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wave consisting of a periodic disturbance or vibration that takes place in the same direction as the
advance of the wave. A coiled spring that is compressed at one end and then released experiences a
wave of compression that travels its length, followed by a stretching; a point on any coil of the spring
will move with the wave and return along the same path, passing through the neutral position and then
reversing its motion again. Sound moving through air also compresses and rarefies the gas in the
direction of travel of the sound wave as they vibrate back and forth. The Ê (primary) seismic waves are
also longitudinal. In a longitudinal wave, each particle of matter vibrates about its normal rest position
and along the axis of propagation, and all particles participating in the wave motion behave in the same
manner, except that there is a progressive change in phase (

) of vibration²

 each particle
completes its cycle of reaction at a later time. The combined motions result in the advance of alternating
regions of compression and rarefaction in the direction of propagation. c

A longitudinal wave and its transverse representation. A mechanical model is helpful in explaining
longitudinal waves. At the top of the figure, small masses V etc. are joined together by coiled
springs to represent a transmitting medium that has properties of both inertia and elasticity. Because
mass  has inertia, motion of V toward the left (arrow 2) extends the spring it is attached to and motion
to the right (arrow 1) compresses it. A corresponding motion will be communicated to  through the
spring, except that there will be a slight lag in phase. Mass  will impart its motion to its partner  and
so on, the impulse travelling from V to and the lag progressively increasing. At the instant shown, V
leads
in phase by 360°; V is starting its second vibration, whereas
is just beginning its first.

A transverse representation of a longitudinal wave is shown at the bottom of the figure. Here vertical
lines are drawn through the rest positions (indicated by  
 etc.), with lengths proportional to the
distances that the masses have moved from equilibrium (their amplitudes). Lines are drawn upward from
the axis when displacement is to the left and downward when to the right. A smooth curve drawn
through the ends of the vertical lines gives a transverse curve. This transverse curve shows that there is
one compression and one rarefaction per cycle,  being one wavelength. Frequency would be
represented by the number of complete cycles executed by any of the masses per second.

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?aves travel in the same direction as the wind that generated them and at right angles to their crests. If
they meet a solid object rather than a sloping beach, much of their energy will be reflected. If they enter
shallow water obliquely, they are refracted. ?ave speed, for waves longer than four times the depth of
the water, is approximately equal to the square root of the product of the depth and the gravitational
acceleration. For waves in relatively deep water, the wave speed is proportional to the square root of the
wavelength.

As wave height increases, the sharpening of the wave crest may result in instability and a breaking off of
the crest, a process hastened by the wind. This results in the familiar whitecaps. ?aves that run ashore
break up in surf. The wave height first decreases slightly, then increases, and the speed decreases, and
eventually the wave form disappears as it crumbles into breakers. These can be plunging forms, in which
the top curls right over the forward face, or of the spilling type, in which the crest spills down the
forward face. A particular wave may break several times before reaching shore.

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