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 International Journal of Consumer Studies ISSN 1470-6423

Consumers’ knowledge on sizing and fit issues: a solution

to successful apparel selection in developing countries
Anne Mastamet Mason1, Helena M. De Klerk1, Jaqui Sommervile2 and Susan P. Ashdown3
1
Department of Consumer Science, 2Department of Statistics, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, RSA
3
Textiles and Apparel, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA

Keywords
Apparel, consumers, labelling, sizing and fit.
Correspondence
Helena M. De Klerk, Department of
Consumer Science, University of Pretoria,
Pretoria, 0002, RSA.
E-mail: helena.deklerk@up.ac.za
doi: 10.1111/j.1470-6431.2008.00679.x
Abstract
A study was conducted in the Nairobi, Eldoret and Kisumu regions of Kenya with the
objective to determine and describe the role that Kenyan female consumers’ sizing and fit
knowledge play in the problems that they experience when selecting apparel. The study
was cross-sectional and 201 female teachers between the ages 25 and 55 years were
involved. Participants completed a questionnaire and were measured wearing body suits.
Results revealed that most Kenyan female consumers frequently experience problems
in getting the right size apparel items, while more than 90% of the consumers are also
unsatisfied with the fit of their clothes. It was clear that most Kenyan female consumers are
familiar with the non-informative lettered and numbered size labels as well as with the size
label terms that represent established body types. However, the consumers lack knowledge
of the meanings of various size label descriptions used on labels of ready-made apparel and
also lack knowledge of their own key body dimensions. They are also confused as to where
the cause of their problems lies and therefore blame their bodies as well as the apparel
industry for their problems. The importance of knowledge in consumers’ selection of
apparel that would fit their specific proportions should not be underestimated. Industry
should take notice that it is of no use to present consumers with size label information that
is not clear, informative and understandable, as currently the case with the use of non-
informative lettered and numbered size codes.

faction, it must be realized that consumers are not expected to

Introduction
With the worldwide continuous increase in international trade
of apparel, many African countries such as South Africa, Ghana,
Botswana, Swaziland and Kenya, have witnessed an enormous
growth in ready-to-wear women’s apparel retailing. This growth is
supported by the United States’ initiative, the African Growth and
Opportunity Act, which provides for duty-free access of clothing
under strict rules of origin in the US. Kenya was one of the first
countries to be approved as a beneficiary country. According to a
2005 report on Kenya’s Apparel and Textile Industry (EPZA,
2005), compiled by PFK Consulting Ltd. and International
Research Network (2005), Kenya’s apparel exports to the US, the
UK and Europe have expanded remarkably since 2002, and so has
investments in the apparel sector. The range of apparel products,
manufactured in Kenya by Kenyan and international manufactur-
ers and aimed at the domestic and export markets, include, among
others, many women’s wear apparel items, such as dresses,
blouses, jackets, skirts and trousers.
Although ready-to-wear apparel in Kenya, such as in other
developed and developing African countries, has become signifi-
cant in contributing to female consumers’ sense of aesthetic satis-
merely buy local or international manufactured apparel products in
a passive manner. Instead they should have the right and be able to
consciously select and use apparel items to satisfy desired expec-
tations. They should also have the right to access understandable
information with regard to what they are buying and how they
should care for the items. This places an important responsibility
on the shoulders of manufacturers, importers and retailers, may
it be – in the case of Kenya – the local Kenyan or international
manufacturers, or manufacturers from elsewhere. This implies that
information sources, such as information labels affixed to garments,
must provide information that is durable, legible, adequate enough
and understandable to consumers. Easy interpretable labels facili-
tate easy and efficient ways of appropriate garment selection and
they can also serve as references for future purchases if they sur-
vive the garments’ lifespan. Referring to labels of older garments,
consumers could always revert to the store or brand image that
continues to repeatedly offer well-fitting apparel as they develop a
trust in the surrogate indicators that facilitate purchase decisions.
Similar to the case still in many developed and most developing
countries, apparel fit problems continue to plague many consum-
ers, retailers and manufacturers in Kenya. A review of literature

276 International Journal of Consumer Studies 32 (2008) 276–284 © The Authors

Journal compilation © 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
A.M. Mason et al.
indicates that problems related to apparel’s fit stem from a variety
of factors, such as outdated anthropometric databases from which
sizing systems could be developed, lack of classified body forms,
non-standardized communication of sizing and fit, and non-
standardized fit quality management among the clothing industries
(Chun-Yoon and Jasper, 1996; Holzman, 1996; Winks, 1997;
Ashdown, 2000; Desmarteau, 2000). Ashdown (2000) sees sizing
systems as the focus around which all factors concerning sizing
and fit evolve. Ashdown has identified the main factors affecting
sizing systems and consequently, the fit of the ready-made
apparel-to-be, the population measures (body measurements), the
design features (construction of the apparel), the fit issues (fit
quality management) and the communication of sizing and fit (size
labelling). The focus of this study was on communication of sizing
and fit, which requires that measurements and body forms indi-
cated on the size labels reflect the true picture of the target market
(population) and that the information given on a garment’s label be
adequate and legible to enable the consumers to select appropriate
apparel efficiently and effectively.
Previous studies indicated that inadequate information given on
garment labels would likely contribute to consumers’ frustrating
dilemma during garment selection (Delong et al., 1993; Chun-
Yoon and Jasper, 1995; Winks, 1997; Ashdown, 1998). Unfortu-
nately, no study has concentrated on consumers’ knowledge of
the communication of sizing and fit, and specifically consumers’
knowledge of the meaning of different size codes and labels.
Consumers’ knowledge plays an important role in the expectations
that they have for apparel products, in the manner that they choose
and evaluate the quality of products at the point of purchase and
again, when they use the product. When consumers realize that
their expectations have not been met (whether the expectations
were realistic or unrealistic), they experience negative disconfir-
mation, leading them to seek reasons for the occurrence (Laufer,
2002). In the context of Weiner’s (1986, 2000) attributional theory,
this will lead the consumer to believe that the cause of the failure
can be attributed either to the consumer himself, to the manufac-
turer or retailer, or to all of them. A consumer who believes that the
manufacturer or retailer is responsible for the problem would
probably experience negative emotions with regard to the manu-
facturer or retailer. This may have negative consequences for the
manufacturer or retailer as the consumer would probably engage
in negative post-purchase complaint behaviour, such as boycotting
the retailer, switching to another brand, telling friends, etc. It is
therefore of utmost importance that manufacturers and retailers
supply their apparel consumers with information that can enhance
their knowledge of the product and therefore assist them in making
responsible choices.
Knowledge can be viewed as a socially constructed phenom-
enon within the context of collective learning cycles in any envi-
ronment. It may be seen as cognitive comprehension capacities of
people, accumulation of facts and the ability to see functional
relationships between them. Consumer socialization and product-
related consumer socialization are important for professional
female consumers to enable them to make informed, responsible
buyer decisions regarding the selection of well-fitting apparel.
Their selections will depend on their previous experience with the
garments, the support they get from the retail environment, edu-
cational level and personal expectations. Consumer socialization
is defined as the process by which people acquire skills and knowl-
International Journal of Consumer Studies 32 (2008) 276–284 © The Authors
Journal compilation © 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
Consumers’ knowledge on sizing and fit
edge relevant to their functioning as consumers in a market place
(Hawkins et al., 2001). Consumers could gain knowledge of sizing
and fit issues through various media. Ready-to-wear garments
contain a variety of labels and tags that furnish information to
consumers. Clearly and accurately written labels provide means
for the consumer to learn about the garment. They aid in making
informed decisions about selecting and even caring for the
garment. According to Brown and Rice (2001), apparel labels
must be permanent and must remain legible throughout the life of
the garment, as this would act as a future reference for a similar
size and fit. It could also continuously guide consumers in the
caring processes. According to Chun-Yoon and Jasper (1996), a
size label is a tool for communicating sizes and body types to
consumers and assisting them in choosing apparel that fits their
bodies appropriately. Glock and Kunz (1995) stated that size
labels are supposed to indicate dimensions and describe the body
type the garment was designed to fit. These indicators of fit
provide a foundation for judging the suitability of the garment for
a particular body type. Unfortunately, female consumers often get
frustrated and confused as they flip through several assortments of
styles and sizes, trying to get a garment that fits correctly (Chun-
Yoon and Jasper, 1996; Ashdown, 1998). The result is not only a
consumer who gets frustrated, but who also finds it very difficult or
even fails to form a proper perspective or knowledge base that
could assist her in choosing well-fitting garments.
A size label would only be successful if consumers find it easy
and efficient when selecting apparel that properly fits their bodies.
The size label’s measurements and body forms initially used
(sizing systems) must be accurately reflected and indicated on the
size labels. Unfortunately most sizes used in most developing
countries are often borrowed or copied from sizes used in foreign
countries. The sources of the sizes are unknown and do not reflect,
in this case, the Kenyan female shapes and dimensions. The com-
munication of sizing and fit in many cases, and certainly with
regard to Kenya’s ready-made apparel (both local and imported),
are therefore flawed, with size designations that are most probably
confusing to the consumers (Workman, 1991; Chun-Yoon and
Jasper, 1995; Desmarteau, 2000; Brown and Rice, 2001; Faust
et al., 2006). Consumers’ ignorance on which body measurements
are necessary when choosing certain garments would certainly
also aggravate their apparel fit problems. Consumers’ acquain-
tance with their own body forms’ proportions as well as key
dimensions, could help in developing competence in selecting
well-fitting apparel (Workman, 1991). Being able to compare own
measurements and body forms to fit indicators highlighted on size
labels, would not only reduce customer frustration during shop-
ping, but also ensure greater profits to the manufacturers/retailers
attained through repeated purchases. The communication of sizing
and fit should therefore be legible, adequate, accurate and suitable
for the different apparel categories and should clearly indicate the
key measurements the garment should fit (Brown and Rice, 2001).
As much as size the description system plays a major role in
apparel selection, it would be a meaningless tool if the information
given is vague and consumers are ignorant of its meaning.
Unfortunately women’s clothing lack the direct correlation that
men’s sizes have to actual body dimensions. Ironically, sizing
standardization does not exist in women’s apparel, leaving female
consumers to jump around from brand to brand and size to
size, ending up with a little bit of everything in their wardrobes
277
Consumers’ knowledge on sizing and fit
(Workman, 1991; Holzman, 1996). Although size labels are
voluntary (Faust et al., 2006), the way they are presented to con-
sumers plays a major role in their garment selection exercise.
Informative (self-descriptive) size labelling that relates directly to
body measurements contributes to consumer satisfaction (Chun-
Yoon and Jasper, 1995; Holzman, 1996). However, most women
sizes are not expressed as body measurements, but rather
expressed as arbitrarily chosen numbers or letters that correlate
with sets of unrevealed body measurements (Brown and Rice,
2001; Faust et al., 2006). These labels could be best described as
non-informative size labels. Informative size labels, on the other
hand, are labels that show or tell the consumer how the garment
should fit. Brown and Rice (2001) argued that instructive or self-
explanatory size labelling that directly indicates the body type and
relates it to the body measurement, is beneficial not only to the
consumer, but also to companies aiming at satisfying and sustain-
ing their customers. Chun-Yoon and Jasper (1995) confirmed that
consumers prefer the wordless pictogram label, which is self-
explanatory. It indicates measurements, essential to the fit of a
particular garment, on a sketch of the human body. Brown and
Rice (2001) stated that pictograms are particularly useful for inter-
national trade, because they overcome language barriers and are
easy to understand at a glance by the consumers. Efficient garment
selection, permitted by informative size labels will ensure not only
customers’ emotional well-being, but also manufacturers’ and
retailers’ business growth.
Against the foregoing, the purpose of this study was to deter-
mine and describe the role that Kenyan female consumers’ sizing
and fit knowledge may play in the problems that they experience
when selecting apparel.
Methodology
The study was conducted using a quantitative methodological
paradigm. The study was cross-sectional in nature and data were
collected in 2005 in Kenya. The study was limited to two urban
geographical regions in Kenya, namely Western (Eldoret and
Kisumu) regions and Central regions (Nairobi). The units of analy-
sis were urban high school female teachers within the two regions.
They fell within the 25–55-year-old age bracket, as the teaching
profession in Kenya begins at age 25 and retirement age is attained
at 55. It was reasoned that professional women were exposed to
fashion and have the resources and the incentives to respond to
fashionable apparel.
Systematic sampling technique was used for this study, because
probability sampling avoids the researcher’s conscious or uncon-
scious biases in element selection (Kerlinger, 1986; Bailey, 1994;
Babbie and Mouton, 2001; Strydom and Venter, 2000). There are
41 urban government and private schools in the Western region of
Kenya with a total population of 1083 female teachers. Twelve
schools (six each from Eldoret and Kisumu) with a total popula-
tion of 150 female teachers were systematically selected. There
are 35 urban government and private schools with a total popula-
tion of 1052 female teachers in Upland (Nairobi) region. Twelve
schools with a total population of 151 were systematically selected
from this region. The lists of names were obtained from each
school and participants were selected further, using a systematic
sampling technique. From the 301 anticipated participants, only
201 respondents took part in the study.
278
A.M. Mason et al.
Research permit(s) were sought from the ministry of educa-
tion’s headquarters and at each region’s district level offices to
facilitate access to secondary schools. With the permit(s), nego-
tiations with head teachers of each respective secondary school
were done, also to facilitate access to the participants. After all the
gatekeepers had granted permission, the researcher introduced the
research aims and objectives of the study comprehensively and
participants were requested to participate and encouraged to fill
in the questionnaire as positively and accurately as possible. This
was done in the presence of the researcher to guide and assist
where possible.
Participants in both regions were administered a similar ques-
tionnaire to evaluate consumers’ knowledge of apparel’s size and
fit communication systems as well as their perceived causes of fit
problems. The questionnaire consisted of 5-point Likert scales and
was divided into two sections of fit (representing body forms) and
size communications (representing size labels), and the perceived
causes of fit problems in order to verify consumers’ knowledge of
their own body dimensions. The researcher and assistant measured
participants after the questionnaire was completed. Respondents
were measured, wearing body suits. Standardized anthropometric
measuring instruments and techniques were used. Results were
presented as percentages. For the purpose of this study, the levels
of significance were tested on the 5% level of significance.
Chi-square and Fisher’s exact test were used interchangeably to
investigate associations between two categorical variables.
Various precautions were taken during the research process to
limit error and to enhance validity and reliability. To enhance the
theoretical validity of this study, all the key concepts pertaining the
size and fit were identified through a thorough literature review
before the questionnaire was compiled. The questionnaire was also
subjected to scientific community’s scrutiny (experts in apparel
profession and a statistician) and pilot tested among a group of
professional women. In order to determine the degree to which
the instruments successfully measured theoretical constructs in-
tended to be measured, definitions with clearly specified conceptual
boundaries were written. A Likert-type scale was used as the main
means of measurement in the questionnaire, based on its success in
similar studies in the past and the ease it brings to the interpretation
of questionnaires such as this one (Delport, 2002). The assistance
of a professional statistician ensured that the data were correctly
analysed and that statistical procedures were chosen in accordance
with the objectives of the study. Pilot testing enhanced the reliabil-
ity of the questionnaires used for this study. Pilot testing was first
done on professional experts and some professional women in
South Africa, and adjustments were made from the responses.
Second, another pilot study was done in Kenya on a convenient
sample of professional women to further determine the clarity of
instructions, items, language and the time taken to complete the
exercise. The researcher underwent training in anthropometry and
the measuring of all measurements to be taken were carefully
prepared and practised, consulting different literature sources and
different standards. A trained assistant assisted the researcher with
the measuring and standardized anthropometric instruments were
used. All involved participants were consulted and comprehensive
explanations of the objectives of the study were given during the
negotiation stage. The researcher was always available for answer-
ing questions and enough time was allowed for participants to
complete the questionnaire.
International Journal of Consumer Studies 32 (2008) 276–284 © The Authors
Journal compilation © 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
A.M. Mason et al.
1.5
100 7.5
90
80 35
70
Percentage
60
50
responses
40
30
56
20
10
0 would fit.
Problem getting right size
(n=200)
Satisfied with fit (n=200)
Undecided 1.5
Never 7.5
Less Frequent 35 56.5
Most Frequent + Frequent 56
Figure 1 Consumers’ satisfaction/dissatisfaction
apparel.
Results and discussions
As reported for many developed countries (Workman and Lentz,
2000; Otieno et al., 2005), most (56%) female consumers in
Kenya frequently experience problems in getting the right size
apparel items, while 35% less frequently experience problems.
More than 90% (56.5% + 36%) of the Kenyan female consumers
are also unsatisfied with the fit of their clothes (Fig. 1).
If one accepts Ashdown’s (2000) model for sizing systems, it
means that many factors could contribute to Kenya female con-
sumers’ problems of finding sizes that fit well as well as their
dissatisfaction with the fit of clothes, among which is the commu-
nication of sizing and fit – a contributing factor that has in the past
not been investigated sufficiently and certainly not in Kenya. The
communication of sizing and fit issues implies that information is
communicated from the apparel industry to the consumer. Istook
(2002) explained the importance of communicating to the con-
sumer how each garment was designed to fit and for which body
type it was designed. Apparel consumers acquire knowledge
through consumer socialization as well as product-related con-
sumer socialization (Hawkins et al., 2001). Kenyan consumers
could gain knowledge of sizing and fit through various media,
among which the size labels that are attached to garments. A size
label would, however, only be successful in providing the con-
sumer with knowledge and assisting in making informed decisions
on the sizing and fit of garments if that size label is easy to read
and communicates information that the consumer can understand
and use.
It is clear that most female Kenyan consumers are familiar with
the non-informative lettered (small, medium, etc.) and numbered
(8, 10, 12, etc. and 32, 34, 36, etc.) size labels (98%, 98.5% and
95% respectively) which are mostly used on women’s wear, while
less (35.3%) are familiar with the label that consists of a code and
a measurement. Almost none (7% and 3%) are familiar with the
pictogram (Fig. 2). However, when asked which they would see as
more effective in communicating the information that they need,
most female Kenyan consumers, like their Western counterparts
(Chun-Yoon and Jasper, 1995), prefer the more informative labels,
such as the code accompanied with a measurement (99%) and the
pictogram variations (98.5% and 98%), which are almost never
seen on size labels.
International Journal of Consumer Studies 32 (2008) 276–284 © The Authors
Journal compilation © 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
Consumers’ knowledge on sizing and fit
Because of the fact that the non-informative labels are most
1.5
6 commonly used in Kenya and are also seen by the consumers as
the most familiar, one can assume that most female Kenyan con-
56.5 sumers have used these labels to assist them to find the most
suitable size that would fit them well. From a consumer socializa-
tion point of view one can also assume that they therefore should
have a perception of what size they wear and what a specific size
36
means in terms of the body measurements that the size garment
It is clear that consumer socialization does not necessarily
1.5 imply that consumers, through various means, received informa-
6 tion or gained knowledge that they can use to make informed
decisions. Although more than 90% of the female Kenyan con-
36
sumers are familiar with the non-informative lettered and num-
with ready-made
bered size labels, an average of more than 80% of these consumers
do not have the correct knowledge of the size codes presented on
jackets and skirts, although, on average, more than 75% of the
consumers also do not know the meaning of the code in terms
of the precise key dimensions that determine a size code (Fig. 3).
This implies that the female Kenyan consumer would not be able
to successfully use the label when selecting apparel that would
fit her body well, which may lead to a frustrated consumer who
would also most probably be dissatisfied with the buying experi-
ence as well as the fit of the garment.
Glock and Kunz (1995) and Chun-Yoon and Jasper (1996)
stated that a size label is a tool that should not only indicate
the dimensions it was sized for, but also should describe the body
type the garment was designed for. With regard to female Kenyan
consumers’ familiarity and knowledge of size label terms that
represent established body form types, such as Misses, Women,
etc., it is clear that these terms are less familiar to the consumers
than the various size codes (Fig. 4). Only 75.6% of the consumers
indicated that the term Misses is familiar to them, while only
73.1% of the consumers are familiar with the term Misses-petites
and only 61.2% consumers are familiar with the term Women’s.
Similar to the case with the size codes, familiarity does not, in this
case, imply knowledge or understanding. On average, an alarming
97.78% of the female Kenyan consumers do not understand the
meaning of these terms correctly and therefore do not have the
knowledge that they need when selecting garments that would
probably best suit their specific body form (Fig. 5).
Workman (1991), Desmarteau (2000), and Brown and Rice
(2001) underlined the importance of consumers’ knowledge of
their own measurements, as well as the knowledge of which body
measurements are necessary when choosing certain garments. It is
clear that female Kenyan consumers lack knowledge of their own
key body measurements (Table 1). It is clear that the respondents
were moderately (0.55566) knowledgeable about their bust mea-
surements. Statistical significance was 0.2390, which is more than
the alpha significance of 0.05 levels. This therefore suggests that
there is no statistical evidence that the reported bust measurement
differs with the attained bust measurement. The respondents were
moderately (0.69131) knowledgeable about their waist measure-
ments. Statistical significance was 0.0041, which is less than the
alpha significance of 0.05 levels. This therefore suggests that there
is statistical evidence that the reported waist measurement dif-
fers with the attained waist measurement. Although there were
moderate relationships between the reported waist and the mea-
sured waist, these measurements, however, differ significantly. The
279
Consumers’ knowledge on sizing and fit A.M. Mason et al.

98 98.5 99 98.5 98
100 95

80

60.1
60
Percentage 48.7
responses 43.4
40 35.3

20
7
3
0
Numbered (8- Numbered Code & Pictogram & Wordless
Lettered
24) (32-50) meas meas pictogram
Figure 2 Familiarity and quality of the informa-
Familiarity (n=201) 98 98.5 95 35.3 7 3
tion provided in a sizing description system in
Effectivenes (n=201) 48.7 60.1 43.4 99 98.5 98
terms of effectiveness.

200

180
73.1 75.1 76.1
160 84.1

140

120 26.9 24.9 23.9

15.9
Percentage
100
responses 23.4 23.4
80

80.1
60 89.5

40 76.6 76.6

20
19.9
10.5
0
Jacket size16 Jacket size 42 Skirt size 16 Skirt size 42

Know ledge on precise key 84.1 73.1 75.1 76.1

dim ensions Incorrect
Know ledge on precise key 15.9 26.9 24.9 23.9
dim ensions Correct
Know ledge on the m eaning of 89.5 80.1 23.4 23.4
size codes Incorrect Figure 3 Consumers’ knowledge on size codes
Know ledge on the m eaning of 10.5 19.9 76.6 76.6 and key dimensions determining a size code
size codes Correct (n = 201).

respondents were slightly above moderate (0.69131) in knowledge
about their hip measurements. Statistical significance was 0.0296,
which is less than the alpha significance of 0.05 levels. This
therefore suggests that there is statistical evidence that the reported
hip measurement differs with the attained hip measurement at the
normal position. The respondents were also slightly above moder-
ate (0.68268) in knowledge about the hip’s broadest measurement.
Statistical significance was 0.4876, which is more than the alpha
significance of 0.05 levels. This therefore suggests that there is no
statistical evidence that the reported hip measurement differs with
the attained broadest hip measurement at the normal position.
Only 26.4% of the consumers know their correct bust measure-
ments (Fig. 6), while only 25.6%, 40.8% and 47.2% of the female
consumers are able to correctly report their waist, hip and broadest
hip measurements respectively. It seems as if most female Kenyan
consumers are underestimating their own measurements, as
49.6%, 41.6%, 48.8% and 40.8% of the respondents under-
estimated the bust, waist, hip and broadest hip measurements
respectively. This lack of knowledge on their own key body
measurements most probably aggravates Kenyan female apparel
consumers’ problems with the finding of appropriate sizes that
will fit their bodies well.
The question is, how does the female Kenyan apparel consumer
perceive the cause of the problem? Against the viewpoints of
Weiner’s (1986) attribution theory, consumers can attribute the
locus of the cause of their problems either externally or internally,

280 International Journal of Consumer Studies 32 (2008) 276–284 © The Authors

Journal compilation © 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
A.M. Mason et al. Consumers’ knowledge on sizing and fit

78.6
80 75.6 73.1
70
61.2
60 55.7
50 44.3
Percentage 38.8
40
responses
30 24.4 26.9
21.4
20
10
0
Misses- Women's-
Junior Misses' Womens
petites petites
(n=201) (n=201) (n=201)
(n=201) (n=201)
Figure 4 Consumers’ familiarity with and 44.3 24.4 26.9 38.8 21.4
Familiar
knowledge on size label terms that represent
None-familiar 55.7 75.6 73.1 61.2 78.6
established body types.

100 98.98
100 96.96 95.95 96.96
90

80

70

60
Percentage
50
responses
40

30

20

10 3.03 4.04 3.03

0 1.02
0
Misses-Petites Women’s Women’s-
Junior (n=198) Misses (n=198)
(n=198) (n=198) Petites (n=198)
Correct 0 1.02 3.03 4.04 3.03
Figure 5 Knowledge on the meaning of size
Wrong 100 98.98 96.96 95.95 96.96
label terms.

Table 1 Consumers’ reported key body dimensions vs. measured key body dimensions

Pearson correlation coefficient

Reported measurement Obtained measurement (0.3, low; 0.6, medium; 0.8, high) Alpha at <0.05 level

Reported bust Measured bust 0.55566 (medium) 0.2390 > 0.05

Reported waist Measured waist 0.52162 (medium) 0.0041 < 0.05
Reported hip at normal position Measured hip at normal position 0.69131 (medium) 0.0296 < 0.05
Reported hip at broadest position Measured hip at broadest position 0.68268 (medium) 0.4876 > 0.05

or if they are not sure, to be internal and external. Informed
consumers, who have adequate knowledge of the products they
buy, have a better change to locate the locus of the cause of the
problem. It seems as if female Kenyan apparel consumers do not
know where to attribute the cause of their problems. Most of the
consumers (88.5%) attribute the locus of the problem externally
by blaming the industry (Fig. 7). The fact that 77.5% of the con-
sumers also attribute the problem internally by blaming their own
bodies implies that these consumers are probably confused and do
not know where the problem lies, and would therefore also not

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Journal compilation © 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
Consumers’ knowledge on sizing and fit A.M. Mason et al.

100 10.4 12
24
32.8
80
40.8
26.4 47.2
60 25.6
Percentage responses
40
49.6 48.8
41.6 40.8
20

0
Hip at
Hip at normal
Bust Waist broadest
position
position
Reported measures > obtained 24 32.8 10.4 12
measures (over estimated)
Reported measures = obtained 26.4 25.6 40.8 47.2
measures (accurate)
Reported measures < obtained 49.6 41.6 48.8 40.8 Figure 6 Percentage distribution on accuracy of
measures (under estimated) consumers’ knowledge on their key dimensions.

factors may contribute to consumers’ problems with regard to the

100
77.5
80
Percentage responses
60
40
22
20
0.5
0 they can interpret and use as knowledge when purchasing apparel
Blame on own body (n=200) Blame on industry (n=199)
S agree + Agree 77.5
Disagree + S disagree 22
Undecided 0.5
Figure 7 Perceived sources of ready-made apparels’ fit problems.
know how to rectify the problem. Attributional bias (the fact that
people are inclined to attribute negative consequences externally)
could have played a role in the fact that so many of the respondents
attributed the cause of the problem externally (the industry). With
the female Kenyan apparel consumers’ lack of knowledge of size
labels and lack of knowledge of their own body measurements in
mind, it would, however, probably be more correct to conclude
that these consumers’ lack of knowledge contributed to the fact
that they are confused as to where the cause of their problem
actually lies, and would therefore most probably also not know
how to rectify the problem.
Conclusions and recommendations
First of all, it can be concluded that, similar to the case still in
many Western counties, apparel fit problems continue to plague
many female Kenyan consumers to the extent that most of these
consumers frequently experience problems with getting the right
size garments and leaving more than half of the consumers dis-
satisfied with the fit of their clothes.
Second, it can be concluded from this research that female
Kenyan apparel consumers lack knowledge of the meanings of
various size descriptions used on labels of ready-made apparel
sold in Kenya and of their own key body dimensions. Various
88.5
fit of their clothes as well as to their problems regarding the finding
of suitable sizes that fit their bodies. According to Ashdown (2000)
these factors may be the population measures, the design features,
the fit issues and the communication of sizing and fit – in other
10.5 words, the information that is communicated to consumers and
1
88.5
items. In the case of the Kenyan female apparel consumer, the lack
10.5 of knowledge (which implies that there is no meaningful commu-
1
nication between the apparel industry and the consumer) is prob-
ably an important contributing factor to the Kenyan female apparel
consumer’s problems with getting the right size and also her
dissatisfaction with the fit of clothes.
Third, it can be concluded that getting information and being
familiar with the way that it is presented, does not imply correct
interpretation of the information to the extent that it can be viewed
as meaningful knowledge that can successfully be applied in a
decision-making situation. It can therefore be concluded that,
although they prefer the more informative size descriptive labels,
female Kenyan apparel consumers are familiar with most of the
non-informative size descriptive labels that are currently used
to indicate the sizes of most female apparel items. For the female
Kenyan apparel consumer, being familiar with and having knowl-
edge are clearly two different concepts, implying that being
exposed to information in the consumer socialization process
does not automatically result in an informed consumer who has
the knowledge that she needs when trying to make informed
decisions.
Last, it can be concluded that female Kenyan apparel consumers
clearly are confused as to where the cause of their size
and fit problems lies and therefore blame their own bodies as well
as the industry for their problems, the result of which would most
probably be an angry consumer who does not know how to rectify
her problem.
Although this was the case of the Kenyan female apparel con-
sumer’s lack of knowledge regarding important sizing and fit
issues, concern about female consumers’ many problems regard-
ing the fit of their clothes is not restricted to Kenya and the plea

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A.M. Mason et al.
that the apparel industry should at least try to address some of
these problems (among which, the communication of sizing
through informative size labels) is a worldwide phenomenon. The
question is: what are the implications of the above conclusions and
what can be done to address the problem?
A consumer’s knowledge plays – from an expectancy discon-
firmation point of view – an important role in the expectations that
the consumer forms about a product, in this case apparel products.
Knowledge also plays an important role when the apparel con-
sumer has to evaluate the apparel item at the point of purchase,
when she wears the garment and has to decide if she is satisfied or
dissatisfied, and where the cause of the problem lies. A consumer
with inadequate knowledge – in this case inadequate sizing and
fit knowledge – would not be able to make informed decisions
with regard to the size and fit of a garment, thus leaving her with
a better change to make, from the start, the wrong choice. Without
adequate knowledge of her own body measurements, knowledge
of how a garment is sized and an understanding of the meaning of
the size label, the consumer would also not be able to know why
a garment does not fit properly and would therefore be unable to
correct the problem in future purchases. A consumer who experi-
ences disconfirmation when the garment does not fit as she had
expected it to fit will, against the viewpoints of attribution theory,
in any case most likely blame the manufacturer or retailer, leaving
her frustrated and angry and probably engaging in a private
complaint behaviour, such as negative word-of-mouth, changing
brands or not returning to the retailer for future purchases – all of
which have negative consequences for a specific manufacturer,
brand or retailer.
Consumers have the right to clear and understandable informa-
tion with regard to what they are buying and on the product itself.
It is therefore not only about who is to be blamed for consumers’
lack of knowledge of important sizing and fit issues and their
misinterpretation of current labelling systems, but also about what
can be done to rectify the problem to the advantage of both the
consumer and the apparel industry.
Oumlil et al. (2000) underlined the need for and value of con-
sumer education, stating that it can become an effective and viable
tool through which marketing strategies can be implemented,
to the extent that it can become a form of self-promotion and
advertising. It should be, according to the authors, a part of any
company or retailer’s competitive strategy – with its advantage in
helping obtain and keep satisfied customers, contributing to a
favourable attitude formed among the consumers and in helping to
reduce confrontations between customers and apparel suppliers.
However, communicating information to the consumer should
not be seen as consumer education or even resulting in consumer
knowledge (Burton, 2002). Communication and processing of
information are processes; on the other hand knowledge is an
outcome and relates to how information and education can be
used. The focus should therefore not only be on presenting con-
sumers with information but on assisting them in understanding
the information and providing them with the skills to utilize the
information.
With regard to the apparel consumer the above implies that it
is primarily about communicating – through labelling – to the
consumer sizing and fit information that is clear, informative and
understandable, which is information that is currently not given
through the use of non-informative lettered and numbered size
International Journal of Consumer Studies 32 (2008) 276–284 © The Authors
Journal compilation © 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
Consumers’ knowledge on sizing and fit
codes. This implies that the consumer should be able to easily
identify the size of the garment. It could include size symbols,
such as the pictogram, that would quickly communicate to the
consumer the key body dimensions the garment was designed to
fit. Secondly, keeping female consumers’ lack of knowledge with
regard to own key body dimensions in mind, retailers and compa-
nies would benefit by also providing their customers with the skills
to utilize the information. In addition to understanding the sizing
code on the label, apparel consumers should know which body
dimensions are used to size a garment, as well as how to determine
their own body dimensions, in order to make an appropriate size
choice. This would call for a creative, but not impossible, joint
attempt by retailers and their consumer advisors – an initiative that
could not only benefit the apparel consumer, but also the specific
company and/or retailer.
The problem of consumers’ lack of knowledge is most probably
not restricted to apparel consumers and certainly not only to
female Kenyan consumers. This then calls for similar research
among various consumer groups from various countries. The
importance of knowledge in consumers’ selection of apparel that
would fit their specific proportions should not be underestimated.
Lack of knowledge poses not only a problem for the consumer,
but for the whole apparel industry and certainly for the retailer
who strives for a happy consumer and a competitive edge in the
marketplace.
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