An epic (from the Ancient Greek adjective ἐπικός (epikos),

from ἔπος (epos) "word, story, poem"[1]) is a lengthy narrative poem,

ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds
and events significant to a culture or nation.[2] Oral poetry may qualify as an
epic, and Albert Lord and Milman Parry have argued that classical epics
were fundamentally an oral poetic form. Nonetheless, epics have been
written down at least since the works of Virgil, Dante Alighieri, and John
Milton. Many probably would not have survived if not written down. The
first epics are known as primary, or original, epics. One such epic is
the Old English story Beowulf.[3]Epics that attempt to imitate these like
Milton's Paradise Lost are known as literary, or secondary, epics. Another
type of epic poetry is epyllion (plural: epyllia), which is a brief narrative
poem with a romantic or mythological theme. The term, which means
'little epic', came in use in the nineteenth century. It refers primarily to the
type of erotic and mythological long elegy of whichOvid remains the
master; to a lesser degree, the term includes some poems of the English
Renaissance, particularly those influenced by Ovid. One suggested
example of classical epyllion may be seen in the story of Nisus and
Euryalus in Book IX of Aeneid.

Oral epics or world folk epics

The first epics were products of preliterate societies and oral poetic
traditions. In these traditions, poetry is transmitted to the audience and
from performer to performer by purely oral means.
Early twentieth-century study of living oral epic traditions in
the Balkans by Milman Parry and Albert Lord demonstrated
the paratactic model used for composing these poems. What they
demonstrated was that oral epics tend to be constructed in short episodes,
each of equal status, interest and importance. This facilitates
memorization, as the poet is recalling each episode in turn and using the
completed episodes to recreate the entire epic as he performs it.
Parry and Lord also showed that the most likely source for written texts of
the epics of Homer was dictation from an oral performance.
Epic: a long narrative poem in elevated stature presenting characters of
high position in adventures forming an organic whole through their relation
to a central heroic figure and through their development of episodes
important to the history of a nation or race.
Epics have nine main characteristics:[4]

1. It opens in medias res.[citation needed]

2. The setting is vast, covering many nations, the world or the
universe.[citation needed]
3. Begins with an invocation to a muse.[citation needed]
4. It starts with a statement of the theme.[citation needed]
5. Includes the use of epithets.[citation needed]
6. Contains long lists.[citation needed]
7. Features long and formal speeches.[citation needed]
8. Shows divine intervention on human affairs.[citation needed]
9. "Star" heroes that embody the values of the civilization.[citation
needed]

The hero generally participates in a cyclical journey or quest, faces

adversaries that try to defeat him in his journey and returns home
significantly transformed by his journey. The epic hero illustrates traits,
performs deeds, and exemplifies certain morals that are valued by the
society the epic originates from. Many epic heroes are recurring
characters in the legends of their native culture.
Conventions of epics:[citation needed]

1. Praepositio: Opens by stating the theme or cause of the epic.

This may take the form of a purpose (as in Milton, who proposed "to
justify the ways of God to men"); of a question (as in the Iliad,
which Homer initiates by asking a Muse to sing of Achilles' anger);
or of a situation (as in the Song of Roland, with Charlemagne in
Spain).
2. Invocation: Writer invokes a Muse, one of the nine daughters
of Zeus. The poet prays to the Muses to provide him with divine
inspiration to tell the story of a great hero. (This convention is
obviously restricted to cultures influenced by European Classical
culture. The Epic of Gilgamesh, for example, or the Bhagavata
Purana would obviously not contain this element).
3. In medias res: narrative opens "in the middle of things", with
the hero at his lowest point. Usually flashbacks show earlier portions
of the story or the hero has set out on his journey. It’s the literary
equivalent of arriving late to the party and having to be brought up to
speed with the drama still unfolding. One commonly recognized example
of this could be found in Homer’s Iliad, which begins with the Trojan War
already underway.

4. authors of epic works typically included long, formal speeches by

the heroes, often in the form of an issued challenge or customary
bragging. These speeches were a means of establishing the bravery and
heroism of the character by showcasing their deeds and abilities.
In Beowulf, for example, the titular hero engages in a war of words with
another character; he and Unferth verbally spar, each attempting to one-
up the other by boasting of his own accomplishments while taking digs at
his opponent. Speeches are often followed by such phrases as "thus he
spoke" to emphasize that the words are those of a character and not of
the narrator.

5. Epic machinery includes bardic recapitulations (e. g., the

Phaeacian poet Demodocus in the Odyssey recounts the story of the
Trojan Horse), a chief god's balancing the scales of fate, a long and
arduous journey for the hero, weapons of supernatural origin (such as
Achilles' shield, fashioned by Hephaestus, smith of the gods), a
descent into the Underworld, and nephelistic rescues (from "nephele"
[Greek, "mist"] in Greek).

6. Enumeratio: Catalogues and genealogies are given.

Catalogues and detailed descriptions are also integral parts of epic
poetry, both of which are found in nearly all the most famous works.
Cataloguing refers to authors compiling long lists within the piece, such as
by naming all the warriors in a regiment or all the trees in a specific forest.
In the case of detailed descriptions, an author can go on for pages
describing anything from warriors’ armor or the architecture of buildings to
 artwork and wall tapestries. This is commonly known as “ekphrasis” and
refers to something in a story, typically a piece of art, being described in
exacting detail, such as Ovid’s description of the door to Apollo’s house in
Book II of his Metamorphoses.
.
7. Epithet: Heavy use of repetition or stock phrases:
e.g., Homer's "rosy-fingered dawn" and "wine-dark sea." Epics also
made frequent use of epithets, a word or phrase used in place of or in
conjunction with a name. Because epics were typically written in poetic
verse (hence the term “epic poem”) the use of epithets helped the flow of
the poem and allowed lines to follow the proper meter. Homer was well
known for his use of epithets in the Iliad and the Odyssey, referring often
to “gray-eyed Athena” or “swift-footed Achilles.”
8. 2. The Epic or Homeric Simile is a protracted comparison
beginning with "like" or "as"; the figure, loaded with description,
often holds up the action at a crucial point to produce suspense. There
is a general absence of this device inBeowulf, but later English writers
such as Milton and Arnold have deliberately incorporated such
protracted comparisons into their works to give them weight and
dignity.

Literate societies have often copied the epic format The earliest surviving
European examples are the Argonautica of Apollonius of Rhodesand
Virgil's Aeneid, which follow both the style and subject matter of Homer.
Other obvious examples are Nonnus' Dionysiaca, Tulsidas' Sri Ramacharit
Manas.
Characters and Action
Characters in epics were typically written with the positive qualities that people of
the time held in high esteem. Though there could often be numerous “heroic”
characters, one individual generally stood out as THE hero with most of the
action centering on or relating back to him. His actions concerned deeds of great
valor and he was often tested throughout the course of the work, a common test
being a hero’s descent and subsequent return from the Underworld. Looking
again to Beowulf, the hero descends into a lake to battle Grendel’s mother in an
underwater cavern in what could be interpreted as an early form of an
“Underworld” descent test.

Epics in the Greek tradition also tended to include instances of the gods directing
or participating in the action of the story. Practically every epic has numerous
examples of gods interfering in the lives of mortals, oftentimes with the entire plot
of the tale relating directly back to the initial actions (and continual intervention)
of the gods.

Lastly, battles and contests were as common as the speeches and boasts that
typically preceded them. Whether taking the form of large-scale wars, one-on-
one fights, or competitions, these bouts were a means of furthering the action
and adding to both the characters that participated in them and the storyline as a
whole. From the Trojan War itself in Homer’s Iliad to the tale of Atalanta and the
golden apples in Book X of Ovid’s Metamorphoses, epics are ripe with examples
of heroes engaged in all manner of conflicts.

Characteristics of the Epic Hero

The form of the poem suggests that the material dealt with should be
"events which have a certain grandeur and importance, and come from a life
of action, especially of violent action such as war" (see C. M. Bowra, From
Virgil to Milton, p. 1).

1. The hero is introduced in the midst of turmoil, at a point well into

the story; antecedent action will be recounted in flashbacks.

2. The hero is not only a warrior and a leader, but also a polished
speaker who can address councils of chieftains or elders with eloquence and
confidence.

3. The hero, often a demi-god, possesses distinctive weapons of great

size and power, often heirlooms or presents from the gods.
 4. The hero must undertake a long, perilous journey, often involving a
descent into the Underworld (Greek, "Neukeia"), which tests his endurance,
courage, and cunning.

5. Although his fellows may be great warriors (like Achilles and

Beowulf, he may have a commitatus, or group of noble followers with
whom he grew up), he undertakes a task that no one else dare attempt.

6. Whatever virtues his race most prizes, these the epic hero as a
cultural exemplar possesses in abundance. His key quality is often
emphasized by his stock epithet: "Resourceful Odysseus," "swift-
footed Achilles," "pious AEneas."

7. The concept of arete (Greek for "bringing virtue to perfection") is

crucial to understanding the epic protagonist.

8. The hero establishes his aristeia (nobility) through single combat

in superari a superiore, honour coming from being vanquished by a superior
foe. That is, a hero gains little honour by slaying a lesser mortal, but only by
challenging heroes like himself or adversaries of superhuman power.

9. The two great epic adversaries, the hero and his antagonist, meet at
the climax, which must be delayed as long as possible to sustain maximum
interest. One such device for delaying this confrontation is the nephelistic
rescue (utilized by Homer to rescue Paris from almost certain death and
defeat at the hands of Menelaus in the Iliad).

10. The hero's epic adversary is often a "god-despiser," one who has
more respect for his own mental and physical abilities than for the power of
the gods. The adversary might also be a good man sponsored by lesser
deities, or one whom the gods desert at a crucial moment.

11. The hero may encounter a numinous phenomenon (a place or

person having a divine or supernatural force) such as a haunted wood or
enchanting sorceress that he most use strength, cunning, and divine
assistance to overcome.
Epic poetry today
With different objectives, epic poetry continues to be written by a few
individuals: Ruth Mabanglo, and Frederick Turner. Some aspects also appear in
proponents of expansive poetryand the long poem — broad perspectives, significant
non-confessional content, strong narrative and dramatic elements. Readers may also
like to see the various approaches to extended poems that feature in the work ofWalt
Whitman, Nikos Kazantzakis, St.-John Perse, William Carlos Williams, Robert
Pinsky,Ed Dorn, Amy Clampit, Adrienne Rich, James Merril, Galway Kinnel, Judy
Grahn, Derek Walcottand Sharon Doubiago.