the early-age setting time and performance of
mixtures containing two or more cementitious materials
along with admixtures (ASTM C 1 679).
3 .7-Future research needs
Future research needs in the area of fly ash composition
include:
a) A clearer understanding of the effects of particle-size
distribution on reactivity
b) Clarification of the influence of carbon particles as a
function of their size and adsorption capability for chemical
admixtures
c) A better understanding of the nature of constituents in
fly ash containing higher CaO concentrations and how these
(ciCiJ American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org
fly ashes can affect the performance of concrete in the fresh
and hardened states
d) An increased understanding of the interaction among
fly ash and cement phases, microstructure, and how these
effects can be quantitatively related to concrete service life
through service life models
e) A more appropriate characterization of the glass phases
in fly ash and their effect on pozzolanic properties
f) A more useful understanding of the effects that fly ash
has on concrete performance after the concrete has been
exposed to deicer salts, seawater, or both
g) D etermine the significance of changes in fly ash due to
mercury removal
h) Evaluate ponded and landfilled fly ashes to determine
the amount of beneficiation required for use in concrete
CHAPTER 4-EFFECTS OF FLY ASH ON
CONCRETE
4.1 -Effects on properties of fresh concrete
4.1.1 Workability-Fly ash typically has a lower specific
gravity than cement. Therefore, when fly ash is used to
replace a portion of cement on a mass basis in a unit volume
of concrete, the volume of paste, assuming the water­
cementitious materials ratio (w/cm) is constant, will increase.
In many cases, fly ash can be used as a replacement, as a
supplement, or as a replacement and supplemental material.
This will result in a greater increase in paste volume for a
given water content. This increase in paste volume produces
a concrete with greater plasticity and better cohesiveness
(Lane 1 983). In addition, the increase in the volume of fines
from fly ash can compensate for deficient aggregate fines.
Fly ash changes the flow behavior of the cement paste (Rudz­
inski 1 984). The spherical shape of fly ash particles normally
permits the water in the concrete to be reduced for a given
workability (Brown 1 980). Ravina (1984) reported on a
Class F fly ash that reduced the rate of slump loss compared
to concrete without fly ash, in hot weather conditions. Class
C fly ashes generally have a high proportion of particles
finer than 10 11m (Electric Power Research Institute 1 984),
which favorably influences concrete workability. Bentz et a!.
(20 1 2b) indicate that, in addition to the ball-bearing effect,
fly ash improves rheology simply by diluting the concentra­
tion of flocculating cement particles in the microstructure.
Data on the rheology of fresh mixtures of fly ash, cement,
and water were reviewed in detail by Helmuth ( 1 987).
Additional references of interest with respect to rheology of
cement-fly ash mixtures include Ferraris et a!. (200 1 ), Kwan
and Li (20 13), and Lee et a!. (2003).
4.1.2 Bleeding-Using fly ash in air-entrained and non-air­
entrained concrete mixtures reduces bleeding by providing a
greater surface area of solid particles and requiring a lower
water content for a given workability (Idorn and Henriksen
1 984). The specific performance of fly ash in structural
grouts with respect to bleeding and rheological properties
has been considered by Khayat et a!. (2008), where a greater
resistance to forced bleeding compared with ordinary port­
land cement (OPC) reference mixtures was observed.
 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)
4.1.3 Pu mpability-Improved pumpability of concrete
may result when fly ash is used. For mixtures deficient in
the smaller sizes of fine aggregate or of low cement content,
the addition of fly ash will make concrete or mortar more
cohesive and less prone to segregation and bleeding. Further,
the spherical shape of the fly ash particles serves to increase
workability and pumpability by decreasing friction between
particles and between the concrete and the pump line (Best
and Lane 1 980). However, in some cases, particularly with
high cementitious content, high-volume fly ash mixtures,
pumpability may be reduced. For these mixtures, a field
mockup is recommended to ensure the concrete mixture
meets the pumpability requirements (ACI 232.3R).
4.1.4 Time of setting-The setting characteristics of
concrete are influenced by numerous factors including
ambient and concrete temperature; cement type, composi-
tion, and fineness; cementitious content; water content;
water-soluble alkalis; use and dosages of several types of
chemical admixtures; the amount of fly ash; and the fine-
ness and chemical composition of the fly ash (Plowman
and Cabrera 1 984). The use of fly ash can extend the time
of setting of concrete if the hydraulic cement content is
reduced. Grutzeck et al. ( 1984) and Eren et al. ( 1 995) found
retardation with Class C fly ash. Setting delays can be effec-
tively mitigated b y the addition o f fine limestone powder to
a mid- to high-volume fly ash mixture (Bentz et al. 20 12a) or
by use of a rapid-set cement or addition of Ca(OH)2 (Bentz
20 1 0). The actual effect of a given fly ash on time of setting
can be determined by testing (for example, calorimetry)
when a precise determination is needed or by observation
when a less precise determination is acceptable. Pressures
on formwork can be increased when fly ash concrete is used
if increased workability, slower slump loss, or extended-
setting characteristics are encountered (Gardner 1984). Set
times can often be managed through the use of chemical
admixtures and proportioning. Tests should be conducted to
determine how a specific group of materials interact. Longer
set times for concrete with or without fly ash can increase the
probability of plastic shrinkage cracking or surface crusting
under conditions of high evaporation rates. Time of setting
is usually not impacted in mixtures where Class F fly ash is
used as an addition to a given cement content (that is, used
as a supplement thereby increasing the total cementitious
content). However, when cement is replaced in a mixture by
Class F fly ash, maintaining the original total cementitious
content, retardation may occur depending on the amount of
cement removed from the mixture. The properties of Class
C fly ash may change time of setting in concrete to a greater
extent than Class F.
4.1.5 Finish ability When fly ash concrete has a longer
- fraction and thereby the adsorption potential of the fly ash.
time of setting than concrete without fly ash, finishing should
be delayed, just as with a slow-setting concrete without fly
ash. Failure to finish slower-setting concrete at a later time
could lead to premature finishing, which can seal the bleed
water under the top surface, creating a plane of weakness.
Using very wet mixtures containing fly ashes with very light
unbumed carbon particles or cenospheres can cause these
particles to migrate upward and collect at the surface, which
American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org
19
can lead to an unacceptable appearance, dependent upon the
volume of the particles in the mixture. Sometimes, the addi-
tion of fly ash results in stickiness and consequent difficul-
ties in finishing. In such cases, the concrete may have too
much fine material or too high of an air content.
4.1.6 Air entrainment-The use of fly ash in air-entrained
concrete will generally require a change in the dosage of the
air-entraining admixtures (AEAs) (Yurdakul et al. 20 14).
Some fly ashes, however, require little or no increase in the
AEA dosage. In fact, some Class C fly ashes can reduce the
amount of AEA required, particularly for those with signifi-
cant water-soluble alkalis in the fly ash (Pistilli 1983). When
using a fly ash with a high LOI, more frequent testing of air
content at the point of placement is desirable to maintain
control of air content in the concrete. Meininger ( 1 9 8 1 ) and
Gebler and Klieger ( 1 983) have shown that those fly ashes
that require a higher admixture dosage, with similar w/cm
to mixtures not containing fly ash, tend to exhibit more air
loss in fresh concrete. When this problem is suspected, air
tests should be made as the concrete is placed to measure
the magnitude of the loss in air content and to provide infor-
mation necessary to adjust the dosage level for adequate air
content at the time of placement. Agitation of the concrete is
required for loss of air content to continue. Meininger ( 1 9 8 1 )
showed that once the mixture is placed, consolidated, and
finished in the forms, no further appreciable loss of air content
is encountered. In one investigation (Gebler and Klieger
1 983), the retention of air content over a 90-minute period
in different fly ash concretes ranged from approximately 40
to 1 00 percent, as measured on the fresh concrete, expressed
on the basis of the initial air content. Air contents were also
measured in the hardened concrete. This study showed that
for conditions where the air reduction occurred, the air
content in the hardened concrete was not reduced below
3.5 percent. The spacing factor increased, but not above
the accepted limit of 0.008 in. (0.20 mm). The loss of air
depends on numerous factors: properties and proportions of
fly ash; cement; fine aggregate; length of mixing or agitating
time; and type of AEA used (Gaynor 1 980; Meininger
1 9 8 1 ). Ley (20 1 0) has proposed that a correlation between
the gravimetric and pressure methods for determining air
can be employed to determine requisite AEA dosage with
a single concrete mixture, including mixtures containing fly
ash at various replacement levels for cement. Carbon in fly
ash adsorbs AEAs from the fresh concrete, thereby nega-
tively affecting air entrainment development (Freeman et al.
1 997; Yu et al. 2000). To minimize this occurrence, ASTM
C6 1 8 limits the loss on ignition (LOI) in fly ash to 6 percent
or less. Presumably, the LOI fraction represents the carbon
However, this has been shown to be unreliable in many cases
(Brown and Dykstra 1 995 ; Sutter et al. 20 1 3 a). Therefore,
new tests have been developed to measure the adsorption
capacity of fly ash. The foam-index test, iodine number test,
and direct adsorption isotherm measurement test (Appendix
A) are quality control tests that can be used to check succes-
sive shipments of fly ash to detect a change in the required
dosage ofAEA in concrete. The test is used to predict needed
cCiC'iJ
20 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)
6 8 �------
5
!
-5
�
4
3
�!.:
·�� 2
1:1.
...Cement Only
E �[ 2
0
u -D-Cement, 30% Class F Replacement
0
0 15 30 45 60 75
Days
Fig. 4.2. 1 a-Rate of strength gain for a cement only
concrete mixture and a mixture with 30 percent Class Ffly
ash replacement (Sutter et al. 2014).
adjustments in the admixture dosage. There exists a variety
of technologies for reducing the carbon content of fly ash or
for compensating for the increased dosage of air entrainment
( 1 .3.3).
4.2-Effects on properties of hardened concrete
4.2.1 Compressive strength and rate of strength gain­
Both the strength at a given age and the rate of strength
gain of fly ash concrete are affected by the characteristics
of the specific fly ash, the cement with which it is used,
and the proportions of each used in the concrete (Electric
Power Research Institute 1984 ). As shown in Fig. 4.2 . 1 a,
when compared with concrete without fly ash propor­
tioned for equivalent 28-day compressive strength, concrete
containing a Class F fly ash can develop lower strength at 7
days or less when tested at room temperature (Sutter et a!.
2014). By using accelerators, activators, water reducers, or
by changing the mixture proportions, equivalent 3- or 7-day
strength can be achieved (Bhardwaj et a!. 1 980; Swamy et
a!. 1 983 ; Dhir et a!. 1 998; Shi and Qian 2000). For example,
test results indicate that silica fume can be used in concrete
containing fly ash to increase the early strength. Simulta­
neous use of silica fume and fly ash resulted in a continuing
increase in 56- and 9 1 -day strengths, indicating the presence
of sufficient calcium ions for both the silica fume reaction
and the longer-term fly ash reaction to continue (Carette
and Malhotra 1 983). Also, Mukherjee et a!. ( 1 982) have
shown that increased early strengths can be achieved in fly
ash concrete by using high-range water-reducing admix­
tures and reducing the w/cm. Changing to a Type III cement
can also increase early-age strengths and this approach is
currently used by some ready-mix operations. Also, fine
limestone powder can be used instead of silica fume (Bentz
et a!. 20 1 3b ). After the rate of strength gain of hydraulic
cement slows, the continued pozzolanic activity of fly ash
provides strength gains at later ages if the concrete is kept
moist (Fig. 4.2. 1 a). Therefore, concrete containing fly ash
with equivalent or lower strength at early ages could have
equivalent or higher strength at later ages than concrete
American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org
7 +-----
- -
- - - - -o
�: 4
!==�;:�
rr;�-���-�o-�::::::==--=--=-=--:--:--:--:-�--�--�--�-�--�--;--;--�-�--�-::
�------
��
3
t---,
1{------------------------------------
+-+--------------------------------------
1- ------------------
·� -+-Cement Only
-o -cement, 15% Class C Replacement
-*"·Cement, 15% Class F Replacement
90 0 15 30 45 60 75 90
Days
Fig. 4. 2. 1 b-Rate of strength gains for a cement only
concrete mixture and mixtures with 15 percent Class C and
Class Ffly ash replacement, respectively (Sutter et al. 2014).
without fly ash. This strength gain will continue with time
and result in higher later-age strengths than can be achieved
by using additional cement (Berry and Malhotra 1 980).
Using 28-day strengths as references, Lane and Best ( 1 982)
reported a strength increase of 50 percent at 1 year for
concrete containing fly ash, as compared with 30 percent
for concrete without fly ash. Other tests, comparing concrete
with and without fly ash, showed significantly higher perfor­
mance for the concrete containing fly ash at ages up to 1 0
years (Mather 1 965). Using efficiency factors to compare
pozzolans with cement in terms of strength and chloride
penetration, Papadakis and Tsimas (2002) found ground fly
ashes were similar to cement by 7 days, increased with time,
and showed significantly better performance than natural
pozzolans. The ability of fly ash to aid in achieving high ulti­
mate strengths has made it a useful ingredient in the produc­
tion of high-strength concrete (Blick et a!. 1 974; Schmidt
and Hoffman 1 975 ; Joshi 1 979). Fly ashes produced from
burning coal with up to 25 percent petroleum coke have been
shown to perform as well in concrete as fly ashes produced
from burning only coal, provided beneficiation to control
carbon is performed (Scott and Thomas 2007). As shown in
Fig. 4.2. 1 b, Class C fly ashes often exhibit a higher rate of
reaction at early ages than Class F fly ashes (Sutter et a!.
2014). Even though Class C fly ash displays increased early­
age activity, strength at later ages in high-strength concrete
appears to be quite acceptable. Class C fly ashes typically
give very good strength results at 28 days. Cook ( 1 98 1 ) and
Pitt and Demirel ( 1 983) reported that some Class C fly ashes
were as effective as hydraulic cement on an equivalent-mass
basis. Certain Class C fly ashes, however, may not show the
later-age strength gain typical of Class F fly ashes. Elevated
temperature curing has a much more beneficial effect on the
early-age strength and strength gain of concrete containing
fly ash than on concrete without fly ash. It can be explained
by the apparent higher activation energy for pozzolanic reac­
tions than required for hydration of cement. A fly ash with
a relatively large fraction of coarse particles may be used
effectively in concrete under thermal curing conditions, and
 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18) 21

demonstrate a significant improvement in concrete compres­ 3�00

(24.2 1 f� • 3000 PSI (20.7 MPal
sive strength, in contrast to the rather limited contribution NOMINAL MAXIMUM SIZE AGGREGATE •

that would be seen for the same fly ash under normal curing 3/4 INCHES ( 1 9 .0 mml

conditions at ages up to 28 days (Ravina 1 9 8 1 ). The strength 3000

( 2 0.7
gain of fly ash concrete is also accelerated by autogenous
temperature rises and, in large placements, the in-place
strength of concrete containing fly ash may be greater than
2500
concrete without fly ash, even at early ages; in such cases, ( 1 7. 3 1

the use of temperature-matched curing may be employed

to determine the in-place strength (Bamforth 1 980). Obla �
::1!
- 2 000 PLAIN CONCRETE
et a!. (2008) have shown the maturity method convention­ u; I 1 3.8
"- LY ASH CONCRETE
ally employed for OPC concretes is equally applicable to
concretes with fly ash, including HVFA concrete mixtures. ::1
"'
A unique feature observed for their HVFA mixtures was a:: 1 5 00
ti; ( I 0.4)
that, unlike their OPC counterparts, ultimate strength was
enhanced at higher curing temperatures. Research in Class C
fly ash (Cook 1 982) and Class F fly ash (Brink and Halstead 1 000
( 6. 9)
1 956) showed that, in most cases, the pozzolanic activity
increased at all ages proportionally with the percent passing
the No. 325 (45 f.tm) sieve. Bouzoubaa et a!. (2000) found
500
greater compressive strengths in HVFA concretes with ( 3. 5)

all types of fly ashes at all ages where fly ash was inter­
ground in blended cement, compared to concrete mixtures
made with unground fly ashes added separately. Popovics
0 200 400 600 BOO 1000
(1 986), after analyzing Ghosh's ( 1 9 76) test results and
STRAIN. millionths
from his own experiments, noticed that strength differences
between plain portland cement concrete and fly ash concrete Fig. 4.2. 2-Stress-strain relationship at 90 days (Tennessee
decreased with the decrease of w!cm. He found that, similar Valley Authority 1981) (1 MPa 145 psi). =

to OPC concrete, fly ash concrete follows Abrams ' ( 1 9 1 9)

rule not only qualitatively but also quantitatively. That is,
the strength F can be approximated as follows: F AfB [ l
= w
(c+pJJ, where w!(c + p) is the w/cm, and A and B are constants
whose values depend on the quality of the cement used, the
age of the concrete, and curing conditions (Abrams 1 9 1 9).
Using Abram's rule, Popovics ( 1 99 1 ) predicted strength
contributions from the fly ash and cement phases in a fly
ash concrete. His experiments indicated that even at 1 day,
concrete containing 25 percent Class F fly ash had higher
strengths than the predicted strength contribution from the
cement phase alone. He suggested this strength increase
could be either attributed to the reduction in initial porosity
of the paste by fine particles of fly ash and quartz powder, or
to the acceleration of hydration of the cement phase due to
nucleation effects from fly ash particles for C-S-H gel. The
presence of limestone powder in portland cement, in fly ash
concrete, has been shown to lead to increased volumes of
hydration products and compressive strengths due in part to
alumina in fly ash (De Weerdt et a!. 201 1 ).
4.2.2 Modulus of elasticity-The modulus of elasticity
of Class F fly ash concrete and its compressive strength are
somewhat lower at early ages and marginally higher at later
ages than similar concrete without fly ash (Lane and Best
1 982). The effects of fly ash on modulus of elasticity are not
as significant as the effects offly ash on compressive strength.
Figure 4.2.2 shows a comparative stress-strain relationship
for fly ash concrete and concrete without fly ash, with 3/4 in.
( 1 9.0 mm) nominal maximum-size aggregate. The increase
in modulus of elasticity under these conditions with Class F
fly ash is small. The study concludes that cement and aggre-
gate characteristics will have a greater effect on modulus of
elasticity than the use of fly ash (Cain 1 979).
4.2.3 Creep-The rate and magnitude of creep strain
in concrete depend on several factors, including ambient
temperature and moisture conditions, strength of concrete,
modulus of elasticity, aggregate content, the age of the
concrete when load is applied, and the ratio of the sustained
stress to the strength at the time of loading. The effects of
fly ash on creep strain of concrete are limited primarily to
the extent to which fly ash influences the ultimate strength
and the rate of strength gain. When constant load is applied
to concrete with a given volume of cement plus fly ash at
ages of 28 days or less, a higher creep strain occurs when
compared to concrete having an equal volume of cement
only. This is due to the lower strength of fly ash concrete
at the time of loading (Lane and Best 1 982). Lane and Best
( 1 982), however, showed that concrete with fly ash propor-
tioned to have the same strength at the age of loading as
concrete without fly ash produced less creep strain at all
subsequent ages. When specimens with and without fly ash
are sealed to prevent moisture losses, simulating conditions
in mass concrete, creep strain values are essentially equal
after loading at an age of 1 year (Ghosh and Timusk 1 9 8 1 ).
When unsealed specimens of equal strength were loaded at
1 year, creep strain values for concrete containing fly ash
were half those measured for concrete without fly ash. Most
investigations have shown that when concrete with and
without Class F fly ash having equivalent 28-day strengths

American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org cCiC'iJ

22 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)
are loaded equally at the same age, the fly ash concrete
will exhibit lower long-term creep due to the greater late­
age strength common to most fly ash concrete. Yuan and
Cook ( 1 983) investigated the creep of concrete with Class
C fly ash. With 20 percent replacement, creep was approxi­
mately the same; at above 20 percent, creep increased with
increasing fly ash content.
4.2.4 Bond-Concrete bond or adhesion to steel is depen­
dent on numerous parameters, including the surface area of
the steel in contact with the concrete, the location of rein­
forcement, and the density of the concrete. One research
study indicated there is an increase in bond strength as the
amount of fly ash in the concrete mixture is increased to a
certain limit, after which bond strength decreases (Naik et
a!. 1 989). Looney et a!. (20 1 2) published a study of bond
strength to reinforcing steel for HVFA mixtures. For the
specimens studied, it was found that HVFA concrete had
a reinforcement bond strength comparable to or slightly
greater than plain portland cement concrete.
4.2.5 Impact resistance-The impact resistance of
concrete is governed largely by the compressive strength
of the mortar and the hardness of the coarse aggregate. The
use of fly ash in a concrete mixture would be expected to
affect the impact resistance only to the extent that it affects
the concrete's ultimate compressive strength. However, no
research has been identified to substantiate this hypothesis.
4.2.6 Abrasion resistance-Compressive strength, curing,
finishing, and aggregate properties are the major factors
controlling the abrasion resistance of concrete (ACI 20 1 .2R;
ACI 2 1 0R). At equal compressive strengths, properly
finished and cured concrete with and without fly ash will
exhibit essentially equal resistance to abrasion.
4.2. 7 Temperature rise-The chemical reaction of cement
and water generates heat, which has an important bearing on
the rate of strength gain and on early stress development due
to differential volume change in concrete. Most of this heat
is generated during the early stages of hydration of the alite
(that is, substituted C3 S) and C3 A phases of the cement. The
rate of hydration and heat generation depends on numerous
parameters : quantity, fineness, and type of cement; mass
of the structure; method of placement; temperature of the
concrete at the time of placement; and curing temperature.
The heat generated can be reduced by using fly ash as a
portion of the cementitious material in concrete, as shown
in Fig. 4.2.7 (Sutter et a!. 2014). As the amount of cement
is reduced, the heat of hydration of the concrete is gener­
ally reduced (Mehta 1 983 ; Mather 1 974). Some Class C fly
ashes, however, do contribute to early temperature rise in
concrete (Dunstan 1984). When heat of hydration is of crit­
ical concern, the proposed concrete mixture should be tested
for temperature rise.
4.2.8 Resistance to high temperatures-Carette et a!.
( 1 982) indicated the use of fly ash in concrete does not
change the mechanical properties of concrete in relation
to similar concrete containing only portland cement when
exposed to sustained high-temperature conditions ranging
from 1 70 to l l l 0°F (75 to 600°C).
American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org
-Cement Only -Cement, 15% Class F Ash -Cement, 30% Class F Ash ----- Oavs
100.0 r------.,--;--,
90.0
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
Time (minutes)
Fig. 4.2. 7-Variation oftemperature with time for mixtures
with 15 percent and 30 percent replacement with Class Ffly
ash. Temperatures measured using semi-adiabatic calorim­
etry (Sutter et a!. 2014).
4.2.9 Resistance to freezing and thawing-The resistance
to damage from freezing and thawing of concrete made with
or without fly ash depends on many parameters, including
the adequacy of the air-void system, the soundness of the
aggregates, age, maturity of the cement paste, and moisture
condition of the concrete (Mindess et a!. 2002). Care should
be exercised in proportioning mixtures and curing in-place
concrete to ensure the concrete has sufficient strength
when first exposed to cycles of freezing and thawing. ACI
201 .2R recommends a minimum concrete strength of 500
psi (3 . 5 MPa) before concrete drops below freezing. When
comparing properly air-entrained concrete, investigators
found no significant difference in the resistance to freezing
and thawing of concrete with and without Class F fly ash
(Lane and Best 1 982) or Class C fly ash (Majko and Pistilli
1 984). In addition, Halstead ( 1 986) exposed fly ash concrete
to freezing and thawing at very early ages and found no
degradation of performance as compared with control
concrete. In another study, researchers examined resistance
to freezing and thawing of concrete mixtures containing fly
ash, using separately Class C and Class F fly ashes substi­
tuted at three different levels (that is, 15, 30, and 40 percent)
with three different cements and two different aggregates.
Generally, the results showed that freezing-and-thawing
performance was acceptable at each replacement level.
However, there were some mixtures where performance was
not adequate, mainly with one specific Class F fly ash (Sutter
et a!. 2014). In this latter study, AASHTO T 1 6 1 (ASTM
C666/C666M) testing was performed using a 4 percent
CaC12 solution rather than water as the soak solution during
testing. This is a very severe modification of the AASHTO T
1 6 1 (ASTM C666/C666M) test and a higher level of failure
was not unexpected.
4.2.10 Deicing scaling-Scaling of concrete exposed
to deicing chemicals occurs when immature or non-air­
entrained concrete pavements are exposed to deicing
chemicals in a freezing-and-thawing environment. Gener­
ally, deicing chemicals are not recommended for use on
any concrete during its first year of maturation. Typically,
 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)
concrete mixtures with fly ash require longer curing times to
achieve the expected strength and permeability (t, maturity),
making this recommendation even more relevant.
There is some laboratory research that indicates concrete
containing 40 percent fly ash, as a percentage of the total
mass of cementitious material, may be more susceptible
to scaling (Gebler and Klieger 1 986; Emzen and Carras-
quillo 1 992; Johnston 1 994). However, Van den Heede et al.
(20 1 3 ) demonstrated adequate scaling resistance of HVFA
concretes when a sufficient dosage of AEA was employed.
ACI 3 1 8 restricts the level of fly ash to a maximum of 25
percent for concrete exposed to deicing salts, but does not
take into account the nature of the surface (that is, finished
versus formed surfaces).
Most instances of scaling occur in hand-finished flatwork
such as sidewalks and driveways, and occurrences in slip-
formed or formed surfaces are relatively rare. Where fly ash
is used in sidewalks and driveways that will be exposed to
freezing and thawing in the presence of deicing salts, consid-
eration should be given to ensure proper finishing and curing.
4.2.11 Permeability and corrosion protection-Concrete
is permeable to water to the extent that it has permeable
pore spaces through which water can move. Permeability
of concrete is governed by many factors such as amount
of cementitious material, water content, aggregate grading,
consolidation, and curing efficiency. Powers et al. ( 1 959)
showed the degree of hydration required to eliminate capil-
lary continuity from ordinary cement paste cured at standard
laboratory conditions was a function of the water-cement
ratio (w/c) and time. Required time ranged from 3 days at
a w/c of 0.40 to 1 year at a w/c of 0.70. Calcium hydroxide
produced by hydrating cement is water-soluble and may
leach out of hardened concrete, leaving voids for the ingress
of water. Through the pozzolanic reaction, fly ash chemi-
cally combines with Ca(OH)2 and water to produce C-S-H,
thus reducing the risk of leaching Ca(OH)2. Additionally,
the long-term reaction of fly ash refines the pore structure of
concrete to reduce the ingress of water containing chloride
ions. As a result of the refined pore structure, permeability
is reduced (Manmohan and Mehta 1 9 8 1 ; Electric Power
Research Institute 1 984). Moreover, the reduced perme-
ability of fly ash concrete can decrease the rate of ingress
of water, chloride ions, and oxygen. The pozzolanic action
of fly ash could reduce the pH of concrete, causing concerns
with regards to corrosion. However, researchers found that
an alkaline environment, very similar to that in concrete
without fly ash, remains to preserve the passivity of steel
reinforcement (Ho and Lewis 1 983). Moreover, the reduced
permeability of fly ash concrete can decrease the rate of
ingress of water, chloride ions, and oxygen. The incorpora-
tion of fly ash in concrete results in very significant reduc-
tions in the chloride diffusion coefficient of cement paste,
mortars, or concrete (Page et al. 1 9 8 1 ; Li and Roy 1986;
Thomas 1 99 1 ; Dhir and Byars 1 993 ; Kawamura and Torri
1 989; Al-Amoudi et al. 1 996). At early ages (that is, 28
days), the difference in the diffusion coefficient of fly ash
concrete and plain portland cement concrete may b e small,
but the fly ash concrete undergoes very significant reduc-
American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org
23
tions in diffusion with age, and at ages beyond 1 year, it may
have a diffusion coefficient many times lower than concrete
without fly ash (Thomas and Bamforth 1 999). Laboratory
measurements made on concrete cores extracted from a
30-year-old hydraulic dam indicated the diffusion coefficient
of fly ash concrete to be approximately one order of magni-
tude lower than that of similar concrete without fly ash in
the same structure (Thomas and Bamforth 1 999). Ternary
cement blends containing silica fume and fly ash can produce
concrete with exceptional resistance to chloride-ion penetra-
tion (Thomas et al. 1 999b), as the silica fume affects a reduc-
tion in the early-age diffusion whereas the fly ash contributes
to the ongoing reduction in diffusion as the concrete matures .
Significant reductions in chloride diffusion coefficients and
chloride permeability have been measured at both early and
later ages when small amounts (8 to 12 percent) of ultra-fine
fly ash were used as a cement replacement (Obla et al. 2000).
4.2.12 Reduction of expansion caused by alkali-silica
reaction (ASR)-It is well established that use of low-
calcium Class F fly ash is an effective means for controlling
deleterious expansion due to alkali-silica reaction (Diamond
1 9 8 1 b; Du et al. 2013 ; Hayman et al. 2 0 1 0; Shehata and
Thomas 2000). The beneficial effect is attributed to the
reaction between the siliceous glass in the fly ash and alkali
hydroxides in the concrete pore solution, which reduces the
availability of alkalis for expansive reactions with reactive
aggregates. Figure 4.2 . 12a (Sutter et al. 20 1 3b) shows the
expansion of concrete prisms (ASTM C l 293 test method)
containing high-alkali cement (raised to 1 .25 percent
Na20eq), a reactive siliceous limestone, and eight different
fly ashes used at a 20 percent, 30 percent, and 40 percent
level of replacement after 2 years storage over water in
sealed containers at 1 00°F (38°C). All the fly ashes are effec-
tive in reducing expansion compared to the control without
fly ash, which expanded by 0 . 1 4 percent after 2 years. At 30
percent replacement level, all four Class F and one Class C
fly ash were able to reduce the expansion to less than 0.04
percent. Figure 4.2 . 1 2b shows the effect of ash composition
by presenting the same expansion data plotted as a function
of the sum of the oxides. As can be seen, the Class C fly ash
that was able to mitigate ASR at 30 percent had a relatively
high sum of the oxides (that is, a commensurate lower level
of CaO). Class C fly ashes with a low sum of the oxides (a
higher level of CaO) were generally less effective and were
not able to prevent deleterious expansion and cracking when
used at even a 40 percent level of replacement. Fly ashes with
very high levels of alkali (greater than 5 percent Na20eq)
are also not effective in preventing damaging expansion.
Figures 4.2. 12a and 4.2 . 1 2b show some Class C fly ashes
can control damaging expansion, provided it is used at a
sufficiently high level of replacement. Other studies have
shown that Class C fly ashes can be effective in controlling
ASR expansion when used at replacement levels above 40
percent (Hicks 2007; American Coal Ash Association 2008).
Bektas et al. (2004) were able to control ASR expansion in
mortar bars with a subbituminous coal fly ash containing 1 3
percent CaO at a 20 percent cement replacement. Shehata
and Thomas (2002) tested combinations of silica fume with
cCiC'iJ
24 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)

I!:I Ciass F #1 • Class F #2 lSI Class F #3 1:1 Class F #4 0.30 ,-------,

C Ciass C #1 fJCiass C #2 • class C #3 C Ciass C #4 (b) Fly Ash with 5% Silica Fume
�
0 0.16

CJ)
.s:: 0.14
c
0
E 0.12 +----- 0.141% Expansion for COntrol ® 24 Months -
'<t
N
0.10
<ti
c:
0 0.08
'iii
c:
t1l 0.06
c.
X
Q)
0.04
E
CJ) WM
0.02

--�. ;M�
(t
0.00 ---- ----- -1
20 30 40
Percent replacement of cement with fly ash (% wt)
FLY ASH, %
Fig. 4.2. 12a-Effect of fly ash replacement level on the
expansion ofconcrete with highly reactive Spratt aggregates Fig. 4.2. 12c-Controlling ASR expansion with ternary
(Sutter et al. 2013b). cement blends containing silica fume (5 percent by mass)
andfly ash. SF indicates mixtures with silica fume, FM indi­
- Class C Class F -
cates mixtures with low-calcium fly ash (6. 38 percent mass
0.12
�
0
Ca), WM indicates mixtures with medium-calcium fly ash
0
.,
.s::
0. 1 0 (18.46 percent mass Ca), and OK indicates mixtures with
-e •o 020% Cement
0 Replacement high-calcium fly ash (2 7. 71 percent mass Ca). Fly ash WM
E ..
"" 0.08 • had a relatively high alkali content (4. 14 percent Na20 eq)
N 0
0 •3D% Cement
,. Replacement (Shehata and Thomas 2002).
c: 0.06
0 0 v
oo
'iii 040% Cement
c: 0 . 3 0 ,------,
.. 0.04 Replacement
a. •
)( 0 •
(Alkali content)
..
E 0.02 •
.!!!
n:
0.00
50 60 70 80 90 100

Sum of Oxides (SiO,+AI,O,+Fe,O,) (% wt.)

Fig. 4.2. 12b-Effect offly ash composition on the expansion

of concrete with highly reactive Spratt aggregates (Sutter et
al. 2013b).

three fly ashes of low, medium, and high calcium content

using ASTM C l 293 . The medium-CaO fly ash also had a
relatively high alkali content (4 . 1 4 percent Na20 eq). The
results (Fig. 4.2. 1 2c) show that blends of 5 percent mass
silica fume with 10 to 15 percent low-calcium fly ash or
20 to 30 percent high-alkali or high-calcium fly ash can be
effective in controlling damaging ASR. Figure 4.2. 1 2d illus­
trates the phenomenon of a pessimum level, where particular
replacement levels of some high-alkali fly ashes increase the
problem of ASR and higher replacement levels of the same
fly ash reduce the problem of ASR (Farbiarz and Carras­
quillo 1 987). The pessimum level of a particular fly ash is
an important consideration when selecting mixture propor­
tions using potentially reactive aggregates. Lane ( 1 999)
provides results of tests of five Class F fly ashes in mortar
tests (ASTM C441 /C44 1 M) with portland cements having
alkali contents of 0.60, 0.75, or 0.92 percent, respectively,
with the fly ashes being used variously as cement replace­
ments of 1 5 , 20, 25, or 35 percent by mass. The results
indicated the level of fly ash required to limit expansion
to an acceptable level (less than or equal to 0 . 1 0 percent at
0 10 20 30 40 50
Cement replacement, percent by volume
Fig. 4. 2. 12d-Mortar bar expansion versus percentage of
cement replaced for all highly reactive aggregate mixtures
containing fly ash with greater than 1 . 5 percent alkali
(Farbiarz and Carrasquillo 1987).
56 days) was largely a function of the alkali content of the
cement. Between 1 5 and 20 percent fly ash was effective
when used with cement with 0.60 percent Na20eq, but higher
amounts of25 and 35 percent were required for the cements
with 0.75 and 0.92 percent Na20eq , respectively. Thomas
and Innis ( 1 999) used the accelerated mortar bar test (ASTM
C l 567) and the concrete prism test (ASTM C l 293) to eval­
uate the effect of mineral admixtures on expansion due to
ASR. The evaluation comprised use of 70 different mate­
rial combinations, including two low-calcium fly ashes (less
than 8 percent CaO), three intermediate-calcium fly ashes (8
to 20 percent CaO), and nine high-calcium fly ashes (greater
than 20 percent CaO). For aggregates that were shown to

American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org

 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)
be deleteriously reactive by both test methods, there was
generally good agreement between the test results when the
failure criteria used were expansion of mortar bars at 14 days
greater than 0. 10 percent and expansion of concrete prisms
at 2 years greater than 0.040 percent. It was concluded that
combinations of fly ash and reactive aggregates that pass the
accelerated mortar bar tests can be used in the field with a
very low and acceptable risk of deleterious expansion due
to ASR. Using a highly reactive siliceous limestone as
aggregate, the safe replacement level for the tested fly ashes
ranged from 15 to 5 1 percent in the concrete prism test at
2 years and from 1 3 to 56 percent in the mortar test at 1 4
days. Significantly higher replacement levels were required
for high-calcium fly ashes compared with low-calcium fly
ashes. Barringer ( 1 999) describes use of combinations of
fly ash and lithium salts to control the deleterious effects of
ASR in concrete. The investigation included four Class F
and one Class C fly ashes, five aggregate sources, and one
Type IIII cement having an alkali content of approximately
0.55 percent as Na20 equivalent. Lithium nitrate was used to
provide water-soluble lithium as a supplementary admixture.
AASHTO T 303 was employed, comprising 1 2 1 sets of four
mortar bars. A Class F fly ash producing the greatest reduc-
tion of expansion was chosen for use with the lithium nitrate.
The Class C fly ash and the blend of Class C and F fly ash did
not perform well and were not included in tests involving the
lithium salt. The combinations of lithium nitrate and Class
F fly ash were more effective in the reduction of expansion
using lesser proportions of each than would be required with
either material used singly. If an aggregate produced expan-
sion in this test of approximately 0.80 percent at 14 days, it
was recommended the initial trial batch include a 25 percent
by mass Class F fly ash replacement ofthe total cementitious
material or a combination of 1 5 percent Class F fly ash and
lithium nitrate at 1 00 percent of the manufacturer 's recom-
mendation (Barringer 1 999). The amount of fly ash required
to control deleterious expansion will vary depending on the
composition of the fly ash, the reactivity of the aggregate,
and the availability of alkalis in the concrete. Consequently,
it is recommended the specific fly ash-aggregate combination
be tested to determine the minimum level required to control
expansion. Prescriptive guidelines, such as AASHTO PP
65 and ASTM C l 778, are available for selecting the proper
amount of fly ash on the basis of the fly ash composition,
aggregate reactivity, alkali content of the portland cement,
and the nature of the structure-for example, size, exposure
condition, and required service life. Guidance on materials
selection and mixture design for airport pavements is found
in Rao et al. (20 1 1 ).
4.2. 1 3 Sulfate resistance-As a general rule, Class F fly
ash can improve the sulfate resistance of concrete mixtures
(Dhole et al. 2013; Sahmaran et al. 2007). The increase
in sulfate resistance is believed to be due in part to the
continued reaction of fly ash with Ca(OH)2 in concrete to
continue to form secondary C-S-H, which fills in capillary
pores in the cement paste, reducing permeability and the
ingress of sulfate solutions. The situation with Class C fly
ash is somewhat less clear. Evidence suggests that some
American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org
25
Class C fly ashes may reduce sulfate resistance when used
in normal proportions. Mather ( 1 982) found that several
Class C fly ashes used at 30 percent replacement of several
high-C3A cements made the system less sulfate resistant.
Numerous researchers have shown that concrete containing
some high-calcium fly ashes are susceptible to sulfate attack
and, generally, higher volumes of high-calcium fly ash
mixtures have a greater susceptibility to sulfate deteriora-
tion (Tikalsky et al. 1 992; Tikalsky and Carrasquillo 1 993 ;
Dunstan 1 976). Two high-calcium Class C fly ashes tested by
Shashiprakash and Thomas (200 1) showed very poor perfor-
mance when tested i n mortars exposed to 5 percent sulfate
solution (ASTM C l 0 1 2/C l 0 1 2M) in terms of rapid expan-
sion followed by complete disintegration of the mortar in
some cases. However, much improved performance (that is,
expansion less than 0. 1 0 percent at 1 year) was achieved in
ternary blends containing the same fly ash and 6 percent silica
fume. Deterioration due to sulfate attack depends on chemical
reactions that yield products of greater volume than those
of the original reactants, resulting in expansion. A reaction
occurs between the sulfates, usually of external origin, such
as sulfate-bearing soils or sulfate-rich groundwater and reac-
tive phases, that produces calcium sulfoaluminates. Damage
due to this reaction can be reduced by minimizing the amount
of C3A in the cement. Dikeou ( 1 975) and Pierce ( 1 982) estab-
lished that certain fly ashes used in concrete under wetting-
and-drying conditions greatly improve the sulfate resistance
of concrete made with all types of cement. The cement and
cement-fly ash combinations studied indicated a descending
order of resistance to sulfate attack:
(a) Type V plus fly ash-most resistant to sulfate
(b) Type II plus fly ash
(c) Type V
(d) Type II
(e) Type I plus fly ash
(f) Type I-least resistant to sulfate
All fly ashes used in this study were Class F, and the
percentages of the fly ash as a percentage of total cementi-
tious material by mass varied from 1 5 to 25 percent (Dikeou
1 975). The sulfate resistance of fly ash concrete is influ-
enced by the same factors that affect concrete without fly
ash: curing conditions, exposure, and w/cm. The effect of
fly ash on sulfate resistance will be dependent on the class,
amounts, and the individual chemical and physical charac-
teristics of the fly ash and cement used. An indicator of the
relative sulfate resistance of a fly ash is the R-value devel-
oped by Dunstan ( 1 980) and discussed by Pierce ( 1 982).
The R-value is the ratio of the percentage of calcium oxide
minus 5 percent ( CaO percent - 5 percent) to the percentage
of iron oxide (Fe203 ) in a fly ash, based on the bulk chem-
ical analysis. Other research (Mehta 1 986b; Tikalsky et al.
1 992) has shown the R-value is not a definitive method for
predicting sulfate resistance. They found that sulfate resis-
tance depended on the amount of reactive alumina and the
presence of expansive phases in the fly ash and was not as
strongly influenced by Fe203 , as indicated by the R-factor.
Generally, ASTM C6 1 8 fly ashes with less than 1 5 percent
CaO content will improve the sulfate resistance of concrete.
cCiC'iJ
26 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)
Fly ashes with more CaO should be tested for sulfate expan­
sion using ASTM C l 0 1 2/C l 0 12M or USBR 4908 . The
maximum sulfate resistance will be achieved in a given
exposure and situation by employing a low w/cm, sulfate­
resisting portland cement, and fly ash that exhibits good
sulfate-resistance qualities. To select the fly ash that will
give the maximum sulfate resistance to a concrete mixture,
test various blends of cements and fly ashes using ASTM
C l 0 1 2/C l 0 1 2M. ASTM C l l 5 7/C l l 57M, the performance­
based specification for hydraulic cements (and includes
blended cements), sets a ASTM C l 0 1 2/C l 0 1 2M limit on
expansion at 6 months of 0 . 1 0 percent for moderate sulfate
resistance and 0.05 percent for high sulfate resistance. Fly
ashes with large amounts of chemically active alumina can
adversely affect sulfate resistance. ACI 3 1 8 provides both
prescriptive and performance requirements for cementitious
materials to be used in sulfate exposure classes. The ASTM
C l 0 1 2/C l 0 12M test is used to evaluate performance, and
cementitious materials should meet the following criteria:
(a) Expansion not greater than 0. 10 percent at 6 months
for S 1 exposure class
(b) Expansion not greater than 0.05 percent at 6 months or
0. 1 0 percent at 12 months for S2 exposure class
(c) Expansion not greater than 0. 1 0 percent at 1 8 months
for S3 exposure class
When concrete is to be exposed to sulfate exposure
classes, testing is required to determine the level of fly ash
required to meet the performance requirements of ACI 3 1 8.
4.2. 14 Drying shrinkage-Parameters influencing the
drying shrinkage of concrete are many and include the frac­
tional volume of paste and water content. The following
discussion addresses only the impact of fly ash on paste
content and water content. Where the addition of fly ash
increases the paste volume, drying shrinkage may be
increased slightly if the water content remains constant.
If there is a water-content reduction, shrinkage should be
approximately the same as concrete without fly ash. Davis et
al. ( 1 937) studied different fly ash and cement mixtures and
found no apparent differences in drying shrinkage between
concrete with up to 20 percent fly ash content and concrete
without fly ash. Dunstan ( 1 9 84) and Symons and Fleming
( 1 980) found that increased fly ash content resulted in
slightly less drying shrinkage.
4.2. 1 5 Effiorescence-Efflorescence is caused by leaching
of water-soluble Ca(OH)2 and other salts to external
concrete surfaces. The leached Ca(OH)z reacts with C02 in
air to form CaC03 , the source of the white discoloration on
concrete. The use of fly ash in concrete can be effective in
reducing efflorescence by reducing permeability as well as
by consuming Ca(OH)2 in the pozzolanic reaction. Reduced
permeability helps maintain the high-alkaline environment
in hardened concrete. Certain Class C fly ashes of high alkali
and sulfate contents, however, can increase efflorescence.
4.2. 1 6 Expansion produced by free magnesia-Liu et al.
( 1 998) reported the addition of fly ash or slag reduces the
expansion of cements containing free magnesia (crystalline
MgO), the effect increasing with an increase in the propor­
tion of the fly ash. Fly ash was found to be more effective
(ciCiJ American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org
than slag in this regard. Schlorholtz ( 1 998) summarized
soundness characteristics of more than 5000 fly ash samples,
primarily based on the autoclave soundness test (ASTM
C3 1 1/C3 1 1 M). Expansive constituents in fly ash are free
lime (CaO), free crystalline magnesia (MgO), and C3A. The
autoclave test is especially sensitive to the presence of free
lime.
4.2 . 1 7 Carbonation of concrete-There are conflicting
data regarding the effect of fly ash on the rate of carbonation
of concrete. Many studies have shown that fly ash concrete
will carbonate at the same or similar rate as concrete without
fly ash of the same 28-day compressive strength (Tsukayama
1 980; Lewandowski 1 983 ; Matthews 1 984; Nagataki et al.
1 986; Hobbs 1 988; Dhir et al. 1 989). Other studies, however,
have shown an increase in the rate of carbonation of fly ash
concrete (Ho and Lewis 1 983 , 1 987; Thomas and Matthews
1 992; Thomas et al. 2000), especially when relatively high
levels of fly ash are used in poorly-cured concrete with high
w/cm . Consequently, when reinforced concrete with a high
level of fly ash is used in conditions conducive to carbon­
ation-induced corrosion (for example, outdoor exposure
sheltered from precipitation), consider extending the dura­
tion of moist curing, reducing the w/cm, increasing the depth
of cover, or some combination of these measures.
CHAPTER 5-CONCRETE M IXTUR E
PROPORTIONING
5.1 -General
The most effective method to evaluate the performance
of a given fly ash in concrete and establish proper mixture
proportions for a specific application is a trial batch and
testing program (ACI 2 1 1 . 1 ). Because fly ash sources can
have similar chemical and physical properties, but different
pozzolanic or hydraulic reactivity, caution should be exer­
cised before prescribing general material combinations,
fly ash and cement proportions, or other general require­
ments. More appropriately, a series of mixtures with various
percentages of fly ash should be prepared and tested to obtain
the specified strength and durability (Ghosh 1 976; Cook
1 983). For an existing mixture design, trial batches should
be prepared using the locally available fly ash if that fly ash
was not the originally sourced material used to develop the
mixture design.
Fly ash is normally used at the rate of 15 to 35 percent
by mass of total cementitious material. However, studies
have found that fly ash used at rates of 40 to 50 percent by
mass of total cementitious material have met the compres­
sive strength and durability requirements of specific proj ­
ects (Ramme and Tharaniyil 2004; Naik and Ramme 1 986;
Thomas et al. 2000). Rahhal and Batie ( 1 994) provide data
on heat of hydration, flexural strength, and compressive
strength produced by replacement of portland cement by 1 0,
20, 30, 50, 70, and 90 percent of fly ash at ages up to 1 80
days. Larger proportions of fly ash are generally used for
mass concrete to reduce the likelihood of thermal cracking
upon cooling, improve sulfate resistance, reduce expansion
caused by alkali-aggregate reaction, or for other special
 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)
applications (Malhotra 1 984; Haque et a!. 1 984). In addition,
due to the growing sustainability movement, there is interest
in using increased amounts of fly ash as a percent of the total
cementitious material (Nawy 2009).
5.2-Considerations i n mixture proportioning
Fly ash may be used in concrete either as a constituent of
an ASTM C 1 1 57/C ! 1 5 7M performance hydraulic cement,
or as specified in ASTM C595/C595M for blended hydraulic
cement, or it may be introduced separately in the concrete
mixer. When used as part of a performance hydraulic cement
or blended hydraulic cement, the proportions of portland
cement to fly ash are fixed by the cement manufacturer. In the
case of ASTM C595/C595M, there are composition limits in
the specification, whereas in ASTM C l l 57/C l l 57M, there
are no composition limits. In mixture proportioning using
blended cement containing fly ash (ASTM C595/C595M),
the total amount of the blended cement to achieve the desired
concrete properties needs to be determined. Fly ash can be
part of a performance hydraulic cement specified under
ASTM C l l 57/C l l 57M for general use, moderate heat and
sulfate resistance, high early strength, low heat of hydration,
high sulfate resistance, or low reactivity with alkali-reactive
aggregate. When fly ash is batched separately, the individual
proportions of cement and fly ash are selected and their rela­
tive ratios should be adjusted as appropriate for each job
situation (Vargas 2007).
It is usually possible to proportion concrete mixtures for
a particular strength level with a blend of cement and fly
ash in which the volume of portland cement is less than
would be used in similar strength mixtures not containing
fly ash. If water-reducing admixtures are also used, the
cement content is usually further reduced, as is the practice
with concrete without fly ash. Lovewell and Washa ( 1 958),
Cannon ( 1 968), and Shashiprakash et a!. ( 1 994) suggested
methods of proportioning concrete containing fly ash with
and without chemical admixtures. In the absence of a water­
reducing admixture, the total volume of cementitious mate­
rial (that is, cement plus fly ash) used in fly ash concrete
may exceed the volume of cement used in portland cement
concrete mixtures to produce equal early-age strength and
equal slump. The total mass of the cementitious material
and the optimum proportion of fly ash selected depend on
the class and quality of fly ash; the type, quality, and alkali
content of the portland cement; the presence of chemical
admixtures; placement conditions; and parameters such
as strength requirements, curing conditions, and weather
conditions at the time of placement (Prusinski et a!. 1 993 ;
Majko and Pistilli 1 984).
The optimum use of fly ash and chemical admixtures may
require adjustments to the ratio of cement to fly ash be made
between winter and summer conditions. For example, in
cold weather, a reduction in the fly ash percentage of the
cementitious material may be prudent, or a change in the
type of chemical admixture or dosage rate may be needed
to permit earlier finishing or form removal. Conversely, hot
weather concreting provides greater opportunities for using
high proportions of fly ash because higher curing tempera-
American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org
27
tures tend to increase the relative strength of fly ash concrete
compared with concrete without fly ash, at all ages, espe­
cially if long-term curing is provided.
Due to the lower specific gravity of fly ash relative to
cement, and the typically lower water content of fly ash
mixtures, adjustments to concrete proportions are necessary
to maintain yield.
Using w!cm as opposed to w!c is a consistent approach
because the fly ash in a blended cement meeting ASTM
C595/C595M or C l l 5 7/C l l 5 7M will be counted as part of
the cement. When separately-hatched fly ash is used and a
maximum w!cm or minimum cement content is specified or
recommended, a generally accepted practice is to count the
mass of the fly ash as part of the required cementitious
material. The mass equivalency calculation for using fly ash
is w/(c+p) and the fly ash percent by mass of total cementi­
tious material is calculated as pl(c+p), as stipulated in ACI
2 1 1 . 1 , where w, c, and p are the quantities of water, cement,
and fly ash, respectively, and are expressed as mass per unit
volume of concrete, usually with the units of lb/yd3 (kg/m3 ).
ACI 3 1 8 stipulates the maximum w/cm limits for various
exposure conditions such as chloride, freezing and thawing,
and sulfate, and these limits also apply to fly ash concrete.
However, the maximum percentage of water-soluble chlo­
ride ions in concrete for exposure categories CO to C2 (ACI
3 1 8- 14 Table 19.3.2. 1) are calculated based on weight of port­
land cement only. ACI 3 1 8 limits fly ash to 25 percent of the
total cementitious content for Exposure Class F3 where the
concrete is exposed to freezing-and-thawing cycles that will
be in continuous contact with moisture and exposed to deicing
chemicals. The primary reason for this limit is concern about
salt scaling. Several researchers have questioned the basis for
this concern as it relates to the severity of the ASTM C672/
C672M scaling tests (Malhotra and Mehta 2008).
Similar to nonconcrete without fly ash, the water require­
ments of concrete containing fly ash can be reduced an addi­
tional 5 to 1 0 percent by using conventional water-reducing
admixtures. Data reported by Helmuth ( 1 987) indicate the
amount of water reduction obtained in concrete incorpo­
rating fly ash can vary depending on the specific fly ash used
and its proportion in the concrete. The use of high-range
water-reducing admixtures in concrete containing fly ash
can lead to water reductions of 1 5 to 40 percent. The results
appear to be largely dependent on type and dosage of admix­
ture, chemical composition of the cement, and the cementi­
tious material content of the concrete.
CHAPTER 6-FLY ASH SPECIFICATIONS, TEST
M ETHODS, AND QUALITY ASSURANCE/QUALITY
CONTROL
6 . 1 -l ntroduction
The ASTM specification for fly ash is ASTM C6 1 8, and
the relevant sampling and test methods are outlined in
ASTM C3 1 1 /C3 1 1 M. Specifiers of fly ash should use the
latest edition of ASTM C6 1 8 . AASHTO M 295 is similar to
ASTM C6 1 8 with some notable exceptions-for example,
lower loss on ignition (LOI) limits and limits on available
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28 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)

alkali. CSA A300 1 is a standard for supplementary cementi­ Table 6.1 -Proposed fly ash classification of
tious materials, including fly ash. Thomas et al. (1 999a)
The following discussion is based on the requirements of Type CaO content, wt percent Loss on ignition, wt percent
ASTM C6 1 8 and ASTM C3 1 1/C3 1 1 M. It is not intended to F Less than 8 8 maximum
be a detailed review of all requirements of all specifications.
CI 8 to 20 6 maximum
Throughout this document, the terms 'Class F' and 'Class C '
refer to fl y ash characteristics defined in ASTM C6 1 8 . CH Greater than 20 6 maximum

ASTM C6 1 8 historically linked the classification o f fly

ash to the source of the coal burned to produce that fly ash. 35
This classification method, however, ignored the fact that +---4:.:---- • crass c
30
most power-generating stations blend coal to achieve the ocrass F
desired burning conditions. Therefore, in the definitions of 25
fly ash provided in the mandatory language of ASTM C6 1 8,
all references to a coal source were removed and relocated �
0
20
R' = 0.96
to the nonmandatory notes to help advise specifiers. A Class 0
Ill 15
F fly ash is defined as a material meeting the applicable u

requirements of ASTM C6 1 8 and having pozzolanic prop­ 10

erties. Class C fly ash is similarly specified as meeting the
applicable requirements of ASTM C6 1 8 and having both
pozzolanic and some cementitious properties.
The components of fly ash exist partially in crystalline
forms and partially in a glass phase. The bulk chemical
composition is determined from elemental analysis and
expressed in terms of oxides by convention. The expression
of chemical characteristics in terms of oxide mass percentage
does not necessarily mean that those oxides are exclusively
or entirely present.
Fly ash is not specified based on the type of coal burned
largely because most coal combustion facilities use a blend of
coal to produce power. ASTM C6 1 8 classifies fly ashes on the
basis of the sum of the oxides (that is, Si02 + Ah03 + Fe203 )
in percent mass. Under this classification method, a Class F
fly ash has a sum of the oxides greater than or equal to 70.0
percent mass while a Class C fly ash has a sum of the oxides
greater than or equal to 50.0 percent mass. This classification
approach has been criticized for not being specific enough
(Diamond 1982). For example, any fly ash meeting the Class
F specification limits also meets the Class C limits, but more
importantly, the classification method has been criticized
because it does not address the CaO content (Roy et al. 1 984;
Hooton 2008). Others have criticized the classification for not
being performance oriented (Manz 1 986; Mehta 1 986a).
The issue ofaddressing the CaO content has been discussed
within ASTM and other specification-writing bodies, and
other classification methods have been proposed. Thomas et
al. ( 1 999a) distinguish between fly ashes that have different
effects on properties of fresh and hardened concrete, prin­
cipally the total calcium content, expressed as percent by
mass as CaO, as shown in Table 6. 1 . Thomas et al. ( 1 999a)
concluded that calcium oxide could be used as a reasonable
measure of the general chemical composition of fly ash and
its influence on concrete properties. The Canadian Standards
Association adopted this classification method into their
published standard for fly ash but recently updated the limits
to be Type F with CaO :S 1 5 percent; Type CI with CaO >
1 5 percent but :S 20 percent; and Type CH with CaO > 20
percent. Critics of a change to a CaO-based classification
cite the known inverse correlation between CaO content and
5
0
50 60 70 80 90 1 00
Sum of Oxides (Si02+AI203+Fe203) (% wt.)
Fig. 6. 1-Relationship between CaO content and sum of
the oxides for 30 different fly ash sources sampled in the
U.S. Sum of the oxides is the sum of the percentage mass
Si02, Al203, and Fe203. The sampled group used a variety
of U.S. coal sources and combustion technologies (Sutter et
al. 2013b).
the sum of the oxides. As shown in Fig. 6. 1 , the CaO content
consistently varies as a function of the sum of the oxides.
That is, by specifying either, the same result is achieved.
Class C fly ashes generally contain more CaO than Class
F fly ashes and have cementitious and pozzolanic properties.
The CaO is mainly combined in the siliceous and aluminous
glass but can also be present as free calcium oxide and crys­
talline calcium aluminates, or other calcium-bearing phases.
In general comparison, Class F and C fly ashes show different
performance characteristics. However, the performance of a
fly ash is not determined solely by its bulk composition.
There are important performance differences between fly
ashes from different sources. In general, sulfate-resistant
characteristics and the ability of a fly ash to mitigate the
effects of alkali-silica reaction (ASR) in concrete are a func­
tion of the proportion of fly ash used and its chemical and
physical properties. Strength enhancement characteristics of
a fly ash vary widely, depending on both the chemical and
physical properties of the fly ash and the general character­
istics of the cement when used in conjunction with fly ash.
6.2-Chemical req u i rements
ASTM and AASHTO have a minimum requirement only
for the sum of the oxides, while other specifications, such as
state DOT specifications, may put minimum or maximum
limits on a specific oxide component-for example, CaO.
This follows criticism of the sum of the oxides approach to
fly ash classification. The problem is illustrated by Majka and

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 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)
Table 6.3-Mathematical relationship between particle size and specific surface area as determ i ned on a
volume basis and a mass basis
Specific surface area per unit mass basis at various densities, m2/kg
Particle Specific surface area per
diameter, mm unit volume basis, m2/m3 2.0, kg/m3
2 3000.0 1 500.0
3 2000.0 1 000.0
4 1 500.0 750.0
5 1 200.0 600.0
6 1 000.0 500.0
7 857. 1 428.6
8 750.0 375.0
9 666.7 333.3
Pistilli ( 1 984), where properties of five ashes are reported.
They referred to these ashes as Class C because of the good
strength development obtained in concrete and CaO contents
in the 9 to 25 percent range; however, four of the five fly ashes
contained more than 70 percent sum of the oxides, which
means they were chemically classified as Class F.
Virtually all specifications have a limit on the amount of
what is reported as sulfur trioxide (S03 ) in fly ash. ASTM
C6 1 8 has a limit of 5.0 percent for both classes. The sulfate
in fly ash and cement can affect the optimum amount of fly
ash needed for maximum strength development and accept­
able time of setting for the portland cement mixture in which
it is used. An upper limit is considered necessary to avoid
an excess of sulfate remaining in the hardened concrete that
could contribute to detrimental sulfate attack.
Limits on moisture content of fly ash are necessary to
ensure proper handling characteristics. Many ashes with a
high CaO content will begin to hydrate in the presence of
moisture. ASTM C6 1 8 limits moisture to 3.0 percent.
The loss on ignition (LOI) limit established in ASTM
C6 1 8 is 6.0 percent for both Class C and F fly ashes, although
ASTM C6 1 8 stipulates " . . . Class F pozzolan containing up
to 1 2.0 percent loss on ignition (LOI) may be approved by
the user if either acceptable performance records or labo­
ratory test results are made available." CSA A300 1 allows
8 percent LOI for Type F and 6 percent for Type CI and
Type CH. Some specifiers limit LOI to a value lower than
6 percent, particularly where air-entrained concrete or other
admixtures are involved. However, this does not eliminate
air entrainment issues associated with admixture adsorption.
It is well known that at the same LOI, different fly ashes
can lead to different performance related to generating the
necessary air content. Some low-LOI fly ashes have been
observed to be more sensitive to air entrainment than higher­
LOI fly ashes (Hill and Folliard 2006), and the reason has
been attributed to the presence of finer carbon that, in spite of
lower LOI, can have a more significant effect on air entrain­
ment due to its high specific surface area. Variability of LOI
at a given source is as important as the actual LOI value,
and the correct approach is to test the fly ash frequently
for its effect on air entrainment rather than restricting LOI
of fly ash, which does not always mitigate problems with
American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org
29
2.5, kg/m3 3.0, kg/m3 3.15, kg/m3
1 200.0 1 000.0 952.4
800.0 666.7 634.9
600.0 500.0 476.2
480.0 400.0 3 8 1 .0
400.0 333.3 3 1 7.5
342.9 285.7 272 . 1
300.0 250.0 238. 1
266.7 222.2 2 1 1 .6
air entrainment and might, in fact, provide a false sense of
security if these effects are not determined before concrete is
placed. Many fly ashes from base-load power plants are well
below 6 percent LOI, mainly due to the efficiency of opera­
tion required to make economical use of coal as an energy
source. In some special circumstances, a user may elect to
use a fly ash with a higher LOI when acceptable laboratory
or performance data are available.
6.3-Physical requirements
In ASTM C6 1 8, fly ash fineness is specified by limiting
the amount retained on the No. 325 (45 J.lm) sieve after wet
sieving. Reactivity of fly ash has been found to be related
to fineness because the coarser particles generally do not
react as rapidly in concrete (Schlorholtz 2006). ASTM C6 1 8
limits the amount retained to 3 4 percent for both Class F
and C fly ashes. Control of fineness has occasionally been
specified by measuring the specific surface (ASTM C204).
Specific surface is normally reported in surface area per unit
mass for portland cement and surface area per unit volume
for fly ash; the test results are not directly comparable. The
relationships between different measures of specific surface
based on the two different approaches, and various densities
for the per mass basis, are shown in Table 6.3.
The current strength activity index with portland cement
is considered only as an indication of relative reactivity
and does not predict the compressive strength of concrete
containing fly ash. It does not bear any relation to the
optimum proportion of fly ash for use in concrete.
In the past, the strength activity test with lime filled a need
for more rapid results on strength performance-that is, 7
days rather than 28 days (Schlorholtz 2006). More recent
revisions of ASTM C6 1 8 have included a 7-day strength
activity test with portland cement. The 7-day test is detailed
in ASTM C3 1 1 /C3 1 1 M and uses standard 73 °F (23 °C) labo­
ratory curing temperatures, whereas CAN/CSA-A3000- 1 3
specifies curing at 149°F (65°C) for 7 days.
The water requirement of the mortar is used in the strength
activity test to ensure that fly ash does not cause a large
increase in mixing water demand. The ASTM standards limit
the water demand of mortar mixtures when performing the
strength activity test as described in ASTM C3 1 1 /C3 1 1 M.
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30 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)
The water requirement of mortar is measured as a percent
of the water used in the reference portland cement mortar.
The allowable water content is limited to a maximum of 105
percent by ASTM C6 1 8. At a specific value of flow, use of
fly ash in a mortar mixture normally results in a reduction in
water requirements. Therefore, the contribution of a tested
fly ash toward mortar strength as estimated by the strength
activity index is influenced by the reduction in water content
that is observed in that test (Bentz et a!. 20 1 2a).
Soundness is measured by autoclave expansion or contrac­
tion. When the fly ash constitutes more than 20 percent
of the cementitious material in the proposed concrete, the
paste used for autoclave testing should contain the antici­
pated percentage of fly ash. The test measures the delayed
expansion that can occur if sufficient amounts of MgO are
present in the concrete as periclase, or CaO as hard-burned
crystalline lime (Schlorholtz 2006). Bobrowski and Pistilli
( 1 979) found no correlation among autoclave expansion,
so3 content, and concrete strength in their laboratory study.
Other testing has reported the autoclave soundness test to be
a conservative approach to identifying potential soundness
problems (Schlorholtz 2006). A length change of0.8 percent
is the maximum allowed by ASTM C6 1 8 .
The uniformity requirements given in ASTM C6 1 8 limit the
variation of density and fineness of the fly ash for shipments
over time. For fly ash used in air-entrained concrete, there is
an optional limit on the variation of demand for air-entraining
admixture (AEA) caused by variability of the fly ash source.
This requirement captures the quantity of AEA required to
produce an air content of 1 8 .0 percent volume of mortar.
The limit on the increase in drying shrinkage of mortar
bars at 28 days should be applied only at the request of the
purchaser to show whether the fly ash will cause a substan­
tial increase in shrinkage in mortar bars as compared to bars
with portland cement only.
According to the optional physical requirements ofASTM
C 6 1 8 , fly ash is considered effective in controllingASR when
its use leads to ASR resistance that is equal to or better than
the use of a low-alkali control cement when tested according
to ASTM C3 1 1/C3 1 1 M. Optional mortar-bar expansion tests
should be requested if a fly ash is to be used with an aggre­
gate regarded as deleteriously reactive with alkalis.
Fournier and Malhotra ( 1 999) provide a detailed review
of laboratory test methods for evaluation of ASR of cement­
aggregate mixtures, including recommendations regarding
the use of fly ash as a supplementary material. AASHTO
published a guideline for mitigating ASR that also discusses
the use of fly ash for that purpose (AASHTO PP 65). The
additional testing described in AASHTO PP 65 should
be performed when fly ash is used to mitigate ASR. For
testing of laboratory specimens of concrete, ASTM C 1 293
and CAN/CSA-A23 . 1 - 1 4/A23.2 are recommended. For
testing of mortar specimens, ASTM C 1 567 and CAN/CSA­
A23.2-25A are recommended.
6.4-General specification provisions
ASTM C6 1 8 requires that the purchaser or an authorized
representative have access to stored fly ash for the purpose
(ciCiJ American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org
of inspection and sampling. The fly ash may be rejected if it
fails to meet any of the specified requirements.
6.5-Methods of sampling and testing
ASTM C3 1 1 /C3 1 1 M outlines the sampling and testing
procedures of fly ash. For numerous test procedures, refer­
ence is made to other cement, mortar, or concrete tests. In
some procedures, ASTM C3 1 1/C3 1 1 M modifies propor­
tions, preparation procedures, or test parameters needed to
accommodate fly ash testing.
Either individual grab samples or composite samples are
used, depending on the circumstances. The method provides
detailed procedures for sampling from conveyor delivering to
bulk storage, bulk storage at points of discharge, bulk storage
by means of sampling tubes, and railroad cars or trucks.
The chemical analysis first requires the determination of
moisture content by drying to constant mass and then deter­
mining the loss on ignition (LOI) from the resulting sample.
The latter requires igniting the dried sample to constant
mass in a muffie furnace at 1 382 ± 1 22°F (750 ± 50°C) in an
uncovered porcelain crucible, unlike the platinum crucible
used for cement. Many of the required chemical determina­
tions are then made using procedures that are the same as, or
very similar to, those used in testing portland cement.
Physical tests on fly ash, including density and the amount
retained on the No. 325 (45 f!m) sieve, are performed using
test methods developed for portland cement. Soundness and
strength activity testing procedures are specifically outlined
in ASTM C3 1 1/C3 1 1 M, with reference to cement testing
procedures where appropriate.
Of all the tests conducted, fineness and strength activity
are the most difficult to obtain credible and repeatable
results. The primary reason for variation in reported results
for fineness is test sieves are not precisely manufactured to
have a mesh opening of exactly 0.00 1 8 in. (45 f!m), the size
of a No. 325 sieve. The standard procedure calls for cali­
brating sieves using a portland cement reference sample and
computing a correction factor for the sieve. Because the fly
ash particles retained on the test sieve tend to be much larger
than 0.00 1 8 in. (45 f!m), the sieves' large correction factors
give inaccurate results. Sieves with small correction factors
give more accurate results. In the strength activity index test
with portland cement, results are highly dependent on the
cement used by the laboratory. Because the performance of
the cement is not controlled by the test method standards,
tests conducted by different laboratories on the same fly ash
sample may yield significantly different results. For many
of the chemical and physical tests on fly ash contained in
ASTM C3 1 1/C3 1 1 M, the precision and bias estimates have
not been established.
6.6-Sou rce qual ity control
Fly ash to be marketed in conformance with ASTM C6 1 8
should be provided under a quality control program that i s
technically and statistically sound. The first recommended
step in starting a fly ash quality control program is to estab­
lish the source's quality history. ASTM C3 1 1/C3 1 1 M lists
 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)
Table 6.6-Minimum sampl ing and testing frequency*
Test Sample type
Moisture content
Loss on ignition Regular
Fineness
Density and the other tests in ASTM C6 1 8
Composite
Tables I and 2
*Taken from ASTM C3 J J . J 6 Table 1.3.1.
the minimum sampling and testing schedules for fly ash as
shown in Table 6.6.
The purpose of the quality history is to demonstrate the
fly ash consistently conforms to specification and unifor­
mity requirements. For a new source of fly ash, at least 6
months of testing is recommended. This quality history
should include monthly ASTM C6 1 8 material certification
and at least 40 individual test results for moisture, LOI, fine­
ness, specific gravity, and S03 . An analysis of these data by
statistical techniques helps determine whether the proposed
source of fly ash is suitable for the intended use (Dhir et
al. 1 9 8 1 ). After the quality history is established, the source
should be tested at the frequency described in Table 6.6 to
ensure continued conformance.
A quality control program should be established for each
individual source. Such programs can vary with coal type,
collection systems, and other factors. The quality control
program should consider both the fly ash characteristics and
the specific requirements for its use in concrete. Testing for
critical requirements may be needed more frequently than
prescribed in ASTM C3 1 1/C3 1 1 M. All fly ashes do not have
the same critical characteristics. These characteristics may
not need to be included in every quality control program.
Periodic samples may also be retained and stored in the
event that future testing and evaluation is desirable.
A quality control program should maintain test reports on
the fly ash to demonstrate product compliance to the phys­
ical, chemical, and variability requirements of ASTM or
other project requirements, as well as monitor variability of
critical characteristics. Statistical evaluations of the test data
provide information on long-term variations.
ASTM C3 1 1 /C3 1 1 M provides for tests to be conducted
on fly ash samples from established sources at a frequency
not less than one test every 400 tons (360 metric tons) for
certain tests and not less than one test every 3200 tons
(2900 metric tons) for the remainder. Testing frequency is
higher for new sources. Some tests require at least 28 days
to complete. Consequently, it is often desirable to establish
a quality control program that employs rapid-testing tech­
niques as indicators of certain critical fly ash characteris-
tics in addition to ASTM compliance testing. Sampling and
testing on a time schedule basis, in addition to the shipping
basis prescribed by ASTM C3 1 1/C3 1 1M, may be a useful
part of the program.
Fly ash testing using rapid techniques is a basis for making
continual judgments as to the selection of fly ash from a
source and its suitability for a desired end use or directing it
to alternative uses. Refer to 6.8 and Appendix A for descrip-
tions of rapid tests. In conjunction with the quality control
American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org
31
Job site or new source Established source
Daily or each 90 Mg ( 1 00 tons) Daily or each 360 Mg (400 tons)
Monthly or each 1 800 Mg (2000 tons) Monthly or each 2900 Mg (3200 tons)
program, the fly ash supplier should be knowledgeable about
power plant operation and take action to exclude question­
able fly ash when variations in the power plant operation can
influence fly ash quality. The chemical composition and fine­
ness of fly ash are not likely to vary significantly at a power
plant where the coal source is consistent, maintenance of the
coal pulverizers and fly ash collectors is satisfactory, and the
load on the power plant is fairly constant.
The variance in performance of fly ash in concrete is in
part related to the variation of properties with continuing ship­
ments from the source of supply. Variations in other ingredi­
ents in the concrete will also affect the performance of the
mixture. For Class F fly ash from a single coal source, the
properties that are most likely to affect its performance in
concrete are fineness, LOI, and autoclave expansion (Minnick
et al. 1971 ). Significant properties of Class C fly ash that
affect performance in concrete include fineness; LOI; auto­
clave expansion; and the amounts of S03 , CaO, and alkalis
present. Variability of fly ash color should also be monitored
because changes in color can be important in architectural
concrete applications. Fly ash color can also indicate changes
in carbon content or power plant burning conditions, which
could alter the performance of the fly ash, especially in air­
entrained concrete. Section A.4 discusses a rapid technique of
comparing fly ash color between shipments.
Schlorholtz and Dubberke ( 1 995) report on the use ofX-ray
fluorescence to determine the amount of fly ash in mixtures
of portland cement and fly ash, both in dry mixtures before
hatching and in hardened concrete and mortars. Hooton and
Rogers ( 1 995) and Fox et al. (2007) describe procedures
using optical microscopy to estimate the fly ash content in
hardened concrete.
McKerall et al. ( 1 9 8 1 ) have developed regression equa­
tions for fineness and specific gravity of fly ashes produced
in Texas from subbituminous coal and lignite. These regres­
sion equations can be used to find close approximations of
fineness, CaO content, and specific gravity given the results
of the tests on the No. 200 (75 j.tm) sieve test and a CaO heat
evolution test described in the Appendix.
6.7-Startup, oil, and stack additives
The fly ash distributor and user should be made aware of
changes in the fly ash properties that result from changes in
power plant operation, such as use of stack additives, flue-
gas conditioners, and changes in other aspects of production
such as boiler startup (Ravina 198 1 ). Changes in fuel campo-
sition, burning conditions, and fly ash collection procedures
at the power station can affect fly ash quality. The use of oil
to supplement burning or stack additives, some of which may
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32 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)
produce strong ammonia odors, needs to be detected rapidly.
The addition of sodium sulfate to reduce blinding of precipi­
tators can affect the time of setting of concrete, especially
when certain admixtures are used. A liaison between the fly
ash supplier and the power station shift engineers, combined
with frequent, rapid tests, should be used to detect problems
early and divert questionable quality fly ash to alternative
destinations. When a coal-boiler unit is first fired, oil is often
used to help initiate combustion, and the fly ash can contain
hydrocarbon residues from the oil. In power plants where
this is done during startup or under some other transient,
short-term condition, the fly ash collected during these brief
oil-burning periods should not be used in concrete. There
are also some operations-in the UK, for example-where
oil is burned with coal on a continuous basis. Fly ash from
these operations may be suitable for concrete under certain
circumstances, particularly in non-air-entrained concrete
where control of admixture dosage is not a factor.
Materials are sometimes used by electric utilities during coal
burning and fly ash collection to improve the efficiency of these
operations. Materials termed fireside additives (Locklin et al.
1 980) are sometimes used in the burner to reduce so3 emis­
sions, reduce corrosion and fouling, and improve the collection
efficiency of the electrostatic precipitators. Fireside additives
are used more in oil-fired boilers than in coal-fired plants.
Materials injected into the flue gas to enable the electro­
static precipitators to collect a greater proportion of the fly
ash are termed flue gas conditioners. Flue gas conditioners
are often used in coal-burning power plants. When these
types of materials are used, however, the fly ash may contain
a small amount of substances such as magnesia, ammonium
compounds, alkalis, or S03 . Before using fly ash containing
an additive, the variability of the amount of additive used
in the power plant or present in the fly ash, and its effect in
concrete, should be carefully evaluated.
6.8-Rapid quality control tests
Fly ash collection at a base-load power plant usually
continues around the clock, and because of limitations
in storage capacity, decisions are made immediately
concerning the probable quality of the fly ash so that mate­
rial not meeting concrete specification requirements can be
designated for alternative uses or directed to waste disposal.
One or more rapid tests, often used as indicators of speci­
fication compliance, are listed in Appendix A. Several test
methods have been devised to make daily, and in some cases
hourly, quality estimates. Some of the properties specified in
ASTM C6 1 8-for example, loss on ignition (LOI), fineness,
density, and other characteristics-are evaluated and form
the basis of quality judgments.
The results of these rapid tests should be supported by
periodic comparison with results of more rigorous tests of
the fly ash, as detailed in ASTM C3 1 1/C3 1 1 M . Rapid testing
may be used by the fly ash distributor at the power plant or
by the user to check shipments of fly ash for changes in prop­
erties or to predict air-entraining admixture (AEA) dosage or
strength performance in concrete. Refer to Appendix A for
more on rapid testing procedures.
(ciCiJ American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org
CHAPTER 7-FLY ASH IN CONCRETE
CONSTRUCTION
7.1 -Ready mixed concrete
The American Coal Ash Association conducts annual
surveys on the production and use of fly ash. Typically,
approximately 40 percent of all fly ash produced is benefi­
cially used. Of that amount, roughly 50 percent is used in
cement and concrete applications. A survey of the ready
mixed concrete industry in the United States in 2012 indi­
cated that, of the companies who responded to the question­
naire, 98 percent used at least some fly ash, compared with
3 1 percent in 1 983 and 94 percent in 1 998. Approximately
56 percent of the concrete produced contained fly ash,
compared with 46 percent in 1 983. The average reported
fly ash consumption was 83 lb/yd3 (49.2 kg/m3 ) out of an
average total cementitious content of 562 lb/yd3 (333.4 kg/
m3 ). The survey also included data from its respondents
on the use of ternary or multiple cementitious systems in
concrete mixtures. It was reported that 2.8 percent of the
concrete contained more than one SCM (Portland Cement
Association 2000; Obla et al. 2 0 1 2).
Many concrete producers use fly ash to overcome defi­
ciencies in aggregate grading or have developed mixtures
specifically for pumping because concrete containing fly
ash can pump higher and further at faster rates and with
less segregation (Malhotra and Ramezanianpour 1 994).
Both lightweight and normalweight ready mixed concrete
containing 30 percent Class C fly ash were successfully
pumped 1 000 ft (305 m) vertically on a 75-story office tower
in Houston, TX (Cook 1 982).
Concrete with strengths up to 14,000 psi ( 1 00 MPa) has
been fabricated incorporating certain Class C fly ash (Cook
1 989). The 72-story Interfirst Plaza in Dallas, TX, contains
approximately 85,000 yd3 (60,000 m3 ) of cast-in-place
concrete using a mixture containing 30 percent Class C fly
ash. Of this total, 20,560 yd3 ( 1 5 ,700 m3 ) was 1 0,000 psi (70
MPa) concrete with a reported average strength in excess of
1 2,000 psi (83 MPa) at 56 days (Cook 1 989). Class F fly ash is
also used in high-strength concrete because of its contribution
to workability and long-term strength gain. Class F fly ash
can contribute significantly to strength at 56 days and beyond.
Albinger (1984) stated the decision to use or not use fly
ash should be based, in part, on four factors:
1) Fly ash properties
2) Effectiveness of the quality control program of the
supplier
3) Ability to adjust to concrete changes, such as delayed
finishability and increased AEA demand
4) Cost effectiveness
7.2-Concrete pavement
A study of 32 states found that all 32 states permitted the
use of fly ash in concrete pavements and permitted the use of
blended cements containing fly ash (Electric Power Research
Institute 1 992). Halstead ( 1 9 8 1 ) summarized quality assur­
ance and logistical issues relating to the use of concrete
containing fly ash. Problems with the control of air entrain-
 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)
ment and costs of transporting fly ash long distances were
identified as the principal deterrents to more extensive use.
Today in the United States, fly ash is permitted by virtually
every state highway regulatory agency. Its increasing use
was encouraged because of governmental policy changes by
the FHWA in 1974 and by the EPA in 1 983 (Federal Highway
Administration 2003). Hester ( 1 967) reported on the use of
fly ash in concrete pavement and structures in Alabama. This
study found that for mixtures containing fly ash with reduced
cement contents, higher flexural strengths were obtained. In
Kansas, in a 10-year study of exposure and service condi­
tions, fly ash reduced, but did not eliminate, map-cracking
and abnormal expansion in a 1 949 test road (Scholer 1 963 ;
Stingley et al. 1 960; Mather and Mielenz 1 960). During
the 1 950s, Illinois, Nebraska, Wisconsin, Michigan, and
Kentucky constructed experimental pavements with fly ash
concrete to evaluate strength, crack resistance, placing and
finishing qualities, and long-term wear resistance (Abdun­
Nur 1 96 1 ). All these roads are reported to have performed
well. Naik et al. ( 1 994) reported that Class C and Class F fly
ashes can replace portland cement in amounts as high as 40
to 50 percent by mass, respectively, to produce high-quality
pavements.
Fly ash can also be used as a supplementary cementi­
tious material (SCM) on pervious concrete paving projects
to improve durability and sustainability. Pervious concrete
is produced with very low water contents and negligible
slumps and, as such, workability tends to be harsh. Further­
more, the cementitious paste cannot segregate, as that would
cause it to drain down and fill the voids. Therefore, the w/
em is generally kept between 0.27 and 0.36. The spherical
fly ash particles can help attain workable, non-segregating
pervious concrete mixtures at low w/cm. In these pave­
ments, fly ash contents that have been used are similar to
that of conventional pavement. Both Class F and Class C
fly ashes can be used and should be expected to perform as
they would for ready mixed concrete pavement in terms of
strength development, time of set, and other properties.
7.3-Mass concrete
Mass concrete was one of the first applications in which
fly ash was used in the United States. The Hungry Horse
Dam in Montana, completed in 1 953, contains over 3 million
yd3 (2.3 million m3 ) of concrete and a total of 1 20,000 tons
( 1 09,000 metric tons) of fly ash. Since then, more than 1 00
major locks and dams using fly ash were constructed under
the direction of the U.S. Corps of Engineers, the U.S. Bureau
of Reclamation, the Tennessee Valley Authority, or private
engineering firms. There are few mass concrete dams built
in any part of the world that do not contain fly ash or natural
pozzolan in the concrete (Hyland 1 970). Large volumes of
fly ash have also been used in roller-compacted concrete
dams (Schrader 1 982).
The use of fly ash can reduce thermal stresses by reducing
the heat of hydration in mass concrete structures (Nasser and
Marzouk 1 979; Blanks et al. 1 93 8; Carlson et al. 1 979). By
using fly ash concrete in massive structures, it is possible
to achieve a reduction in temperature rise and reduce the
American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org
33
risk of thermal cracking without incurring the undesirable
effects associated with very lean mixtures-that is, harsh­
ness, bleeding, tendency to segregate, and tendency for
increased permeability (Price 1 982; Montgomery et al.
1 9 8 1 ). Improved sulfate resistance and reduction of expan­
sion due to alkali-aggregate reaction provided by proper use
of fly ash in the concrete mixture are other important consid­
erations in the construction of mass concrete.
7.4-Roller-compacted concrete
Roller-compacted concrete (RCC) is used principally in
mass concrete and pavements. ACI 207.5R discusses its
use in the construction and repair of dams. This form of
concrete is transported and placed by dump truck or belt
at the construction site, spread by conventional earth-fill
placement methods, and then consolidated by rollers. Final
consolidation is normally achieved by vibrating rollers.
Construction time is very fast, the mixture is economical,
and it achieves the strength of richer conventional mixtures.
Many of the mixtures used in this application incorporate fly
ash or other pozzolans to replace up to 50 percent of port­
land cement component (Atis 2005). The Upper Stillwater
Dam used an interior mixture consisting of 68 percent fly ash
and 32 percent portland cement as binder. Because of differ­
ences in density of fly ash compared with portland cement,
paste volume is increased for a given set of materials. Paste
volume is an essential element in RCC, as the paste should
fill or nearly fill the aggregate voids.
RCC for pavement is a low-slump concrete with a 3/4 in.
( 1 9 mm) nominal maximum-size aggregate, low water
content, and not less than 1 1 percent by mass of cementi­
tious materials, of which 70 percent may be fly ash (ACI
325 . 1 0R) . The materials are mixed to a low slump consis­
tency and laid down in lifts, usually by a lay-down machine.
Rubber and steel-wheel vibrating rollers are used to consoli­
date the lifts. The pavement then receives a water cure or
curing compound. Control j oints are normally provided.
Uses include military vehicle, car, truck, and aircraft parking
areas, log sorting and storage yards, forestry and mine haul
roads, and railroad unloading yards.
Strength requirements for both RCC dams and RCC pave­
ments are routinely extended beyond 28 days both with and
without fly ash. Some projects have strength requirements at
1 to 2 years.
7.5-Self-consolidating concrete
Self-consolidating concrete (SCC) is a highly flowable,
non-segregating concrete that can spread into place, fill the
formwork, and encapsulate the reinforcement without any
mechanical consolidation. Fly ash is used when propor­
tioning sec because it improves workability and slump
flow (El-Chabib and Syed 20 1 3). Fly ash particles tend to
be spherical and smooth; they exhibit a ball-bearing effect
within the paste of the mixture. sec is characterized by
mixtures that provide good flowing characteristics while
maintaining sufficient viscosity and cohesion to avoid mate­
rial separation and segregation. Higher proportions of fine
34 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)
materials such as fly ash can be used to obtain the stability
necessary to produce sec.
Sonebi et a!. (2003) reported that optimum usage rates are
often dictated by project specifications, material compat­
ibility, and cost. Bouzoubaa and Lachemi (2001) reported
on sec made with fly ash representing over 50 percent of
the cementitious materials used in this product.
7.6-High-volume fly ash concrete
Concrete mixtures containing high volumes of fly ash have
been used in various applications (Malhotra and Mehta 20 1 2).
In-depth information into HVFA, HVFA applications, and
HVFA contributions to sustainable construction are available
in ACI 232.3R. In some applications, care should be taken to
ensure the amount of fly ash proposed is not detrimental to the
concrete as placed in terms oftime of set, strength generation,
and other properties (Bentz et a!. 2013a).
At present, there is no formal definition ofHVFA concrete.
Malhotra ( 1 986) defined HVFA concrete as containing 50
percent or more fly ash by mass of total cementitious mate­
rials whereas Ramme and Tharaniyil (2000) defined it as
concrete containing 37 percent or more fly ash. ACI 232.3R
summarizes numerous studies conducted on HVFA concrete
since the mid- 1 9 80s, and the vast majority contained 50
percent or more fly ash. It appears that the concrete industry
has selected 50 percent or more fly ash as an informal defini­
tion of HVFA concrete.
Dunstan ( 1 98 l a,b) and Schrader ( 1 982) reported on RCC
mixtures using high volumes of fly ash for the construc­
tion of pavements and dams. This material maintains a low
w/cm content and is batched to a dry consistency. Other
researchers have reported on development ofHVFA concrete
of moderate to high slumps using high-range water reducers
and possessing suitable properties for commercial construc­
tion (Burke 2012; Duran-Herrera et a!. 20 1 1 ). Bouzoubaa
et a!. (2000) found HVFA concretes had consistently better
compressive strengths when interground fly ash cements
were used, instead of batching unground fly ash separately.
Mehta ( 1 999) explains the use of supplementary cementi­
tious materials (SCMs) in concrete helps reduce the C02
footprint by reducing the amount of portland cement in a
unit volume of concrete, which is a regulated greenhouse gas
source in some countries. Mehta and Burrows (200 1) further
discuss that HVFA in properly cured concrete can be less
crack-prone and less permeable in service. The authors also
recommended that building codes should include guidelines
for HVFA in structures designed for durability.
7.7-High-performance concrete
High-performance concrete (HPC) is concrete meeting
special combinations of performance and uniformity
requirements that cannot always be achieved routinely using
conventional constituents and normal mixing, placing, and
curing practices. Fly ash is often a desirable component in
the production of HPC. HPC was used as a hollow core­
stiffening component of the world's largest King Truss (620
tons [630 metric tons]) in Salt Lake City, UT (Snow 200 1).
The concrete not only had to achieve a minimum specified
(ciCiJ American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org
compressive strength of 8000 psi (55 MPa), but also had
to achieve a modulus of elasticity of 7,000,000 psi (48.28
GPa). To achieve this performance, the concrete incorpo­
rated a very dense, stiff aggregate imported to Salt Lake City
from Iron Mountain, MO, and used a substantial volume of
Class F fly ash in addition to silica fume and a high-range
water reducer. This HPC mixture had to be capable of
being pumped into the hollow portions of the truss . Success
was achieved on all accounts. Voskuil (2005) reported on
the construction of the Career and Technology Institute at
Bismarck State College. This structure used a proprietary
concrete mixture that contained 70 percent fly ash. This
concrete mixture contributed to a structure that minimizes
the energy needed to heat and cool the building, as well as
improving sound insulation.
7.8-Long-life structures
Historically, there are numerous examples of fly ash and
natural pozzolans used in long-life structures both by design
and long-life demonstrated performance. One of the earliest
examples of concrete containing a natural pozzolan, possibly
volcanic ash, is a water storage tank used in Camiros, Greece,
between 300 and 600 BC. The tank was built with concrete
blocks and mortar consisting of lime, soil, sand, and siliceous
aggregates. Generally, the mortar would have a composition
(by volume) of six parts soil, two parts lime, and one part
sand. Tests showed the tank had a compressive strength of
1 740 psi ( 1 2 MPa) and after nearly 3000 years, it still appears
to be in good condition. A similar mortar was also used by
the Romans in aqueducts as well as various marine struc­
tures. The Romans combined volcanic ash, lime, aggregate,
and water to produce mortar and concrete. Volcanic eruptions,
such as the ones in Santorin, Greece ( 1 600 to 1 500 BC), and
Naples, Italy (79 AD), provided engineers of that time with
the ash for various construction projects. Tests conducted in
1961 proved that volcanic ash, when crushed, then calcined,
met the requirements ofASTM C6 1 8.
Constructed in 1 926, the two-level Wacker Drive in
Chicago, IL, maintained a service life of 75 years despite
20 years of deicing salt and chemical usage. In 2002, a
new viaduct structure, incorporating the use of fly ash, was
designed with a life expectancy of at least 75 to 1 00 years.
The cementitious materials in the concrete consisted of
Type I cement, 10 percent Class F fly ash, 1 5 percent slag
cement, and 5 percent silica fume. To prevent cracking, a
fogging process was used during placement, followed imme­
diately by a 7-day wet cure using cotton mats and soaker
hoses as specified by the Illinois Department of Transporta­
tion (IDOT). Test results showed the concrete mixture had
an average compressive strength between 6500 and 9000 psi
(44.7 and 62.0 MPa). A strength limit of9500 psi (65 .5 MPa)
was placed on the concrete because higher compressive
strengths can lead to cracking during temperature changes.
A latex-modified concrete overlay of 2.75 in. (70 mm) was
installed to prevent deicing chemicals from penetrating the
structural concrete. The overlay can easily be replaced if
necessary every 20 to 25 years.
 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)
As introduced in Chapter 1 , the Iraivan Temple built
in Kauai, HI, in 1 999 was constructed with a foundation
composed of Class F HVFA concrete. The HVFA founda­
tion was adopted by two additional temples in the United
States-one in Houston, TX, and one in Chicago, IL. High­
volume fly ash concrete was used in the piers that support
the foundation slabs and walls due to difficult soil conditions
at both locations. The Bochasanwasi Shri Akshar Purush­
ottam Swaminarayan Sanstha (BAPS) temples in Chicago
and Texas were designed with a service life of 1 000 years.
The temple in Chicago uses 250 piers that are 30 x 3 ft (9 x
I m) and composed of Type I portland cement, Class C fly
ash with less than 1 percent carbon by mass, gravel, and sili­
ceous sand. A polycarboxylate high-range water-reducing
admixture of 34.6 oz/yd3 (2 L/m3 ) was also added to the
concrete to reduce the water content. The HVFA concrete
met strength requirements by using up to 65 percent by mass
fly ash. It was also found that thermal cracking was reduced
when the portland cement content was lowered to 1 77 lb/
yd3 ( 1 05 kg/m3 ). The compressive strength at 56 days was
3990 psi (27.5 MPa)-the same average strength as port­
land cement concrete at 56 days. Compressive strength tests
showed that cold weather slows the strength gain of HVFA
concrete, whereas hot weather accelerates it. By using
HVFA concrete, the proj ect saved approximately 640 tons
(705 metric tons) of portland cement, which is the equivalent
of 882 tons (800 metric tons) of carbon emissions for the
392 1 yd3 (3000 m3 ) of concrete used.
Concrete for the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels in
Los Angeles, CA, also integrated the use of fly ash to obtain
a service life of at least 500 years (Palmer 2002). This project
consisted of ready mixed concrete containing white cement
with a low C3A content and 1 5 percent fly ash substitution.
Testing showed the fly ash mixtures used 40 lb ( 1 8 . 1 5 kg)
less water per cubic yard than metakaolin mixtures that were
more susceptible to thermal cracking. In Canada, the Confed­
eration Bridge, built in 1 997, has a life expectancy of 1 00
years. Concrete components used in the bridge were precast
and the design incorporated the use of between 10 and 29
percent Class F fly ash. Fly ash has been used in the recon­
struction of the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge, particu­
larly in footings and large mass placements. Researchers at
Pennsylvania State University and the University of Utah
have designed concrete mixtures with a service life of 75 to
100 years for bridges. The concrete shows a lower perme­
ability and a lower cracking potential than the standard
mixtures currently used. Ternary blend mixtures used for
bridge decks, containing fly ash and slag, have been shown
to exhibit better resistance to chloride ion penetration and
be more durable than concrete containing fly ash as the only
pozzolan. The use of shrinkage-reducing admixtures and
fibers has been shown to significantly minimize cracking on
bridge decks (Nidiffer et a!. 20 14 ). The mixtures used 1 54
combinations of cement and materials such as fly ash, silica
fume, and slag cement. These and numerous other examples
are reported by Ramme and Jacobsmeyer (2008).
American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org
35
7.9- Bu lk handling and storage
Because fly ash is normally of lower density than portland
cement, its bulk density should be considered when ordering
or taking inventory. Fly ash storage usually requires approx­
imately 30 to 40 percent more volume per unit mass than
portland cement; a 1 1 0 ton ( 1 00 metric ton) portland cement
bin will hold approximately 77 to 83 tons (70 to 75 metric
tons) of fly ash. Packaging in paper bags, bulk bags, or other
bulk containers may also reflect these differences in bulk
density. The bulk density of fly ash in bins or silos is gener­
ally between 55 and 80 lb/ft3 (880 and 1280 kg/m3 ), whereas
portland cement in bins and silos is generally between 60
and 94 lb/ft3 (960 and 1 500 kg/m3 ). Both fly ash and port­
land cement may have lower bulk density immediately after
conveying (Strehlow 1973). Rail cars cannot carry as much
mass of fly ash as that of portland cement. Bulk pneumatic
tank trucks that typically carry portland cement or fly ash are
usually large enough in volume to receive a full legal load
for over-highway delivery.
The spherical particle shape of fly ash and significant
quantities of very fine grains mean that fly ash will require
handling and storage facilities slightly different than those
used for portland cement. When aerated, fly ash tends to
exhibit very fluid handling characteristics, with an aerated
angle of repose of 10 to 15 degrees. As a result, bins for
storage of fly ash and transport systems, pneumatic or
mechanical, should be well sealed to prevent leakage.
Bins and silos designed for portland cement can be used to
store fly ash. Bins or silos should be large enough to receive
at least two deliveries. The fluid nature of aerated fly ash can
require slightly different unloading techniques than used for
portland cement. Due to the similar appearance of fly ash
and portland cement, it is prudent to color-code and label
the fill pipes or to take other precautions to minimize the
possibility of cross contamination. It is important to identify
which storage compartments contain fly ash and establish
proper materials-management procedures (Gaynor 1994).
Bins should be completely cleaned when they are being
converted to handle a different material. As with cement
from different mills, fly ash from different sources should
not be mixed in the same bin.
Because it is impossible to detect fly ash contamination
of a cement storage compartment or cement contamination
of a fly ash storage compartment by visually examining
the cement or fly ash as hatched, or the concrete as mixed,
care in avoiding the intermingling of cement and fly ash is
of great importance. A separate silo for fly ash is preferred.
Segmented storage bins containing fly ash and portland
cement, in adjacent bins, should be separated by a double
bin wall with an air space between to prevent fly ash and
cement from flowing together through a breach in a common
wall. Otherwise, fly ash may move from one bin to the
other through faulty welded connections or through holes
caused by wear. If cement and fly ash are stored in different
compartments of the same bin or silo and are separated by a
common dividing partition, frequent inspections of the parti­
tion should be made.
36 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)
Fig. 7. 9-Cement and.fly ash silo with separate dust collec­
tion systems.
Fig. 7. 1 Oa-Schematic ofan air slide.
Each storage bin and silo should be equipped with a posi­
tive shutoff to control the flow of the fly ash to the weigh­
hatcher. Rotary valves, rotary-valve feeders, and butterfly
valves are generally suitable for this purpose. A conventional
scissor gate can be used if it is well maintained. Independent
dust collectors on cement and fly ash bins, as shown in Fig.
7 .9, are recommended to prevent cross contamination.
7. 1 0- Batching
When hatching fly ash and portland cement at a concrete
plant, it is usually not necessary to install separate hatchers.
Fly ash and cement may have their masses determined
cumulatively in the same hatcher. Due to the lower density
of fly ash, hatchers should be sized adequately to handle
larger volumes of cementitious material. Cement should be
hatched first so that accidental over hatching of fly ash will
not cause underbatching of cement (Gaynor 1 994). Care
should be taken to accurately batch the correct amounts of
both cement and fly ash because overbatching or under­
hatching can result in unacceptable variations in the proper­
ties of the fresh and hardened concrete. ASTM C94/C94M
provides guidance for acceptable hatching tolerances.
American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org
Fig. 7. 1 Ob-Screw conveyorfor transportingfly ash.
Fly ash is transported from bin to hatcher by methods such
as gravity flow, pneumatic or screw conveyors, or air slides.
The method depends on the location of the fly ash bin rela­
tive to the hatcher. Fly ash from overhead storage is normally
conveyed by gravity flow or an air slide. If the fly ash storage
is at nearly the same level as the hatcher, an air slide or a
screw conveyor can be used (Fig. 7 . 1 0a and 7 . 1 0b). Because
fly ash flows very easily, a positive shutoff valve should be
installed to ensure that overbatching does not result from fly
ash flowing through the air slide or screw when the device is
stopped. Fly ash can be conveyed from lower level storage
by pneumatic conveyor. During storage and hatching, fly ash
should be protected from moisture (in the air, from conden­
sation, or from inclement weather) to avoid problems in
handling and changes in the fly ash characteristics.
CHAPTER 8-FLY ASH IN CONCRETE PRODUCTS
8.1-Concrete masonry u n its
The manufacture of concrete masonry units usually
involves a dry, harsh concrete mixture consolidated in molds
with mechanical force. When demolded, these units maintain
their shape during handling and transportation into a curing
environment. Fly ash has found widespread use in the manu­
facture of these products as a cementitious material and filler.
Curing methods for masonry units include autoclave and
atmospheric pressure steam. Manufacturers using either
curing system can incorporate fly ash in their concrete
mixtures and obtain the required strength. Fly ash use
improves the product surface finish, helps attain sharper
corners, and increases the life span of the casting molds. Fly
ash gives added plasticity to the relatively harsh mixtures
used in concrete masonry units (Belot 1 967). Concrete
masonry units cured in autoclaves show an early strength
equivalent to that of 28-day moist-cured strength and reduc­
tion in volume change upon drying (Hope 1 9 8 1 ). The process
uses temperatures of 275 to 375°F ( 1 35 to 1 90°C) and pres­
sure of 75 to 1 70 psi (0.52 to 1 . 1 7 MPa). These conditions
allow for the use of Class C and Class F fly ashes in amounts
up to 3 5 and 30 percent of the total cementitious material,
 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)
respectively. Percentages greater than these can result in
efflorescence and reduced strength with Class C fly ash, and
color variation and reduced strength with Class F fly ash.
Particular care should be taken to ensure the fly ash meets
the soundness requirement of ASTM C6 1 8, especially when
the fly ash will constitute more than 20 percent of the total
cementitious material in the product. Whereas these values
are typical, individual mixtures should be evaluated to deter­
mine the optimum level of fly ash.
Atmospheric pressure steam curing is usually carried out
in insulated kilns. The exact curing temperature is a function
of the materials and the amount of fly ash used. Up to 35
percent for Class C fly ash and 25 percent for Class F fly ash
by mass of total cementitious material have been used satis­
factorily with a curing temperature above l 60°F ( 7 1 °C). In
addition, manufactured units using alkali-activated fly-ash­
based cements with over 90 percent fly ash and no portland
cement can be manufactured with the advantage of having
handling strength with no autoclave curing (Turgut 20 10).
Drying shrinkage of atmospheric-pressure steam-cured
concrete units can be reduced by the addition of fly ash.
Optimum curing temperature is 1 80 to 200°F (82 to 93°C).
Accelerated curing techniques require a period of preset
before the concrete products are subjected to elevated temper­
atures. When fly ash is used in conjunction with portland
cement, it may be necessary to extend the preset period to avoid
damage to the end products, unless high-range water-reducing
admixtures, accelerating admixtures, or both, are used. When
proportioning mixtures, concrete product producers should
check the grading and types of aggregates, cements, equip­
ment, and kiln temperatures, and then adjust trial batches with
various amounts of fly ash to achieve specific technical or
economic objectives (Valore 1 970).
8.2-Concrete pipe
The manufacture of concrete pipe is accomplished by two
different processes: one that uses extremely dry concrete
mixtures and the other that uses more fluid concrete
mixtures. Dry-cast concrete pipe uses mechanical compac­
tion, vibration, or both, to consolidate the concrete mixture
into a form that is removed as soon as the casting is finished.
With removal of the form, the green pipe is carefully trans­
ported to its place ofcuring. Accelerated, atmospheric curing
is normally used to obtain early-age performance. Wet-cast
concrete uses more fluid concrete placed and compacted in
a form that remains around the pipe until certain levels of
performance are achieved. Wet-cast pipe may be manufac­
tured by the spinning process to remove excess water and
air to produce high strength, high density, and low perme­
ability. Fly ash has found widespread use in the manufacture
of concrete pipe as a cementitious material and as a filler
to enhance quality and economy. Because properly propor­
tioned mixtures containing fly ash make the concrete less
permeable, concrete containing fly ash may be more resis­
tant to weak acids and sulfates (Davis 1 954; Mather 1 982).
Factors pertaining to the life of concrete pipe exposed to
sulfate attack include the type of portland cement, class of
fly ash, quality of concrete, bedding and backfill used, and
American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org
37
sulfate concentration. To assure adequate sulfate resistance,
evaluate the proposed cementitious materials by testing
in accordance with ASTM C 1 0 1 2/C 1 0 1 2M. Appropriate
ASTM C l 0 1 2/C l 0 1 2M expansion limits and wlcm limits for
different sulfate exposures are provided in ACI 3 1 8 and ACI
20 1 .2R. Meeting those limits indicates the potential resistance
of concrete to sulfate attack while not precluding the use of
Class C fly ash or any other material. A disadvantage of this
approach is the considerable lead time needed because test
duration extends from 6 to 18 months (Obla 2008).
Dry-cast concrete pipe mixtures without fly ash typi­
cally use greater portland cement contents than necessary
for strength to obtain the required workability. In a packer­
head pipe casting operation, concrete with a very dry consis­
tency and low water content is consolidated in a vertical
pipe form using a revolving consolidation tool. Vibratory
pipe processes use mechanical vibration to consolidate dry
concrete into a form. The portland cement content can be
reduced by replacing some of the portland cement with fly
ash. Fly ash is used as a cementitious material and as a filler
to provide added workability and plasticity. Equipment used
in pipe production may last longer due to the flowability of
the fly ash. The use of fly ash can increase the cohesiveness
of the no-slump, freshly placed concrete facilitating early
form stripping and movement of the product to curing.
Other benefits attributed to the use of fly ash include a
reduction in the heat of hydration of concrete mixtures
containing fly ash, which can reduce the amount of hairline
cracks on the inside surface of stored pipe sections (Cain
1 979). Concrete mixtures containing fly ash also tend to
bleed less, which is beneficial in wet-cast pipe.
ASTM C76 and ASTM C 1 4 permit the use of fly ash
meeting the provisions of ASTM C6 1 8 Class F or C. These
specifications allow for the use ofportland-pozzolan cement
meeting ASTM C595/C595M requirements, as long as the
pozzolan is fly ash. These standards do not limit the amount
of fly ash that can be used in the concrete mixture.
8.3-Precast/prestressed concrete products
Precast concrete products can be produced with or without
reinforcement. Reinforcement includes fibers; conventional
reinforcing steel; prestressing steel tendons, either preten­
sioned or post-tensioned; or combinations thereof. Precast
concrete products are cast and cured in other than their final
position. This facilitates the use of reusable forms that, for
economy, are cycled as rapidly as possible. These concrete
products generally achieve their competitive positions in the
marketplace by using a limited number of forms with a rather
short production cycle. Normal production schedules use one
set of forms per day; however, 10- to 12-hour schedules are
common. Accelerated curing is used to enhance early-age
concrete performance for handling, shipping, and product use.
Concrete mixtures for these products are proportioned
for high levels of performance at early ages. Compressive
strengths of 3500 to 5000 psi (24 to 34 MPa) are usually
required at the time ofform removal or stripping. These early
concrete strengths are generally achieved with cementitious
contents of 600 to 750 lb/yd3 (355 to 445 kg/m3 ). Type III
CaCiJ
38 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)
cements are also commonly employed by precast producers
to accelerate setting and early-age strength gain. Conven­
tional and high-range water-reducing admixtures are often
used for workability at very low water content. Nonchloride
accelerating admixtures are sometimes used for decreased
times of setting. Favorable results were obtained by Dhir et
a!. ( 1 998) in investigations on concrete containing fly ash
at ages from 1 8 hours to 1 year measuring strength devel­
opment, compressive and tensile strength, deformation
behavior, elastic, creep, and shrinkage, using Class F fly ash.
The amount of fly ash used as a percentage of total cementi­
tious material ranged from 22 to 45 percent, and the ratio
(by mass) of Class F fly ash added versus portland cement
replaced ranged from 1 .23 : 1 to 1 .59: 1 . Concrete containing
fly ash should perform as well as concrete containing only
ASTM C 1 50/C l 50M Type III portland cement. Another
investigation was conducted with Class C fly ash and a
Type I portland cement to determine the extent of strength
gain obtainable (Naik and Ramme 1 990). Portland cement
replacements of 10 to 30 percent were investigated with
fly ash replacing the portland cement at a ratio of 1 .25 : 1
by mass using an established nominal 5000 psi (34.5 MPa)
concrete mixture without fly ash. This study concluded
that high-early-strength concrete could be produced with
high replacement levels of portland cement with fly ash for
precast/prestressed concrete operations. Fly ash may be used
to enhance other product features. Fly ash used in precast
concrete products improves workability, resulting in prod­
ucts with sharp, distinctive comers and edges. Fly ash may
also improve flowability, resulting in products with better
surface appearance. These properties are particularly desir­
able for products with intricate shapes and surface patterns
and for those that are heavily reinforced. Additionally, an
appropriate fly ash may be used in areas with potentially
reactive aggregates or unknown sulfate conditions to provide
protection against these types of long-term durability issues.
The most common reasons for using fly ash are the savings in
cost of materials and labor that can generally be achieved and
improved quality of concrete. In any case, optimized propor­
tions and specific curing procedures should produce adequate
early strength resulting in increased turnaround time on forms
or molds (Ravina 1 981 ). In general, fly ash becomes more
desirable for applications where early strength is not a critical
parameter. This usually occurs only when the specifications
prohibit form removal before specified ages.
8.4-No-slump extruded hollow core slabs
Pretensioned hollow core structural slabs are produced
using no-slump concrete. It is consolidated and shaped as
it passes through an extrusion machine. The particle shape
of the coarse aggregate and the amount of fine aggregate are
very important to workability. Fly ash is usually added to
increase the workability of these dry, harsh mixtures.
8.5-Concrete tile
Concrete tiles are either wet cast, pressed, or extruded.
Other proprietary manufacturing methods include vibrocom­
paction under vacuum. Concrete tiles are usually colored
(ciCiJ American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org
with integral or surface-applied pigments. Raw materials
include portland cement, supplementary cementitious mate­
rials, lightweight aggregates, and chemical admixtures. Most
tile manufacturers moist cure their products at 95°F (35°C)
at 95 percent relative humidity for several hours to ensure
proper hydration of the cementitious materials. Proper
hydration is needed to achieve higher flexural strengths and
to reduce curling effects. Concrete tile compressive strengths
are generally 3000 to 6000 psi (2 1 to 4 1 MPa).
Concrete tile manufacturers focus their attention on the
tile's mass, thickness, color, absorption, curling effect,
flexural strength, and polished finish attributes. All the
aforementioned attributes affect marketability, ease of tile
placement, transportation costs, and packaging costs. A
correlation exists between tile porosity, permeability, flex­
ural strength, and w/cm. Fly ash is used in concrete tile
to reduce water demand, increase flexural strength, reduce
curling effect, and improve polished surfaces. Some tile
manufactures market tile products targeting sustainable
rating systems projects where 50 percent of the total tile's
mass is made from recycled preconsumer products-that is,
crushed and ground recycled stone scraps, old tiles, concrete,
porcelain, and fly ash.
8.6-M iscellaneous concrete products
Societal trends toward sustainable building materials in
recent years have inspired concrete product innovators to
incorporate both Class C and Class F fly ash into various
concrete products such as concrete paving stones, decora­
tive stones, and concrete counter tops. Fly ash provides these
products similar benefits as those found in concrete block,
pipe, and precast products. The benefits are increased work­
ability, volume change reductions, reduced permeability,
reduced heat of hydration, smoother finishes, sharper edges
and comers, and some cost savings in most applications.
Tests on indigenous and imported ashes for undesirable
color variances and slow strength gain should be performed.
If variability tolerances are tight, producers should incor­
porate measures and specifications applicable to the quality
and marketability of their products.
Additionally, manufacturing is ongoing, using concrete
pavers and bricks with Class C fly ash as the binder-that
is, without portland cement. Such bricks and pavers are
formed using vibrocompaction and are cured at a range of
temperatures from 77 to 2 1 2°F (25 to 1 00°C) with high
humidity. No pressure, autoclaving, or firing is used. These
products meet industry standard performance requirements,
such as minimum compressive strength and freezing-and­
thawing resistance. This manufacturing process reduces the
energy used and C02 emitted by approximately 85 percent
as compared with conventional clay products (Guetzow and
Rapoport 2010).
CHAPTER 9-0THER USES OF FLY ASH
9.1-Grouts and mortar
Mortar and grout are similar and contain the same basic
ingredients (sand, cementitious materials, water, and admix-
 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)
tures). They differ in that mortar has a less-fluid consistency.
A grout's primary purpose is to permanently fill spaces or
voids. Mortar is used primarily in masonry construction. The
benefits derived from using fly ash in grouts and mortars are
much the same as those obtained when fly ash is used in
concrete (Bradbury 1 979; Khayat et al. 2008). These include
economy, improved workability, lower heat of hydration,
reduced expansion due to alkali-silica reaction (ASR),
reduced permeability, and improved sulfate resistance. The
flowability ofgrout is generally improved, particularly under
pressure, due primarily to the favorable particle shape and
lower specific gravity of the fly ash particles, which tend to
stay in suspension longer and reduce segregation (Hempling
and Pizzella 1 976).
Common uses of grout include:
(a) Preplaced aggregate concrete where grout is injected
into the void of previously placed coarse aggregate to
produce concrete (ACI 304R)
(b) Contact grouting either under machinery to fill the
space between a base plate and substrate concrete or between
the top surface of concrete placed or pumped under existing
concrete or rock, as in tunnel linings
(c) Providing support for deep mine applications
(d) Curtain grouting where very fluid mixtures (often
without aggregate) are used to fill voids in rock foundations
(e) Soil stabilization to fill voids in soil or between soil
particles to densify and generally improve its load-carrying
capacity
(f) Slab jacking to raise and realign concrete slabs or
structures that have settled
(g) Underwater placement and slope protection where
grout is generally injected into preplaced inflatable
cloth blankets that are flexible enough to conform to the
surrounding contour to completely fill the void and provide
complete contact.
9.2-Controlled low-strength material
Controlled low-strength material (CLSM) is discussed in
ACI 229R and is often known by other names such as flow­
able fill, lean-mix backfill, controlled-density fills, flowable
mortar, fly ash slurry, and flowable fly ash. CLSM normally
consists of fly ash, cement, water, and fine aggregate and
may include coarse aggregate, lightweight aggregate, and
admixtures such as air-entraining admixtures (AEAs),
foaming agents, accelerators, water reducers, and high-range
water reducers. The Federal Highway Administration (2003)
includes flowable fill applications, mixture proportions, and
specification requirements.
9.3-Soil cement
ACI 230. 1 R explains soil cement in detail. Soil cement,
which is used as a base for road, street, and airport paving,
provides uniform, strong, solid support for paving and is
used for slope protection for dams and embankments and
liners for reservoirs, lagoons, and other channels. Its uses
include mass placement for dikes, foundations, and coal­
containment berms in power plants, as well as rammed-earth
wall systems and regular backfill material. Fly ash can be
American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org
39
used in soil cement as a cementitious material. Usually, the
cementitious material content is 4 to 1 6 percent of the dry
mass of soil, of which any portion of the cementitious mate­
rial can be fly ash. The use of self-cementitious fly ash as the
sole stabilizing agent is addressed by the American Coal Ash
Association (20 1 5).
9.4-Piastering
ACI 524R covers the use of current materials and methods
for plastering. Recommendations for producing portland­
cement-based plaster mixtures are given. Various mixture
characteristics, procedures, and alternates with advan­
tages and disadvantages are discussed. Fly ash and other
minerals can be added to a plaster mixture to improve sulfate
resistance.
9.5-Ce l l u lar concrete
ACI 523.3R presents information on materials, fabrica­
tion, properties, design, and handling of cellular concrete
with oven-dry densities less than 50 lb/ft3 (800 kg/m3 ) and
aggregate concrete with oven-dry densities greater than 50
lb/ft3 (800 kg/m3 ) but whose compressive strengths is less
than 2500 psi ( 1 7 MPa). The density range of such concrete
is generally used for thermal and sound insulation fills for
roofs, walls, and floors. Cellular concrete at low densities
has been used to construct walls in mines to direct airflow.
At the higher densities, cellular concrete is used in cast-in­
place walls, floors, and roofs, as well as for precast elements
such as wall and floor panels. Pozzolans are used in normal­
cured, low-pressure steam-cured, and high-pressure steam­
cured (autoclaved) lightweight aggregate and cellular
concrete. Fly ash and natural pozzolans used should conform
to ASTM C6 1 8.
Fly ash can be used in these mixtures to lower the temper­
ature rise, which consequently reduces stresses that can
cause thermal cracking. The durability of cellular concrete
can also be improved by using fly ash, especially in terms of
water adsorption, which can be reduced by reducing capil­
lary porosity.
Cellular concrete, due to its high surface area, can adsorb
a higher amount of C02 than regular concrete by means of
carbonation (Djabarov 2000). Ramme et al. (2008) demon­
strated the mineralization C02 into carbonate compounds
in Class C fly ash-based cellular concrete cast over a large
surface area.
9.6-Shotcrete
ACI 506R provides information on material and properties
of both dry- and wet-mix shotcrete. Most facets of the shot­
crete process are covered, including application procedures,
equipment requirements, and responsibilities of the shot­
crete applicator. Preconstruction, prequalifying, and accep­
tance testing of workers, material, and shotcrete are also
considered. ACI 506R recommends that cement conform
to ASTM C 1 50/C 1 50M or ASTM C595/C595M. In ASTM
C595/C595M, the blending or intergrinding of a pozzolan in
which the pozzolan constituent is between 1 5 and 40 percent
mass of the portland-pozzolan cement is allowed.
40 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)
9.7-Waste management
Wastes and wastewaters can be stabilized and solidified
in a cementitious matrix containing high levels of fly ash.
According to ASTM E2060, fly ash can be combined with
lime, lime kiln dust, slag, and cement to stabilize inorganic
elements through mechanisms that include the precipitation
of carbonates, silicates, and sulfates. The stabilization can
also take place by means of microencapsulation through
pozzolanic reactions, hydration, and formation of metal
precipitates (Hassett et a!. 1 99 1 ; EPA 530-SW-88-002: 1 988;
EPA 625/6-89/022 : 1 989; EPA 40 CFR Part 261 : 1 993).
Hazardous wastes include manufacturing wastes streams,
incinerator ash, landfill waste, mine tailings, radioactive
wastes, and superfund wastes.
Fly ash immobilizes many toxic heavy metals as relatively
insoluble hydroxides or carbonates. This immobilization is
accomplished by maintaining a pH in the range between 8
and 1 2. Other additives are sometimes used to treat the wastes
and decrease leachability of various organic compounds.
When solidifying hazardous wastes with fly ash, treatability
studies should be conducted on the combined wastes and
solidifying agents so that appropriate results are obtained
(Roy et a!. 1 99 1 ; Roy and Eaton 1 992).
Fly ash, along with other solidifying agents, can also be
used for the solidification and stabilization of various oil
wastes. Among these are: drilling fluids, water-based drilling
fluids, and listed or unlisted refinery sludges. Fly ash has
been used for many years to stabilize oil wastes in Louisiana
and Texas; recently, these techniques were modified for use
in the western and plains states.
In-place treatment of oil-reserve pits is a relatively simple
procedure accomplished by mixing fly ash by pneumatic injec­
tion or mechanical methods. The oil waste and fly ash mixture
hardens to form a low-permeability solid mass. Generally, 20
psi (0. 14 MPa) will support 30 ft (9 . 1 4 m) of overburden, but
some agencies require 200 psi ( 1 .38 MPa), which will neces­
sitate the use of additional fly ash. After stabilization, oilcrete
is covered and the natural grade restored.
9.8-Cements
Although fly ash is typically introduced to concrete as a
separate component from cement, which allows concrete
producers to increase or decrease the fly ash replacement
levels as desired, it can also be introduced to concrete as part
of a blended cement (ASTM C595/C595M). Under this speci­
fication, fly ash can be used to produce binary blends, classi­
fied as IP, or ternary blends (with slag, silica fume or lime­
stone) classified as IT. Although, the use of blended cements
is not common in North America, they are available. In 2005,
1 percent of total cement production in the United States was
blended cement. Conversely, in Europe, blended cement use
is much more common (Thomas 2007). Blended cements are
classified as Cern IV - pozzolanic cements according to EN
1 97- 1 :201 1 . Fly ash can also be used to produce hydraulic
cement meeting ASTM C 1 1 5 7/C 1 1 5 7M.
American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org
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American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org
APPENDIX A-RAPI D QUALITY CONTROL TESTS
A.1 -Loss on ign ition
Tests for loss on ignition (LOI) and moisture content
are specified in ASTM C3 1 1 /C3 1 1 M. Prior to performing
the LOI test, the moisture content of the fly ash sample is
first determined. This involves drying a weighed sample as
received to constant mass in an oven at 221 to 230°F ( 1 05
to l l 0°C). The moisture free sample is further ignited to
1 3 82°F (750°C) in an uncovered porcelain crucible and the
mass loss between 221 and 1 3 82°F ( 1 05 and 750°C) is then
determined from which LOI is calculated with respect to the
oven-dry weight. If the moisture content is known to be low,
however, a quick LOI can be run in less than an hour using
a preheated muffle furnace, a crucible providing greater
surface area, and a cooling unit that increases heat loss from
the sample. In this case, any moisture would be included in
the ignition loss value.
A.2-Carbon analysis
There currently is no standard test method for determina­
tion of carbon in fly ash. Carbon content of fly ash is related
to loss on ignition (LOI), but it is not a totally comparable
measurement. A rapid induction furnace method is available
to make a total carbon determination. Gebler and Klieger
( 1 983) tested numerous Class F and Class C fly ashes using
this procedure. In all cases, the carbon determination was
somewhat less than the ASTM C3 1 1/C3 1 1 M LOI, but the
correlation between the two test values was very good.
A.3-Particle size
A.3.1 Material retained on No. 325 (45 f.lm) sieve The
-
ASTM C3 1 1/C3 1 1 M procedure generally involves at least
2 hours of oven drying the residue on the sieve at 2 2 1 °F
( 1 05°C) after the wet-sieving operation. A hot plate or higher
oven temperature, however, can be employed to obtain more
rapid results, but care should be taken not to make the sieve
hot enough to soften the solder. Wet sieving of fly ash may
produce errors if the fly ash contains significant amounts of
water-soluble materials.
A.3.2 Air-jet sieving-Air-jet sieve equipment is available
that may provide information not directly correlated with
wet-sieve data because the sieving operation is conducted
using air instead of water, and the material retained on the
sieve can be weighed directly. Other rapid particle size
distribution instruments (such as sonic sieve equipment) are
also available that can be employed to indicate changes in
the particle size distribution of fly ash.
A.3.3 A ir-permeability fineness-The ASTM C204
method (Blaine fineness) can be used to measure the specific
surface of fly ash within 10 minutes. Specific surface is not
currently specified in ASTM C6 1 8 ; however, it has been
cited in previous versions of the specification. This method
is a fast procedure that can be used to detect changes in
fly ash fineness from a given source, particularly changes
at the lower end of the size distribution. This test involves
particle packing. The obtained surface area results cannot
 REPORT ON THE USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE (ACI 232.2R-18)
be compared to cement measurements because fly ash packs
differently than cement.
A.4-Color
Color changes can be checked by comparing the color of
the fly ash with that of a reference fly ash. Spread the two
fly ashes side by side on a white surface and compare the
color under daylight or a controlled light source. If neces­
sary, a piece of clear glass can be an indicator of change in
fly ash properties, and it could cause changes in concrete
color, which is important in architectural uses. A concrete
producer can save a jar sample from each fly ash delivery
for a period of several months. A comparison of color of a
new delivery with previous deliveries from the same source
can provide an immediate indication of changed conditions.
A.S-Density (specific gravity)
Changes in density or the amount of cenospheres that float
on water is another rapid procedure that may be used in iden­
tifying changes. The density procedure for fly ash referenced
in ASTM C3 1 1/C3 1 1 M is ASTM C 1 88. The measurement
can be made within 2 hours; however, precise temperature
control is required for good accuracy. An autopycnometer
can also be used and provides a very reproducible measure­
ment of particle density (Sutter et a!. 20 1 3a).
A.6-Fiy ash adsorption
A.6.1 Foam-index test-The foam-index test is an empir­
ical test used to establish the potential change in the dosage
of air-entraining admixture (AEA) required in a concrete
mixture when coal fly ash is used. Foam-index values are
based on the amount of AEA needed in a slurry of water,
fly ash, and usually portland cement, to produce a layer of
foam just covering the surface of the mixture in a speci­
fied container after vigorous shaking. There are no standard
methods for performing the foam-index test. The values for
key test parameters, which are water, cement, and fly ash
content of slurry, vary with typical values being 50 mL of
water, 4 g of fly ash, and 1 6 g of cement. Other variables
include the AEA solution concentration, AEA addition
rate, agitation time, agitation method, time to observe foam
stability, and container size and shape (Meininger 1 9 8 1 ;
Gebler and Klieger 1 983 ; Federal Highway Administration
2006; Harris et a!. 2008a,b,c). Results obtained from one test
method with a specific set of parameters cannot be compared
directly with results obtained using different test parameters.
However, for a given test method, there is a good relation­
ship between the minimum amount of admixture in this
test necessary to cause foam to cover the surface without
discontinuities and the admixture dosage needed in concrete
containing the same sources of fly ash and cement. The
method published by Harris et a!. (2008a,b,c) was modified
to provide a protocol for establishing the correct solution
concentration to use, and a written procedure was provided
in recent research by Sutter et a!. (20 1 3 a,b).
A.6.2 Iodine number test-Another method for rapid deter­
mination of adsorption properties is the iodine number test
American Concrete Institute- Copyrighted© Material- www.concrete.org
55
(Sutter et a!. 201 3a,b, 20 14). This test measures the adsorp­
tion potential of a fly ash using a standard iodine solution.
Because the test determines the adsorption capacity and equi­
librium, it can be directly correlated with the direct adsorption
isotherm measurement (Sutter et a!. 20 1 3a,b), which provides
a quantitative determination of AEA adsorption. The correla­
tion permits a rapid measurement using the iodine number to
be used to quantitatively assess the amount of a specific AEA
adsorbed by a specific fly ash (Sutter et a!. 20 1 3a,b).
A.7-0rganic material
Analysis of fly ash by the Wakeley-Black soil testing
method is one approach that has been used to estimate
the easily oxidized organic matter in fly ash using sodium
dichromate and sulfuric acid (Meininger 1 98 1 ; Gebler
and Klieger 1 983). Those fly ashes with a higher amount
of easily oxidized organic matter, as measured by this test,
tended to have a higher admixture demand and caused more
loss of air in concrete. The test method provides a value that
is increased by a factor to give an estimate of total oxidized
organic matter. The factor used for soils may not apply to
fly ash, so the direct amount of oxidized material should
be used. Previous work on the effect of organic material in
cement also showed that it can have an effect on air entrain­
ment (Greening 1 967).
A.8-Ca0 content
Measurement ofheat evolution when fly ash is reacted with
an appropriate chemical solution is described by McKerall
et a!. ( 1 9 8 1 ). In addition to the cited reference, some trials
using automated equipment have been performed. Future
development of this type of equipment may provide indica­
tors of CaO content, which can be obtained in less than 1 5
minutes.
A.9-Presence of hydrocarbons (startup oil)
Mix the fly ash with tap water and note the presence of a
black film on the surface of the water.
A.1 0-Presence of ammonia (precipitator additive)
There is no standard test for ammonia presence. One test
has been proposed in Ravina ( 1 9 8 1 ). That procedure is to
add 0. 7 to 1 . 7 oz (20 to 50 g) fly ash to tap water that includes
cement or other alkaline material. Cover the bottle and mix.
Open the bottle to detect ammonia odor (Ravina 1 9 8 1 ).
A . 1 1 -Calorimetry
Calorimetry, either isothermal or semi-adiabatic, can be
a powerful tool for examining compatibility issues between
various components of a concrete mixture, including fly
ash. Use of isothermal calorimetry in this regard is detailed
in ASTM C 1 679. Calorimetry can be used, for example,
to optimize sulfate levels in concretes with fly ash (Bentz
2 0 1 0; Niemuth et a!. 2012) and to check for and compare
the compatibility of chemical admixtures such as high-range
water reducers with concrete mixtures containing fly ash
(Bentz et a!. 20 1 3 a).
 ®
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