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Fantasy literature
Fantasy literature is literature set in an imaginary universe, often but not always without any locations, events, or people from the real world.
Magic, the supernatural and magical creatures are common in many of these imaginary worlds. Fantasy literature may be directed at both children
and adults.

Fantasy is a subgenre of speculative fiction and is distinguished from the genres of science fiction and horror by the absence of scientific or macabre
themes, respectively, though these genres overlap. Historically, most works of fantasy were written, however, since the 1960s, a growing segment of
the fantasy genre has taken the form of films, television programs, graphic novels, video games, music and art.

A number of fantasy novels originally written for children and adolescents, such as Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, the Harry Potter series, The
Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit also attract an adult audience.

Contents
History
Beginnings
From the 13th century
Renaissance
Enlightenment
Romanticism
Victorian era
After 1901
Style
See also
Footnotes

History

Beginnings

Stories involving magic and terrible monsters have existed in spoken forms before the advent of printed literature. Classical mythology is replete
with fantastical stories and characters, the best known (and perhaps the most relevant to modern fantasy) being the works of Homer (Greek) and
Virgil (Roman).[1] The contribution of the Greco-Roman world to fantasy is vast and includes: The hero's journey (also the figure of the chosen
hero); magic gifts donated to win (including the ring of power as in the Gyges story contained in the Republic of Plato), prophecies (the oracle of
Delphi), monsters and creatures (especially dragons), magicians and witches with the use of magic.

The philosophy of Plato has had great influence on the fantasy genre. In the Christian Platonic tradition, the reality of other worlds, and an
overarching structure of great metaphysical and moral importance, has lent substance to the fantasy worlds of modern works.[2] The world of magic
is largely connected with the later Roman Greek world.

With Empedocles,(c. 490 – c. 430 BC) the elements, they are often used in fantasy works as personifications of the forces of nature.[3] Other than
magic concerns include: the use of a mysterious tool endowed with special powers (the wand); the use of a rare magical herb; a divine figure that
reveals the secret of the magical act.

India has a long tradition of fantastical stories and characters, dating back to Vedic mythology. The Panchatantra (Fables of Bidpai), which some
scholars believe was composed around the 3rd century BC.[4] It is based on older oral traditions, including "animal fables that are as old as we are
able to imagine".[5] It was influential in Europe and the Middle East. It used various animal fables and magical tales to illustrate the central Indian
principles of political science. Talking animals endowed with human qualities have now become a staple of modern fantasy.[6] The Baital Pachisi
(Vikram and the Vampire), a collection of various fantasy tales set within a frame story is, according to Richard Francis Burton and Isabel Burton,
the germ which culminated in the Arabian Nights, and which also inspired the Golden Ass of Apuleius, (2nd century A.D). Boccacio's Decamerone
(c.1353) the Pentamerone (1634,1636) and all that class of facetious fictitious literature."[7]

The Book of One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights) from the Middle East has been influential in the West since it was translated from the
Arabic into French in 1704 by Antoine Galland.[8] Many imitations were written, especially in France.[9] Various characters from this epic have
themselves become cultural icons in Western culture, such as Aladdin, Sinbad and Ali Baba.

The Fornaldarsagas, Norse and Icelandic sagas, both of which are based on ancient oral tradition influenced the German Romantics, as well as
William Morris, and J. R. R. Tolkien.[10] The Anglo-Saxon epic poem Beowulf has also had deep influence on the fantasy genre; although it was
unknown for centuries and so not developed in medieval legend and romance, several fantasy works have retold the tale, such as John Gardner's
Grendel.[11]

Celtic folklore and legend has been an inspiration for many fantasy works.[12] The Welsh tradition has been particularly influential, owing to its
connection to King Arthur and its collection in a single work, the epic Mabinogion.[12] One influential retelling of this was the fantasy work of
Evangeline Walton.[13] The Irish Ulster Cycle and Fenian Cycle have also been plentifully mined for fantasy.[12] Its greatest influence was, however,
indirect. Celtic folklore and mythology provided a major source for the Arthurian cycle of chivalric romance: the Matter of Britain. Although the
subject matter was heavily reworked by the authors, these romances developed marvels until they became independent of the original folklore and
fictional, an important stage in the development of fantasy.[14]

From the 13th century

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Romance or chivalric romance is a type of prose and verse narrative that was popular in the aristocratic circles of High Medieval and Early Modern
Europe. They were fantastic stories about marvel-filled adventures, often of a knight-errant portrayed as having heroic qualities, who goes on a
quest, yet it is "the emphasis on love and courtly manners distinguishes it from the chanson de geste and other kinds of epic, in which masculine
military heroism predominates."[15] Popular literature also drew on themes of romance, but with ironic, satiric or burlesque intent. Romances
reworked legends, fairy tales, and history to suit the readers' and hearers' tastes, but by c. 1600 they were out of fashion, and Miguel de Cervantes
famously burlesqued them in his novel Don Quixote. Still, the modern image of "medieval" is more influenced by the romance than by any other
medieval genre, and the word medieval evokes knights, distressed damsels, dragons, and other romantic tropes.[16]

Originally, romance literature was written in Old French, Anglo-Norman, Occitan, and Provençal, and later in Portuguese, in Castilian, in English,
in Italian (particularly with the Sicilian poetry) and German. During the early 13th century, romances were increasingly written as prose. In later
romances, particularly those of French origin, there is a marked tendency to emphasize themes of courtly love, such as faithfulness in adversity.

Renaissance

At the time of the Renaissance romance continued to be popular. The trend was to more fantastic fiction. The English Le Morte d'Arthur by Sir
Thomas Malory (c.1408–1471), was written in prose; this work dominates the Arthurian literature.[17] Arthurian motifs have appeared steadily in
literature from its publication, though the works have been a mix of fantasy and non-fantasy works.[18] At the time, it and the Spanish Amadis de
Gaula (1508), (also prose) spawned many imitators, and the genre was popularly well-received, producing such masterpiece of Renaissance poetry
as Ludovico Ariosto's Orlando furioso and Torquato Tasso's Gerusalemme Liberata. Ariosto's tale, many marvels, and adventures, was a source text
for many fantasies of adventure.[19] During the Renaissance Giovanni Francesco Straparola wrote and published The Facetious Nights of
Straparola(1550-1555), a collection of stories, many of which are literary fairy tales Giambattista Basile wrote and published the Pentamerone a
collection of literary fairy tales, the first collection of stories to contain solely the stories later to be known as fairy tales. Both of these works includes
the oldest recorded form of many well-known (and more obscure) European fairy tales.[20] This was the beginning of a tradition that would both
influence the fantasy genre and be incorporated in it, as many works of fairytale fantasy appear to this day.[21]

William Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream (1594/5), the Weird Sisters in Macbeth and Prospero in The Tempest (or Doctor Faustus in
Christopher Marlowe's play) would be deeply influential on later works of fantasy.

In a work on alchemy in the 16th century, Paracelsus (1493 – 1541) identified four types of beings with the four elements of alchemy: gnomes, earth
elementals; undines, water elementals; sylphs, air elementals; and salamanders, fire elementals.[22] Most of these beings are found in folklore as
well as alchemy; their names are often used interchangeably with similar beings from folklore.[23]

Enlightenment

Literary fairy tales, such as were written by Charles Perrault (1628 – 1703), and Madame d'Aulnoy ((c.1650 - 1705)), became very popular, early in
the Age of Enlightenment. Many of Perrault's tales became fairy tale staples, and influenced latter fantasy as such. Indeed, when Madame d'Aulnoy
termed her works contes de fée (fairy tales), she invented the term that is now generally used for the genre, thus distinguishing such tales from those
involving no marvels.[24] This influenced later writers, who took up the folk fairy tales in the same manner, in the Romantic era.[25]

Several fantasies aimed at an adult readership were also published in 18th century France, including Voltaire's "contes philosophique" "The Princess
of Babylon" (1768) and "The White Bull" (1774).[26]

This era, however, was notably hostile to fantasy. Writers of the new types of fiction such as Defoe, Richardson, and Fielding were realistic in style,
and many early realistic works were critical of fantastical elements in fiction.[27]

Romanticism

Romanticism, a movement of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, was a dramatic reaction to rationalism, challenging the priority of
reason and promoting the importance of imagination and spirituality. Its success in rehabilitating imagination was of fundamental importance to
the evolution of fantasy, and its interest in medieval romances providing many motifs to modern fantasy.[28]

The Romantics invoked the medieval romance as justification for the works they wanted to produce, in distinction from the realistic pressure of the
Enlightenment; these were not always fantastic, sometimes being merely unlikely to happen, but the justification was used even from fantasy.[29]
One of the first literary results of this fascinations was Gothic novel, a literary genre that began in Britain with The Castle of Otranto (1764) by
Horace Walpole, which is the predecessor to both modern fantasy and modern horror fiction .[25] One noted Gothic novel which also contains a
large amount of fantasy elements (derived from the "Arabian Nights") is Vathek (1786) by William Thomas Beckford.[30]

In the later part of the Romantic tradition, in reaction to the spirit of the Enlightenment, folklorists collected folktales, epic poems, and ballads, and
brought them out in printed form. The Brothers Grimm were inspired in their collection, Grimm's Fairy Tales, (1812) by the movement of German
Romanticism. Many other collectors were inspired by the Grimms and the similar sentiments. Frequently their motives stemmed not merely from
Romanticism, but from Romantic nationalism, in that many were inspired to save their own country's folklore: sometimes, as in the Kalevala, they
compiled existing folklore into an epic to match other nation's; sometimes, as in Ossian, (1760) they fabricated folklore that should have been there.
These works, whether fairy tale, ballads, or folk epics, were a major source for later fantasy works.[31]

The Romantic interest in medievalism also resulted in a revival of interest in the literary fairy tale. The tradition begun with Giovanni Francesco
Straparola ((ca. 1485?-1558) )and Giambattista Basile (1566 – 1632) and developed by the Charles Perrault(1628 – 1703) and the French précieuses,
was taken up by the German Romantic movement. Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué created medieval-set stories such as Undine (1811)[32] and Sintram
and his Companions (1815) which would later inspire British writers such as MacDonald and Morris.[33][34] E. T. A. Hoffmann's tales, such as "The
Golden Pot" (1814) and "The Nutcracker and the Mouse King" (1816) were notable additions to the canon of German fantasy. [35] Ludwig Tieck's
collection Phantasus (1812-1817) contained several short fairy tales, including "The Elves".[36]

In France, the main writers of Romantic-era fantasy were Charles Nodier, with Smarra (1821) and Trilby (1822) [37][38] and Théophile Gautier in
stories such as "Omphale" (1834) and "One of Cleopatra's Nights" (1838), and the later novel Spirite (1866).[39][40]

Victorian era

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Fantasy literature was popular in Victorian times, with the works of writers such as Mary Shelley (1797 – 1851), William Morris and George
MacDonald, and Charles Dodgson, author of Alice in Wonderland (1865).

Hans Christian Andersen (1805 – 1875) initiated a new style of fairy tales, original tales told in seriousness.[41] From this origin, John Ruskin wrote
The King of the Golden River (1851), a fairy tale that uses new levels of characterization, creating in the South-West Wind an irascible but kindly
character similar to the Tolkien's later Gandalf.[41]

The history of modern fantasy literature begins with George MacDonald (1824 – 1905), author of such novels as The Princess and the Goblin (1868)
and Phantastes (1868) the latter of which is widely considered to be the first fantasy novel ever written for adults. MacDonald also wrote one of the
first critical essays about the fantasy genre, "The Fantastic Imagination", in his book A Dish of Orts (1893).[42][43] MacDonald was a major influence
on both J. R. R. Tolkien and C. S. Lewis.[44]

The other major fantasy author of this era was William Morris (1834 – 1896), a socialist, an admirer of Middle Ages, a reviver of British handcrafts
and a poet, who wrote several fantastic romances and novels in the latter part of the century, of which the most famous was The Well at the World's
End (1896). He was deeply inspired by the medieval romances and sagas; his style was deliberately archaic, based on medieval romances.[45] In
many respects, Morris was an important milestone in the history of fantasy, because, while other writers wrote of foreign lands, or of dream worlds,
Morris's works were the first to be set in an entirely invented world: a fantasy world.[46]

Authors such as Edgar Allan Poe (1809 – 1849) and Oscar Wilde (in The Picture of Dorian Gray, 1890) also developed fantasy, in the telling of
horror tales,[47] a separate branch of fantasy that was to have great influence on H. P. Lovecraft and other writers of dark fantasy. Wilde also wrote a
large number of children's fantasies, collected in The Happy Prince and Other Stories (1888) and A House of Pomegranates (1891).[48]

H. Rider Haggard developed the conventions of the Lost World subgenre with King Solomon's Mines (1885), which sometime included fantasy
works as in Haggard's own She.[49] With Africa still largely unknown to European writers, it offered scope to this type.[49] Other writers, including
Edgar Rice Burroughs and Abraham Merritt, built on the convention.

Several classic children's fantasies such as Lewis Carroll's Alice in Wonderland (1865),[50] J. M. Barrie's Peter Pan (1906), L. Frank Baum's The
Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1900), as well as the work of E. Nesbit (1858 – 1924)) and Frank R. Stockton (1834 – 1902)) were also published around
this time.[51] Indeed, C. S. Lewis noted that in the earlier part of the 20th century, fantasy was more accepted in juvenile literature, and therefore a
writer interested in fantasy often wrote in it to find an audience, despite concepts that could form an adult work.[52]

At this time, the terminology for the genre was not settled. Many fantasies in this era were termed fairy tales, including Max Beerbohm's "The
Happy Hypocrite" (1896) and MacDonald's Phantastes.[53] It was not until 1923 that the term "fantasist" was used to describe a writer (in this case,
Oscar Wilde) who wrote fantasy fiction.[54] The name "fantasy" was not developed until later; as late as J.R.R. Tolkien's The Hobbit (1937), the term
"fairy tale" was still being used.

After 1901

An important factor in the development of the fantasy genre was the arrival of magazines devoted to fantasy fiction. The first such publication was
the German magazine Der Orchideengarten which ran from 1919 to 1921.[55] In 1923, the first English-language fantasy fiction magazine, Weird
Tales, was created.[56] Many other similar magazines eventually followed.[57] and The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction [58] The pulp
magazine format was at the height of its popularity at this time and was instrumental in bringing fantasy fiction to a wide audience in both the U.S.
and Britain. Such magazines also played a large role in the rise of science fiction and it was at this time the two genres began to be associated with
each other. Several of the genre's most prominent authors began their careers in these magazines, including Clark Ashton Smith, Fritz Leiber, Ray
Bradbury and H. P. Lovecraft.

H. P. Lovecraft was deeply influenced by Edgar Allan Poe and to a somewhat lesser extent, by Lord Dunsany; with his Cthulhu Mythos stories, he
became one of the most influential writers of fantasy and horror in the 20th century.[59]

Despite MacDonald's future influence, and Morris' popularity at the time, it was not until around the start of the 20th century that fantasy fiction
began to reach a large audience, with authors such as Lord Dunsany (1878 – 1957) who, following Morris's example, wrote fantasy novels, but also
in the short story form.[45] He was particularly noted for his vivid and evocative style.[45] His style greatly influenced many writers, not always
happily; Ursula K. Le Guin, in her essay on style in fantasy "From Elfland to Poughkeepsie", wryly referred to Lord Dunsany as the "First Terrible
Fate that Awaiteth Unwary Beginners in Fantasy", alluding to young writers attempting to write in Lord Dunsany's style.[60] According to S. T.
Joshi, "Dunsany's work had the effect of segregating fantasy—a mode whereby the author creates his own realm of pure imagination—from
supernatural horror. From the foundations he established came the later work of E. R. Eddison, Mervyn Peake, and J. R. R. Tolkien.[61]

In Britain in the aftermath of World War I, a notably large number of fantasy books aimed at an adult readership were published, including Living
Alone (1919) by Stella Benson,[62] A Voyage to Arcturus (1920) by David Lindsay,[63] Lady into Fox (1922) by David Garnett,[62] Lud-in-the-Mist
(1926) by Hope Mirrlees,[62][64] and Lolly Willowes (1926) by Sylvia Townsend Warner.[62][65] E. R. Eddison was another influential writer, wrote
during this era. He drew inspiration from Northern sagas, as Morris did, but his prose style was modeled more on Tudor and Elizabethan English,
and his stories were filled with vigorous characters in glorious adventures.[46] Eddison's most famous work is The Worm Ouroboros (1922), a long
heroic fantasy set on an imaginary version of the planet Mercury.[66]

Literary critics of the era began to take an interest in "fantasy" as a genre of writing, and also to argue that it was a genre worthy of serious
consideration. Herbert Read devoted a chapter of his book English Prose Style (1928) to discussing "Fantasy" as an aspect of literature, arguing it
was unjustly considered suitable only for children: "The Western World does not seem to have conceived the necessity of Fairy Tales for Grown-
Ups".[43]

In 1938, with the publication of The Sword in the Stone, T. H. White introduced one of the most notable works of comic fantasy.[67]

The first major contribution to the genre after World War II was Mervyn Peake's Titus Groan (1946), the book that launched the Gormenghast
series. J. R. R. Tolkien played a large role in the popularization and accessibility of the fantasy genre with his highly successful publications The
Hobbit (1937) and The Lord of the Rings (1954–55).[68] Tolkien was largely influenced by an ancient body of Anglo-Saxon myths, particularly
Beowulf, as well as William Morris's romances and E. R. Eddison's 1922 novel, The Worm Ouroboros. Tolkien's close friend C. S. Lewis, author of
The Chronicles of Narnia (1950–56) and a fellow English professor with a similar array of interests, also helped to publicize the fantasy genre. Tove
Jansson, author of The Moomins, was also a strong contributor to the popularity of fantasy literature in the field of children and adults.[69]

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The tradition established by these predecessors of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries has
continued to thrive and be adapted by new authors. The influence of J.R.R. Tolkien's fiction has—particularly
over the genre of high fantasy—prompted a reaction.[70] Works of metafictional fantasy were published in the
late twentieth century, that self-consciously allude to the history and literary conventions of the genre, including
Terry Pratchett's Discworld series (1983-2015), and Neil Gaiman's Stardust (1999).

At the turn of the millennium, the Harry Potter novels of J. K. Rowling, which chronicle the life of a young
wizard, achieved widespread popularity. Fantasy writers Brandon
Sanderson, Steven Erikson, Terry
It is not uncommon for fantasy novels to be ranked on The New York Times Best Seller list, and some have been Brooks, Philip Reeve and Joshua
at number one on the list, including most recently, Brandon Sanderson in 2014,[71] Neil Gaiman in 2013,[72] Kahn at Lucca Comics & Games
Patrick Rothfuss[73] and George R. R. Martin in 2011,[74] and Terry Goodkind in 2006.[75] 2016.

Style
Symbolism often plays a significant role in fantasy literature, often through the use of archetypal figures inspired by earlier texts or folklore. Some
argue that fantasy literature and its archetypes fulfill a function for individuals and society and the messages are continually updated for current
societies.[76]

Ursula K. Le Guin, in her essay "From Elfland to Poughkeepsie", presented the idea that language is the most crucial element of high fantasy,
because it creates a sense of place. She analyzed the misuse of a formal, "olden-day" style, saying that it was a dangerous trap for fantasy writers
because it was ridiculous when done wrong. She warns writers away from trying to base their style on that of masters such as Lord Dunsany and E.
R. Eddison,[77] emphasizing that language that is too bland or simplistic creates the impression that the fantasy setting is simply a modern world in
disguise, and presents examples of clear, effective fantasy writing in brief excerpts from Tolkien and Evangeline Walton.[78]

Michael Moorcock observed that many writers use archaic language for its sonority and to lend color to a lifeless story.[31] Brian Peters writes that in
various forms of fairytale fantasy, even the villain's language might be inappropriate if vulgar.[79]

At the turn of the millennium, the Harry Potter young adult urban fantasy novels of J. K. Rowling achieved widespread popularity by combining
fantasy with realism, and exploring a variety of contemporary themes, including coming of age, prejudice, the loss of innocence, impending war,
political corruption, death, depression, love, loss, and discrimination.

See also
Children's literature
Fantastique
List of fantasy novels
Mythology

Footnotes
1. John Grant and John Clute, The Encyclopedia of Fantasy, "Taproot
texts", p 921 ISBN 0-312-19869-8
2. Prickett, Stephen (1979). Victorian Fantasy. Indiana University
Press. p. 229. ISBN 0-253-17461-9.
3. John Grant and John Clute, The Encyclopedia of Fantasy,
"Elemental" p 313-4, ISBN 0-312-19869-8
4. Jacobs 1888, Introduction, page xv; Ryder 1925, Translator's
introduction, quoting Hertel: "the original work was composed in
Kashmir, about 200 B.C. At this date, however, many of the
individual stories were already ancient."
5. Doris Lessing, Problems, Myths and Stories (http://www.i-c-r.org.uk/p
ublications/monographarchive/Monograph36.pdf) Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20160509185027/http://www.i-c-r.org.uk/publicati
ons/monographarchive/Monograph36.pdf) 2016-05-09 at the
Wayback Machine, London: Institute for Cultural Research
Monograph Series No. 36, 1999, p 13
6. Richard Matthews (2002). Fantasy: The Liberation of Imagination, p.
8-10. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-93890-2.
7. Isabel Burton, Preface (http://www.sacred-texts.com/goth/vav/vav02.
htm), in Richard Francis Burton (1870), Vikram and The Vampire.
8. L. Sprague de Camp, Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The
Makers of Heroic Fantasy, p 10 ISBN 0-87054-076-9
9. John Grant and John Clute, The Encyclopedia of Fantasy, "Arabian
fantasy", p 52 ISBN 0-312-19869-8
10. John Grant and John Clute, The Encyclopedia of Fantasy, "Nordic
fantasy", p 692 ISBN 0-312-19869-8
11. John Grant and John Clute, The Encyclopedia of Fantasy, "Beowulf",
p 107 ISBN 0-312-19869-8
12. John Grant and John Clute, The Encyclopedia of Fantasy, "Celtic
fantasy", p 275 ISBN 0-312-19869-8
13. Michael Moorcock, Wizardry & Wild Romance: A Study of Epic
Fantasy p 101 ISBN 1-932265-07-4
14. Colin Manlove, Christian Fantasy: from 1200 to the Present p 12
ISBN 0-268-00790-X
15. "Chivalric romance", in Chris Baldick, ed., Oxford Dictionary of
Literary Terms, 3rd ed. (Oxford University Press, 2008).
16. C. S. Lewis, The Discarded Image, p. 9 ISBN 0-521-47735-2
17. John Grant and John Clute, The Encyclopedia of Fantasy, "Malory,
(Sir) Thomas" p 621, ISBN 0-312-19869-8
18. John Grant and John Clute, The Encyclopedia of Fantasy, "Arthur" p
60-1, ISBN 0-312-19869-8
19. John Grant and John Clute, The Encyclopedia of Fantasy, "Ariosto,
Lodovico" p 60-1, ISBN 0-312-19869-8
20. Steven Swann Jones, The Fairy Tale: The Magic Mirror of
Imagination, Twayne Publishers, New York, 1995, ISBN 0-8057-
0950-9, p38
21. L. Sprague de Camp, Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The
Makers of Heroic Fantasy, p 11 ISBN 0-87054-076-9
22. Carole B. Silver, Strange and Secret Peoples: Fairies and Victorian
Consciousness, p 38 ISBN 0-19-512199-6
23. C.S. Lewis, The Discarded Image, p135 ISBN 0-521-47735-2
24. Jack Zipes, The Great Fairy Tale Tradition: From Straparola and
Basile to the Brothers Grimm, p 858, ISBN 0-393-97636-X
25. L. Sprague de Camp, Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The
Makers of Heroic Fantasy, p 9-11 ISBN 0-87054-076-9
26. Brian Stableford, The A to Z of Fantasy Literature, p xx, Scarecrow
Press, Plymouth. 2005. ISBN 0-8108-6829-6
27. Lin Carter, ed. Realms of Wizardry p xiii-xiv Doubleday and
Company Garden City, NY, 1976
28. John Grant and John Clute, The Encyclopedia of Fantasy,
"Romanticism", p 821 ISBN 0-312-19869-8
29. John Grant and John Clute, The Encyclopedia of Fantasy,
"Romance", p 821 ISBN 0-312-19869-8
30. Brian Stableford, The A to Z of Fantasy Literature, p 40, Scarecrow
Press, Plymouth. 2005. ISBN 0-8108-6829-6
31. Michael Moorcock, Wizardry & Wild Romance: A Study of Epic
Fantasy p 35 ISBN 1-932265-07-4

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32. Brian Stableford,"Undine",(pp. 1992-1994). in Frank N. Magill, ed.
Survey of Modern Fantasy Literature, Vol 4. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Salem Press, Inc., 1983. ISBN 0-89356-450-8
33. Mike Ashley, "Fouqué, Friedrich (Heinrich Karl),(Baron) de la Motte",
(p. 654-5) in St. James Guide To Fantasy Writers, edited by David
Pringle. St. James Press, 1996. ISBN 1-55862-205-5
34. Veronica Ortenberg, In Search of the Holy Grail: The Quest for the
Middle Ages, (38-9) Continuum International Publishing Group,
2006, ISBN 1-85285-383-2.
35. Penrith Goff, "E.T.A. Hoffmann", (pp.111-120) in E. F. Bleiler,
Supernatural Fiction Writers: Fantasy and Horror. New York:
Scribner's, 1985. ISBN 0-684-17808-7
36. D. P Haase, "Ludwig Tieck" (pp.83-90), in E. F. Bleiler, Supernatural
Fiction Writers: Fantasy and Horror. New York: Scribner's, 1985.
ISBN 0-684-17808-7
37. Franz Rottensteiner, The Fantasy Book:an illustrated history from
Dracula to Tolkien (p. 137) Collier Books, 1978. ISBN 0-02-053560-0
38. A. Richard Oliver, Charles Nodier:Pilot of Romanticism. (p. 134-37)
Syracuse University Press, 1964.
39. Brian Stableford, The A to Z of Fantasy Literature (p. 159),
Scarecrow Press, Plymouth. 2005. ISBN 0-8108-6829-6
40. Brian Stableford, "Théophile Gautier", (pp. 45-50) in E. F. Bleiler,
Supernatural Fiction Writers: Fantasy and Horror. New York:
Scribner's, 1985. ISBN 0-684-17808-7
41. Stephen Prickett, Victorian Fantasy p 66-67 ISBN 0-253-17461-9
42. George MacDonald, "The Fantastic Imagination". Reprinted in Boyer,
Robert H. and Zahorski, Kenneth J. Fantasists on Fantasy. New
York: Avon Discus, 1984. pp. 11-22, ISBN 0-380-86553-X
43. Scholes, Robert (1987). "Boiling Roses". In Slusser, George E.;
Rabkin, Eric S. (eds.). Intersections: Fantasy and Science Fiction.
Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press. pp. 3–18.
ISBN 080931374X.
44. Gary K. Wolfe, "George MacDonald", pp.239-246 in Bleiler, E. F., ed.
Supernatural Fiction Writers. New York: Scribner's, 1985. ISBN 0-
684-17808-7
45. Lin Carter, ed. Realms of Wizardry p 2 Doubleday and Company
Garden City, NY, 1976
46. Lin Carter, ed. Kingdoms of Sorcery, p 39 Doubleday and Company
Garden City, NY, 1976
47. Stephen Prickett, Victorian Fantasy p 98-9 ISBN 0-253-17461-9
48. M. J. Elkins, "Oscar Wilde" in E. F. Bleiler, ed. Supernatural Fiction
Writers. New York: Scribner's, 1985. (pp.345-350). ISBN 0-684-
17808-7
49. Lin Carter, ed. Realms of Wizardry p 64 Doubleday and Company
Garden City, NY, 1976
50. J.R. Pfeiffer, "Lewis Carroll", p 247-54, in E. F. Bleiler, Supernatural
Fiction Writers: Fantasy and Horror. Scribner's, New York, 1985
ISBN 0-684-17808-7
51. Brian Stableford, The A to Z of Fantasy Literature, p 70-3, Scarecrow
Press, Plymouth. 2005. ISBN 0-8108-6829-6
52. C. S. Lewis, "On Juvenile Tastes", p 41, Of Other Worlds: Essays
and Stories, ISBN 0-15-667897-7
53. W.R. Irwin, The Game of the Impossible, p 92-3, University of Illinois
Press, Urbana Chicago London, 1976
54. The term was referenced in a supplement to the Oxford English
Dictionary. See Michael W. McClintock, "High Tech and High
Sorcery: Some Discriminations Between Science Fiction and
Fantasy", in George E. Slusser, and Eric S. Rabkin, ed.,
Intersections: Fantasy and Science Fiction. Carbondale: Southern
Illinois University Press, 1987.ISBN 080931374X (pp.26-35.).
55. "Orchideengarten, Der". in: M.B. Tymn and Mike Ashley, Science
Fiction, Fantasy, and Weird Fiction Magazines. Westport:
Greenwood, 1985. pp. 866. ISBN 0-313-21221-X
56. Robert Weinberg, The Weird Tales Story;; Wildside Press,1999.
ISBN 1-58715-101-4
57. "Unknown". in: M.B. Tymn and Mike Ashley, Science Fiction,
Fantasy, and Weird Fiction Magazines. Westport: Greenwood, 1985.
pp.694-698. ISBN 0-313-21221-X
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantasy_literature
Fantasy literature - Wikipedia
58. Thomas D. Clareson, "Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction" in
M.B. Tymn and Mike Ashley, Science Fiction, Fantasy, and Weird
Fiction Magazines. Westport: Greenwood, 1985. (pp.377-391).
ISBN 0-313-21221-X
59. L. Sprague de Camp, Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The
Makers of Heroic Fantasy, p 79 ISBN 0-87054-076-9
60. Ursula K. Le Guin, "From Elfland to Poughkeepsie", p 78-9 The
Language of the Night ISBN 0-425-05205-2
61. 21st-Century Gothic: Great Gothic Novels Since 2000 (https://books.
google.com/books?id=fOyVgu1qElAC&pg=PR15&lpg=PR15&dq=Du
nsany's+work+had+the+effect+of+segregating+fantasy&source=bl&o
ts=3oxnStBMzU&sig=R6jsj6iHb8SvRxyv3HaBNiK6JLU&hl=en&sa=X
&ei=vwMrVLe6AuHRywPx8ILgCw&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAA#v=onepag
e&q=Dunsany's%20work%20had%20the%20effect%20of%20segreg
ating%20fantasy&f=false)
62. Brian Stableford, " Re-Enchantment in the Aftermath of War", in
Stableford, Gothic Grotesques: Essays on Fantastic Literature.
Wildside Press, 2009, ISBN 978-1-4344-0339-1
63. "David Lindsay" by Gary K. Wolfe, (pp.541–548) in E. F. Bleiler, ed.
Supernatural Fiction Writers. New York: Scribner's, 1985. ISBN 0-
684-17808-7
64. E.L. Chapman, "Lud-in-the-Mist", in Frank N. Magill, ed. Survey of
Modern Fantasy Literature, Vol. 2. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Salem
Press, Inc., 1983. ISBN 0-89356-450-8. pp. 926-931.
65. Robin Anne Reid, Women in Science Fiction and Fantasy (p.39),
ABC-CLIO, 2009 ISBN 0313335915.
66. Michael Moorcock, Wizardry & Wild Romance: A Study of Epic
Fantasy p 47 ISBN 1-932265-07-4
67. Lin Carter, ed. Kingdoms of Sorcery, p 121-2 Doubleday and
Company Garden City, NY, 1976
68. Sirangelo Maggio, Sandra; Fritsch, Valter Henrique (2011). "There
and Back Again: Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings in the Modern
Fiction" (http://revistas.unincor.br/index.php/recorte/article/view/326/p
df_1). Recorte: Revista Eletrônica. 8 (2). Retrieved July 7, 2012.
69. Tove Jansson: Love, war and the Moomins | BBC News (https://ww
w.bbc.com/news/magazine-26529309)
70. Fornet-Ponse, Thomas. Tolkien's Influence on Fantasy:
Interdisziplinäres Seminar Der DTG 27. Bis 29. April 2012, Jena =
Tolkiens Einfluss Auf Die Moderne Fantasy. Vol. 9. Düsseldorf:
Scriptorium Oxoniae., n.d. Print.
71. Brandon Sanderson tops best sellers list with Words of Radiance (htt
ps://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/17/books/brandon-sanderson-tops-b
est-sellers-with-words-of-radiance.html) April 17, 2014
72. "Best-Seller Lists: Hardcover Fiction" (https://www.nytimes.com/best-
sellers-books/2013-07-07/hardcover-fiction/list.html). The New York
Times. NYTimes.com. 7 July 2013. Retrieved 15 August 2013.
73. " ' 'The New York Times ' ' Best Seller list: March 20, 2011" (http://ww
w.hawes.com/2011/2011-03-20.pdf) (PDF). Hawes.com. Retrieved
November 16, 2011.
74. "New York Times bestseller list" (https://www.nytimes.com/best-seller
s-books/2011-07-31/overview.html). The New York Times.
NYTimes.com. Retrieved July 24, 2011.
75. "Hawes' archive of New York Times bestsellers — Week of January
23, 2005" (http://www.hawes.com/2006/2006-08-06.pdf) (PDF).
76. "Indick, William. Ancient Symbology in Fantasy Literature: A
Psychological Study. Jefferson: McFarland &, 2012. Print" (https://arc
hive.is/20130629202403/http://www.mcfarlandpub.com/book-2.php?i
d=978-0-7864-6039-7). Archived from the original (http://www.mcfarl
andpub.com/book-2.php?id=978-0-7864-6039-7) on 2013-06-29.
Retrieved 2013-04-04.
77. Ursula K. Le Guin, "From Elfland to Poughkeepsie", p 74-5 The
Language of the Night ISBN 0-425-05205-2
78. Ursula K. Le Guin, "From Elfland to Poughkeepsie", p 78-80 The
Language of the Night ISBN 0-425-05205-2
79. Alec Austin, "Quality in Epic Fantasy" (http://www.strangehorizons.co
m/2002/20020624/epic_fantasy.shtml). The generic features of
historical fantasy literature, as a mode of inverting the real (including
nineteenth-century ghost stories, children's stories, city comedies,
classical dreams, stories of highway women, and Edens) are
discussed in Writing and Fantasy, ed. Ceri Sullivan and Barbara
White (London: Longman, 1999)
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