ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Dr. S.K. Gupta has more than 20 years of experience of teacing electrical engineering subject at
UG and PG level in different capacities of Leturer, Lecturer-senior scale, Asstt. Professor,
Reader, Associate Professor and Professor. He has served Sant Longowal Institute of
Engineering and Technology, C.R. State College of Engineering, Murthal (Sonepat), Y.M.C.A.
Institute of Engineering and Technology, Faridabad. Presently he is working as Professor of
Electrical Engineering in DCR University of Science and Technology, Murthal (Sonepat). Dr.
Gupta has more than 60 research papers to his credit publilshed in various national, international
journals and national, international conferences. He has been the Members/Chairman of various
technical bodies such as Board of Studies Engineering, Board of Studies Technology and Faculty
of Engineering & Technology, MDU Rohtak/DCRUST Murthal, Indian Society of Technical
Education, Institution of Engineers (India), Executive Council of IE (I) Haryana State, IEEE
(USA), BOS (Electrical Engineering), PGBOS & Research (Electrical Engineering), Court
Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science & Technology, Murthal (Sonepat). He has
acted as the paper setters and evaluator for various Universities and Boards such as MDU
Rohtak, GJU Hisar, Kurukshetra University, UP Board of Technical Education. He has acted as
subject expert in the recruitment committees of several Engineering Institutions of Haryana
State.
 PREFACE

The growth of electrical power in India after independence has been phenomenal. The installed
capacity of India in the year 1950 was 2300 MW which has increased to 135.4 thousands MW at
the end of December 2007. This shows a very repid growth in the generation, transmission,
distribution and utilization of electrical power after independence. As on now, a restructured
electricity markets has been established in various form and degrees in many countries including
developing countries like India. This has increased a competition in various companies at
transmission, generation and distribution level and provides new choices and economic benefits
to consumers. The competition at various levels open new paradigm in the field of technological
development and resource management.
This book on Power Systems Engineering is an attempt to bring out construction, design,
operation and analysis of transmission, distrubution as well as generation of power. This book
has been written for undergraduate and postgraduate courses of power system engineering in
various Indian Universitiews. While developing the course contents due care of syllabi, scheme
and course curricula of MDU Rohtak, KUK Kurukshetra, GJU Hisar, DCR University of
Science & Technology, Murthal and many other universities, such as U.P. Technical University
Lucknow for courses on power systems in different semesters of under graduate and
postgraduate has been taken. Thus the book includes topics such as power generation with
economic considerations, optimal dispatch, calculation of transmission lilne parameters and
complete analysis for single transmission line to complex network through very basics to load
flow studies, mechanical design of transmission lines, insulators, corona effects, interference
with communication lines, state estimations, fault analysis using network reduction as well as
through digital techniques, load frequency control, excitation control, voltage and power angle
stability, switch gear protection, modelling of power components. HVAC, HVDC & FACTS,
substation and distribution, restructuring power systems.
This book gives the students, practitioner, researchers and teachers the facility of
obtaining all the topics from very principle to advances level at one place.
I hope this book shall be accepted widely as a text book by power engineers and students.

Dr. S.K. Gupta

Murtha
 ACKNPWLEDGEMENT

The request made to “Sathya Sai Baba” for writing this book is greatly and kindly accepted by
Him. It is not known when he started to write this book through consciousness in me and
completed in no recognisible time duration. This book by Him is dedicated to Him only.
I thank to all my undergraduate and post graduate students who caused me to think to
write this book in order to make the course easy to understand from very fundamental to
advanced nature and in deed all those who encouraged me for this work.
I expressed my sincere thanks to my father Sh. Hari Shankar Gupta, Mother Smt.
Sarswati Gupta and my elder Bhabhi Smt. Asha Gupta who cultivate the values to served the
nation and develop the potential by motivation and caused me to grow and reaching of present
level. Their well wishes are always with me. I appreciate the petience, support and co-operation
of my wife Seema Gupta during the writing of this book. I keep on record the contribution of my
younger daughter Pearl who has been deprived of my love and care for which she deserved.
The author acknowledgees the help received from various journals, books and other
literature.
The author is very thankful to Sh. Anurag Sant, Umesh Publication for bringing out this
book in a very short duration of time and keeping the price reasonable and affordable to students.
Suggestions, criticism for improvements in the book would be highly appreciated and
accpeted.

Dr. S.K. Gupta

Murthal
 CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................................................1–7
1.1 Measures for Energy Conservation
1.2 Energy Savings in Power Utilization
1.3 History of Electrical Power Generation
1.4 Structure of Power Systems

2. POWER GENERATION AND ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS............................................................8–61

2.1 Conventional Sources of Energy
2.1.1 Hydro Station
2.1.2 Thermal Power (coal based)
2.1.3 Gas Turbine Power
2.1.4 Nuclear Power Plant
2.1.5 Comparison of Power Plants
2.2 Renewal Energy Resources
2.2.1 Solar Energy
2.2.2 Tidal Energy
2.2.3 Bio Energy
2.2.4 Wind Power
2.2.5 Wave Power
2.2.6 MHD Generation
2.2.7 Ocean Thermal Energy
2.2.8 Geo Thermal Energy
2.3 Other Energy Sources
2.3.1 Cogeneration
2.3.2 Distributed Generation
2.3.3 Energy Storage
2.4 Terms Associated to Power Generation
2.4.1 Selection of Size and Number of Generating Units
2.4.2 Base Load and Peak Load
2.4.3 Tariffs
2.5 Power Factor Improvement
2.6 Numerical Examples

3. TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS...................................................................................................62–106

3.1 Inductance Calculation
3.1.1 Inductance of an Isolated Conductor
3.1.2 Inductance of a Single Phase Two Wire Line
3.1.3 Stranded Conductor and Flux Linkage
3.1.4 Inductance of Composite Conductor’s Line
3.1.5 Inductance of a Three Phase Line
3.2 Capacitance of Over Head Lines
3.2.1 Potential Difference Between two Points to any Charged Conductors.
3.2.2 Potential Difference Between two Conductors of a Group of Parallel Conductors
3.2.3 Capacitance of a two wire Line
3.2.4 Capacitance of a Three Phase Line with Equilateral Spacing
3.2.5 Capacitance of a Three Phase Transposed Line
3.2.6 Capacitance of Three Phase Double Circuit Bundled Conductors Transposed Line.
3.2.7 Effect of Earth on Transmission Line
3.2.8 Capacitance of Single Phase Line Considering the Effect of Earth
3.2.9 Capacitance of Three Phase Line Considering the Effect of Earth.
3.3 Resistance of Line
3.4 Numerical Examples

4. ANALYSIS OF TRANSMISSION LINE..................................................................................................107–158

 4.1 Short Transmission Line
4.2 Medium Transmission Line
4.3 Long Transmission Line
4.4 Characteristic Impedance and Surge Impedance Loading
4.5 The Equivalent Circuit of a Long Line
4.6 Ferranti Effect
4.7 Power Flow Equations
4.8 Circle Diagram
4.9 Travelling Wave
4.10 Numerical Examples

5. MECHANICAL DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION LINE..........................................................................159–191

5.1 Calculation of Sag for Equal Level of Support
5.2 Calculation of Sag for Unequal Level of Support
5.3 Effect of Wind and Ice Loading
5.4 String Chart
5.5 Conductor Vibrations
5.6 Line Supports
5.7 Insulations
5.8 Potential Distribution over Suspension Insulator String
5.9 Method of Improving String Efficiency
5.10 Corona
5.11 Numerical Examples

6. LOAD FLOW STUDIES............................................................................................................................192–238

6.1 Bus Admittance Matrix by Direct Inspection Method
6.2 Topology
6.3 Primitive Matrix, Bus Incidence Matrix
6.4 Formation of Y-Bus Using Singular Transformation
6.5 Formation of Zloop by Direct Inspection Method
6.6 Formation of Zloop Using Singular Transformation
6.7 Load Flow Problem
6.7.1 Approximate Load Flow Solution
6.7.2 Gauss Seidel Method
6.7.3 Newton-Rapson Method
6.7.3.1 Load flow Solution Using N.R. Method
6.7.4 Fast-Decoupled Load Flow Method.
6.7.5 Comparison of GS & NR Method.
6.8 Numerical Examples

7. SHORT CIRCUIT STUDIES....................................................................................................................239–314

7.1 Balanced Fault
7.1.2 Short Circuit of Synchronous Machine
7.1.3 Symmetrical Fault
7.1.4 Consideration of Prefeult Current
7.2 Symmetrical Components
7.2.1 Power considerations
7.2.2 Sequence Impedance of Transmission Line
7.2.3 Sequence Network of Synchronous Machine
7.2.4 Sequence Impedance of Transformers
7.2.5 Formation of Sequence Network
7.3 Unsymmetrical Fault
7.3.1 Single Line to Ground Fault
7.3.2 Line to Line Fault
7.3.3 Double Line to Ground Fault
7.3.4 Considering the Prefault Current in Unaymmetrical Fault analysis
7.4 Symmetrical Fault Analysis Using Bus Impedance Matrix
7.5 Unsymmetrical Fault Analysis Using Bus Impedance Matrix
7.5.1 Single Line to Ground Fault
7.5.2 Line to Line Fault
 7.5.3 Double Line to Ground Fault
7.5.4 Consideration of Prefault Current
7.6 Algorithm for Formation of Bus Impedance Matrix
7.6.1 Modification of Z-bus for Change in Network
7.7 Numerical Examples

8. POWER SYSTEM CONTROL.................................................................................................................315–375

8.1 Introduction to AVR and ALFC Loops
8.2 Modeling of an Isolated Generating System
8.2.1 Steady State Analysis
8.2.2 Dynamic Response
8.2.3 Application of PI Controller
8.2.4 Composite Generating Unit
8.3 Two Area Load Frequency Control
8.3.1 State Space Model of two Area System
8.3.2 Application of Modern Control Theory
8.3.3 Numerical Example
8.4 Excitation Systems
8.4.1 Classification of Excitation Systems
8.4.2 Buck Boost Excitation System Model
8.4.3 State Space Model of Buck Boost Excitation System
8.4.4 IEEE Type-1 Excitation System Model
8.4.5 Excitation System with PID Controller
8.4.6 IEEE Type-1S Excitation System
8.4.7 IEEE Type-2 Excitation System
8.4.8 IEEE Type-3 Excitation System
8.4.9 IEEE Type-4 Excitation System
8.5 Numerical Examples

9. POWER SYSTEM STABILITY................................................................................................................376–414

9.1 Stabilities Definitions
9.2 Dynamics of Synchronous machine & Swing Equation
9.3 Equal Area Criterion: Stability Analysis
9.4 Dynamic Analysis
9.4.1 Unregulated System
9.4.2 Including the effect of Damper Winding
9.4.3 Including the effect of Governor Action
9.4.4 Stability with AVR
9.5 Transient Analysis
9.5.1 Point by Point Method
9.5.2 Runge kutta Method
9.6 Multimachine System
9.7 Two Machines Connected through Transmission Line
9.8 Stability of Multimachine System
9.9 Technique for Improving Transient Stability
9.10 Modes of Oscillations
9.11 Numerical Examples

10. VOLTAGE STABILITY AND CONTROL..............................................................................................415–441

10.1 Voltage Stability Concept
10.2 Voltage Stability Limit for large demand of ‘P’ & ‘Q’
10.3 Voltage Collapse
10.4 Voltage Control
10.4.1 Shunt Compensator
10.4.2 Series Compensator
10.4.3 Tap Changing Transformer
10.4.4 Booster Transformer
10.4.5 Three Phase Induction Regulation
10.5 Numerical Examples
11. POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION...........................................................................................................442–488
11.1 Switch Gear Equipment and Accommodation
11.2 Arc Extinction
11.3 Classification of Circuit Breakers
11.3.1 Oil Circuit Breakers
11.3.2 Air Blast Circuit Breakers
11.3.3 SF6- Circuit Breakers
11.3.4 Vaccumm Circuit Breaker
11.4 Problems associated with Interruption of CB
11.5 Relay
11.5.1 Attracted Armature Type Relay
11.5.2 Induction Relay
11.5.3 Distance (Impedance) Relay
11.5.4 Differential Relay
11.5.5 Translay Relay
11.5.6 Static Relay
11.5.7 Hall Effect Relay
11.5.8 Numerical Relays
11.6Protection of Alternator
11.7 Protection of Transformer
11.8 Protection of transmission Line
11.9 Numerical Examples

12. OPTIMAL LOAD DISPATCH..................................................................................................................489–546

12.1 Generating Operating Cost
12.2 Economic Dispatch Problem
12.3 Economic Dispatch Including Transmission Losses
12.4 Transmission Loss Formula Derivation
12.5 Numerical Examples

13. MODELLING.............................................................................................................................................547–569
13.1 Modelling of Synchronous Machine
13.2 α-β-0, D-Q-0, d-q-0 Axis Representation (conversion of frame of reference)
13.3 Transmission Line Model
13.4 Mechanical System Model

14. EHV AC & HVDC......................................................................................................................................570–592

14.1 The Problems Associated with EHV Transmission
14.2 Need of Compensation
14.2.1 Application of SVS
14.2.2 Application of CSC
14.3 Series Compensation Scheme
14.4 Problems Associated with Series Compensation
14.5 Torsional Natural Frequencies and Mode Shapes
14.5.1 Method of Analysis
14.5.2 Counter Measure of SSR
14.6 HVDC Transmission
14.7 Configuration of DC Transmission Links
14.8 Rectifying and Inverting
14.9 Circuit Components
14.10 Types of Configuration for DC Links
14.11 Parallel Operation of AC & DC Systems
14.12 Indian Scenario

15. FLEXIBLE AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS.........................................................................................593–631

15.1 Introduction
15.2 Applications
15.3 Development of FACTS Devices
15.4 Shunt Controllers
 15.4.1 TCR
15.4.2 TSC
15.4.3 Static Var Generator
15.4.3.1 Static Var Compensator-detail Scheme
15.4.3.2 STATCOM
15.4.3.3 Static Synchronous Generator
15.4 Series Controllers
15.4.1 Controlled Series Compensation
15.4.2 Continuous Controlled Series Compensation-Detail Scheme
15.4.3 Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor
15.4.4 Thyristor Controlled Series Reactor
15.4.5 Static Synchronous Series Compensator
15.5 Combined Controllers
15.5.1 Unified Power Flow Controller
15.5.2 Thyristor Controlled Phase Shift Transformer
15.5.3 Interline Power Flow Controller
15.6 IMDU
15.7 Modelling of FACTS Devices

16. DEREGULATION......................................................................................................................................632–658
16.1 Structure of the Market
16.2 Associated Terms
16.3 Open Access
16.4 Potential Problems and Key issues in Deregulation
16.5 Power Pools
16.6 Congestion
16.7 Transmission pricing method
16.8 Determination of ATC
16.9 Algorithm for ATC determination
Example
16.10 AGC Under Deregulated Environment
16.10.1 Area Control Error
16.10.2 Disco Participation Matrix
16.10.3 ACE Participation Factors
16.10.4 Transactions During Contract Violation
16.10.5 Simulation of Multiarea System

17. SUBSTATION AND DISTRIBUTION.....................................................................................................659–681

17.1 Power Substations Line Diagram
17.2 Substations Classification
17.2.1 Outdoor Substation
17.2.2 Indoor Substation
17.3 Safety Requirements
17.4 Material Estimation
17.5 Distribution
17.5.1 Feeders
17.5.2 Distributors
17.5.3 Service Mains
17.5.4 Inter connectors
17.5.5 Methods of Feeding Distributors
17.5.6 Various Types of AC Distribution Systems in Practice
17.5.7 System Problems in Indian Distribution Networks
17.5.8 Series Compensation of Distribution Lines
17.5.9 House Wiring
17.5.10 Standard Thumb Rule for House Wiring

18. SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND DATA ACQUISITION....................................................................682–709

18.1 Need of SCADA System
18.2 General Definition and its Components
18.2.1 Hardware Architecture
 18.2.1.1 RTU
18.2.1.2 MTU
18.2.2 Software Architecture
18.3 Communication interface and its path
18.3.1 Protocol
18.4 Modulation
18.5 Communication medium
18.6 SCADA in Power Grid
18.7 SCADA in Power Distribution
18.8 Real Time Systems
18.9 Example

APPENDICES.............................................................................................................................................710–716
A-1 Interference of Power Lines with Communication Lines
A-2 Per Unit System
A-3 State Estimation