Aquino - Gravitational-Electromagnetic Field Theory (1992)

• Unification of the Interactions
• Interrelation between Gravitation and Electromagnetism

• Incorporation of the Mach's Principle in the Gravitation
Theory
• Elimination of the Initial Singularity in the Friedmann
Cosmological Model
• Explanation for the White-Holes
• Explanation for the Anomalies Verified in the Red-Shift
of Stars and Galaxies
• Explanation for the Quasars
• Gravitation Control; Applications in Spacecraft
• Explanation for Levitation; Applications Resulting from
the Self-Control of the Gravitational Interaction
• Gravitational Motor
• Cold Nuclear Fusion and Transmutation of Chemical
Elements by Gravitational Process
• Superconductivity at Ambient Temperature by Cooper's
Pairs Formation via Intensification of the Gravitational
Forces
The Gravitational-
Electromagnetic Field
Theory, by author Fran
de Aquino, describes in
a consistent and
rigorous way the
unification of the four
interactions: strong,
weak, electromagnetic,
and gravitational. It
establishes still the
interrelation between
gravitation and
electromagnetism,
showing that it is
possible to control the
gravitational interaction by means of the action of
electromagnetic fields. It is an extensive theory in which a great
number of different things are interconnected. We can meet in it
the incorporation of Mach's principle in the gravitation theory;
the elimination of the initial singularity in Friedmann's
cosmological model; explanation for anomalies verified in red
shifts of stars and galaxies. It explains also the bases for the
control of gravitation leading to some technological applications
such as: gravitational propulsion, nuclear cold fusion,
transmutation of chemical elements through gravitational process,
superconductivity at ambient temperature by Cooper's pairs
formation through intensification of the gravitational forces, and
so on. In addition to these, we have to emphasize two other
important aspects: It is possible to deduce directly from this
theory the expression of the uncertainty principle that means the
incorporation of quantum mechanics in Gravitational-
Electromagnetic Field Theory. It is foreseen the existence of a
fifth interaction, the psychic interaction, identified in the
ascertainment of the apparent parity violation in beta decay
reactions.
SUMMARY
Preface.................................................................................1
Introduction .........................................................................5
I. Theory ............................................................................ 21
II. Cosmological Applications...........................................63
III. Gravitational Spacecraft ............................................75
IV. Levitation................................................................... 87
V. Energy Conversion ...................................................... 99
VI. Superconductivity ...................................................111
VII. Experimental............................................................ 119

"There are those who cross the forest and only see firewood"
Leon Tolstoi (1828/1910)
PREFACE
In this book we shall show that interactions may be

described in a unified manner in a single classical theory,
gathering in two large groups gravitational and
electromagnetic interactions. Strong and weak nuclear
interaction, as well as electrostatic, magnetostatic and
electrodynamic interactions, make up the electromagnetic
interactions group. The second group, of gravitational
interactions, encompasses two types of interaction:
gravitational interaction in the presence of electromagnetic
fields, and pure electromagnetic interaction (absence of
electromagnetic fields).
We use the General Theory of Relativity as the basis for
our study, after having established the concept of
gravitational-electromagnetic mass, herein introduced to
complement the well-known concepts of gravitational and
inertial mass.
The Unified Field Theory as stated herein establishes
the interrelation between gravitation and electro-magnetism,
showing that interaction described by the Newton-Einstein
theory is a particular case of gravitational interaction that
occurs in the absence of electromagnetic fields (pure
gravitational interactions).
To conclude from the new equations obtained herein,
gravitational interaction in the presence of electromagnetic
fields may be attractive, null or repulsive, as opposed to
pure gravitational interaction, which is known to be always
attractive. In pratice, this means
2 GRAVITATIONAL - ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY
precisely that the gravitational interaction may be controlled

by the action of electromagnetic fields. From the theoretical
viewpoint, these findings lend a wider significance to
gravitational interaction, such as permitting the
incorporation of Mach's principle in the theory of
gravitation. According to that principle, local inertial forces
are nothing but the gravitational influence of the other
particles of the Universe. It may thus be possible to observe
the disappearance of the inertial forces in a given particle,
because the gravitational forces that act on it may be
cancelled by the action of the external electromagnetic
fields.
The Gravitational-Electromagnetic Field Theory
furthermore makes it possible to explain cosmological
phenomena of great interest, such as the final stage of the
Universe's gravitational contraction process at each cycle,
as well as the anomalies recorded in recent analysis of the
red-shift in certain galaxies and stars. In addition to these
cosmological applications, the theory makes it possible to
identify a number of applications of a pratical nature, which
should eventually yield important technological
innovations. Among these are gravitational spacecraft and
the gravitational motor, whose basic features are described
in this book. Furthermore, the application of
electromagnetic control to gravitational interaction in the
nuclear fusion process deserves special mention.
In that application, it should be possible to make
FRAN DE AQUINO 3
the nuclei come close to each other and react, simply by

raising the gravitational forces between them.
By the same process we can intensify the gravitational
forces between electrons of atoms of a given substance to
obtain the formation of pairs of electrons (Cooper's pairs)
which is an essential requisite for the substance to get into
the superconductor state.
I wish to express my thanks to all those who, directly or
indirectly, contributed to this work, in particular to my
friend and colleague Selisio Santiago Freire for his many
valuable suggestions.
FRAN DE AQUINO
Sao Luis, (MA), Brasil

INTRODUCTION
In its desire to understand nature, mankind has sought
to discover universal laws that might explain in a unified
form the phenomena occurring in the Universe. Thus, the
unification of fundamental forces has been a constant theme
in physics, ever since Maxwell proved in the second half of
the 19th century that electrostatic and magnetostatic forces
were nothing but different manifestation of the same force.
With this unification, he triggered in the scientific
community of that time the ambition of unifying in one
single theory the two interactions then known, viz.
Electromagnetic and gravitational, described respectively by
the laws of Maxwell and Newton.
In 1916 Einstein proposed his General Theory of
Relativity which made it possible to describe gravitational
interaction with a precision by far exceeding that of
Newtonian Theory. Einstein's Theory rekindled hopes of
unifying the interactions.
In 1918, H. Weyl1 published a study on the subject.
Weyl proposed to modify the metrics connection used
1
Weyl, H. (1918). Sitzungsber. d. Preuss. Akad. d. Wiss, p. 465.
by Einstein in describing gravitation, by an equivalent

connection in which the electromagnetic field would be
contained in the tensor associated with the connection,
which distinguishes it from Christoffel's symbols.
Kaluza2 also tried, in 1921, to unify the two interac-
tions. While Weyl constructed a non-Riemannian geometry,
Kaluza increased the number of components of the metric
tensor, raising the number of dimensions: he believed that
in addition to the four dimensions (three spatial and one
temporal) there was a fifth, which did not have a direct
physical meaning.
Einstein himself, after relating gravitation to space-
time, was convinced that there also had to be some relation
between electromagnetism and gravitation. The Unified
Field Theory was the result of that conviction.
However, in spite of all the efforts - by Einstein as well
as his successors - these ended in failure. The attempts to
unify the two interactions proved fruitless.
2
Kaluza, Th.(l92l). Sitzungsber. d. Preuss. Akad. d. Wiss, p. 966
FRAN DE AQUINO 9
In the thirties, two new forces were added to the known

fundamental forces of nature. They had been proposed in
order to explain several physical phenomena observed after
the discovery of radioactivity. The first force - proposed in
1934 by Fermi - would later (after the work of Feynmann
and Gell-Mann, starting in 1958) be called the weak
interaction, to which were attributed known radioactive
phenomena such as beta-decay. The second force, called the
strong interaction, was the result of the theory that nuclei
were made up of protons and neutrons, and that the nucleus'
stability derived from the existence of this new kind of
force. Thus there were known, by the end of the thirties, the
four types of fundamental interactions in nature, re-
spectively: strong, electromagnetic, weak, and gravitational,
whose relative intensities varied in the ratio of 1: 1/137:10-
12
: 10-39, respectively.
In the forties, while some workers were trying to unify
the electromagnetic and gravitational interactions, physicists
who were investigating elementary particles started to get
involved with another type of
unification - that of the strong, weak, and electromagnetic

forces.
With the advent of renormalizable quantum elec-
trodynamics it became possible to explain electromagnetic
interaction. This achievement encouraged physicists to
search for explanations for the other interactions. In 1954,
Yang and Mills generalized quantum electrodynamics,
introducing Gauge Symmetry and thus explaining
interactions communicated via quanta, charged or not, of
spin 1 (bosons), and not massive. Yang-Mills' theory
became known as Gauge Quantum Electrodynamics, and
would later supply the foundation for the Salam-Weinberg
theory that explains the origin of the weak interaction,
showing that it is of an electromagnetic nature.
According to the Salam-Weinberg theory, electro-
magnetic and weak interactions are communicated via the
exchange of four quanta: photons, in the case of
electromagnetic interaction; a pair of charged bosons, W+
and W-, in the case of weak interactions between leptons;
and finally, the neutral Z0 boson, responsible for weak
interactions with neutral lepton currents,
FRAN DE AQUINO 11
in which the scattering between neutral and charged leptons

occurs without the exchange of electric charge. In view of the
success of the Salam-Weinberg theory, physicists took a fresh
look at theories of the Yang-Mills-Salam-Weinberg type,
utilizing them in their efforts to explain the strong interaction.
Theories that explain the strong and weak interactions as
electromagnetical are known as Grand Unification Theories or
GUTs. In fact, this is an overly ambitious designation for theories
that do not even include gravitation, and that confine themselves
to explaining the origin of strong and weak interactions without
being able to describe them.
The fact that gravitational interaction can also be explained
by a quantum theory (involving the exchange of "virtual"
quanta3), and is described by a classical theory, makes it clear
that quantum theories are effective in explaining interactions,
even though they are unable to describe them. Classical theories,
on the other hand, though unable to explain interactions, can
describe them precisely. It is therefore to be
3
As yet incompletely identified
expected that a unified theory of interactions, designed to

describe all interactions in a unified manner, would be a classical
theory.
In Chapter I we state the theory of the Gravitational-
Electromagnetic Field based on the ho-mogenization of the
quantities responsible for the interactions, such as: gravitational
mass mg; electric charge q; pole intensity p; etc. The new
quantity, which we call gravitational-electromagnetic mass,
allows a unified description of interactions, by means of
Einstein's equations from the General Theory of Relativity.
Gravitational-electromagnetic mass is nothing but the sum of
the particle's gravitational mass mg and electromagnetic mass me
(the latter defined so as to homogenize the quantities responsible
for electromagnetic interaction). So far as concerns the
gravitational mass of an elementary particle, we show that it is re-
lated to the inertial mass through the following factor:
FRAN DE AQUINO 13
which only differs significantly from unity under conditions

of extremely high electromagnetic energy density. In this
expression, W refers to the geometric media of volumetric
densities of external electromagnetic energy in the interior
of the particle, while refers to the volumetric density of
the particle's rest inertial energy.
The new equations for gravitational interaction that
result from the introduction of the said factor give a wider
meaning to gravitation and make it possible to explain a
number of physical phenomena of great interest.
From the new expressions for the gravitational forces in
a system of two isolated particles we conclude that the
gravitational forces that act on an elementary particle may
be not only reduced, but also inverted and intensified by the
action of electromagnetic fields.
In the case of macroscopic bodies, we find that
gravitational interaction may be controlled with lesser
volumetric densities of external electromagnetic energy.
What is more, we note that by means of a process we call
electromagnetic reversion it is possible to obtain
analogous effects with electromagnetic energy densities that

are much smaller yet.
Next, we check the effect of thermal radiation on the
gravitational mass of elementary particles and find that the
gravitational mass of these particles will be equal to their
inertial mass only when T = 0°K. At higher temperatures,
the gravitational mass will become smaller.
At room temperature, however, such variations are very
small and require very precise instruments for determination
(1 part in 1016). Fortunately, experiments at such a level of
precision are possible and have recently been carried out by
B. Holstein and J. Donoghue of the University of
Massachusetts, who found that electrons have about 10-14%
less gravitational mass at room temperature than at absolute
zero.
Another important agreement between the theory of the
gravitational-electromagnetic field and experience is to be
found in the gravitational interaction between atomic nuclei.
Here, we find that the relations
FRAN DE AQUINO 15
for their nucleons can reach magnitudes of the order of 10-2

as a consequence of the high densities of electromagnetic
energy, reciprocally determined in the interiors of the
nucleons by the intense electric and magnetic fields of these
particles. In accordance with the new equations obtained for
the intensities of the gravitational forces, this means that in
gravitational interactions at such levels there may occur
intensity variations of the order of 1%.
Recently, variations in the intensity of subatomic
gravitational forces, of the same order of magnitude, were
found experimentally - which led some authors to think of
the existence of a fifth interaction.
In Chapter II we present cosmological applications
derived from the Gravitational-Electromagnetic Field
Theory. At the outset we show, with respect to the final
stage of gravitational contraction of massive stars and
systems of greater mass, that at a certain stage of
gravitational contraction the neutrons' magnetic spin fields
may reduce the gravitational forces of attraction among
them to a point such that the gravitational pressure falls
below the thermal pressure,
causing the explosion of the system. Everything suggests

that the Universe itself must pass through this kind of stage
in the final moments of compression that culminate with the
Big Bang. Next, analysing the problem of the anomalies
found in the red-shift in the spectrum, we conclude that
such anomalies may be explained through the new
expression for the gravitational spectrum-shift, obtained in
this study. According to this expression, the shifts
calculated through Einsten's formula must be multiplied by
a dimensionless electromagnetic coefficient; the spectrum
differences should be interpreted as being the result of
intense volumetric energy densities in the observed bodies.
According to the same explanation, the huge red-shift of
quasars should not be interpreted as a Doppler shift - as is
normally done - but instead as a gravitational red-shift,
which should be calculated in accordance with the new
expression for gravitational spectral shifts.
Chapter III is devoted to a study of the control of
gravitational interaction in the specific case of utilization by
gravitational spacecrafts. We show how
FRAN DE AQUINO 17
spacecrafts may be endowed with unique performance

characteristics which, in the case of atmospheric travel,
allow them to move with various degrees of freedom and, in
the case of travel in outer space, allow them to reach
relativistic velocities, without the crew's undergoing any of
the inertial effects caused by the enormous rates of
acceleration required to reach velocities close to that of
light.
The study of control systems for gravitational in-
teraction, developed for spacecrafts, made us seriously
consider the possibility that the human body may possess
means of controlling gravitational interaction on itself. In
Chapter IV we show that the phenomenon of levitation may
be the result of a bioelectromagnetic process, involving the
nervous system's neurons and the body's water molecules.
On the basis of this process - in which water molecules
are subjected to a gravitational force that is repulsive in
relation to Earth, as a result of the fact that the ratios
for such molecules may, under
certain circumstances, become greater than 1 - we find that
the performance of a gravitational spacecraft may
even be further improved. Among the gravitational effects

that can be produced we should mention the production of
artificial gravity inside the spacecraft, for the purpose of
atracting crew members to its floor (in cases of travel in
outer space). That could be done by intensifying the
attracting gravitational force between the water molecules
in the human body and those purposely placed in a reservoir
below the craft's floor.
In Chapter V, we study applications of electromagnetic
control to gravitational interaction for purposes of energy
conversion. We start by describing the Gravitational Motor
that essentially resembles a hydraulic turbine and whose
operating principle consists of causing to become repulsive
the gravitational force between Earth and the water
molecules on one side of the toroidal chamber of the
turbine. This makes for a rotary flow of water in the
chamber that impels the rotor. By coupling a conventional
electric generator to the gravitational motor, gravitational
energy may be converted in electrical energy. Still in this
chapter we shall focus on the gravitational process for
nuclear
FRAN DE AQUINO 19
fusion, a process which basically consists of using grav-

itational in lieu of thermal energy, in order to make nuclei
come close and react. Obviously, this is a process of cold
fusion, which may turn out to be very important for energy
production purposes.
Finally, in chapter VI we show that by the elec-
tromagnetic control of the gravitational interaction we also
can intensify the gravitational forces between the electrons
of atoms of a given substance and form the so called
Cooper's pairs, consequently allowing the substance to enter
the superconductor state at room temperature.
I. THEORY
In order to formulate a unified theory on interactions, we
must at first homogenize the quantities in charge of interactions,
such as: the gravitational mass mg, electric charge q, the pole
intensity p, etc., so they can be united in a single expression.
Since the Einstein's equations have bigger chances to lead us
to an unified theory than Maxwell's equations, since these latter
are formulations corresponding to our experiences with very
weak electromagnetic fields, let us unify all the quantities
standing for the interactions into a single quantity, to be called
gravitational-electromagnetic mass, mge, given by:
mge =mg + me (1-01)
where me is the electromagnetic mass which, in turn, is made up

by the sum of the electric mass mq, magnetic mass mp, strong
mass mF and the weak mass my. These latter two masses are
respectively responsible for the strong and the weak interactions.
Accordingly, we can write:
me = mq + mp + mF + mf (1.02)
and the electric and magnetic masses can be expressed as

functions of q and p, respectively, i.e., we can write that mq =
and mp = where and are
coefficients of proportionalities. The expression for mF and mf

will be obtained later on.
The equation (1.02) presuppose the existence of magnetic
monopoles. Such monopoles foreseen by the first time 58 years
ago by P.A.M. Dirac1 only have had their masses evaluated in
1967 with the advent of the Salam-Weinberg Theory. It was
verified that inertial mass of the magnetic monopoles can be
some hundred times greater then the proton mass.2 In the
seventies, experiments carried out by Price, Shirk, Osborne e
Pinsky3 showed the possible existence of a magnetic monopole
with inertial mass about two hundred times greather than the
proton mass.
So far as concerns the gravitational mass mg, the experience
has not revealed any difference between mg and the inertial mass
m. By the way, Newton was the one to try to verify the existence
of a difference between said masses. He tried experiences with
simple pendulum, trying to verify variations in the m/mg ratio,
from the well-known expression
1
Dirac, P.A.M (1931), Proc. Roy. Soc., A 133, 60.
2
Hooft, G. (1974), Nucl. Phys. B 79, 276.
3
Price, P.B., Shirk, E.K., Osborne, W.Z., Pinsky, L.S. (1975)
Phys. Rev. Lett., 35, 487.
FRAN DE AQUINO 25
for the simple pendulum period. Since no variation was found,

Newton inferred that the inertial and gravitational masses were
equivalent among each other.
In the late XIX Century, science had already at its
disposition very precise measuring instruments, and once again,
experiments were made towards finding a difference between m
and mg. It was the well-known experiment of Eotvos4 later on
repeated by P. Zeeman5 and Eotvos, Pekar and Fekete6 (with
precision better than 1 part per 109). Nevertheless, also in said
experiments, no difference could be found, between the inertial
mass and the gravitational mass.
More recently, the experiment was repeated with an even
better precision, by R. H. Dicke7 (variations of 1 part per 1011
could be detected). Subsequent repetitions of the Eotvos
experiment were further performed
4
Eotvos, R.V. (1890), Math. Naturwissen, Ber. Ungarn 8. 65
5
Zeeman, P. (1917), Proc. Ned. Akad. Wet, 20, 542
6
R. V. Eotvos, D. Pekar and E. Fekete (1922), Ann. Phys. 68,
11
7
Dicke, R. H. (1963), Experimental Relativity in "Relativity,
Groups and Topology" (Les Houches Lectures), p. 185
by Roppl, Krotkov and Dicke8 and by Braginskii and Panov9 the

result was the same: no difference between the inertial mass and
the gravitational mass could be found.
These experimental results express by no means the lack of
existence of a connection between gravitational mass and inertial
mass to the contrary, they just indicate that said relation is very
difficult to be found experimentally, under the conditions the
experiments were performed. We are to notice, then, that all said
experiments were made under low external electromagnetic
energy density conditions, and that is precisely the most
important factor to be considered. A very important theoretical
contribution for this question was obtained by J. Donoghue and
B. Holstein10 that in 1986 showed, making use the formal
methods of Quantum Mechanics, that the mass renormalization at
T = 0 is expressed by mr = m+ with
(a is defined by the conventional Dirac Hamiltonian, H =
and, that the mass renor-
malization at T > 0 leads to the following expressions
8
P. G. Roppl, R. Krotkov and R. H. Dicke (1964) Ann. Phys.
NY, 26, 442
9
V. B. Braginskii and V. I. Panov (1971), Zh. Eksp. Teor.
Fiz., 61, 873 10 Donoghue, J.F. and Holstein, B.R. (1986),
European Journal
of Physics, 8, 105
FRAN DE AQUINO 27
for inertial mass (m,) and gravitational (mg); mi = m

+ and mg = m + where is
the temperature dependent mass shift given by
The expression of obtained by Donoghue and

Holstein refers only to thermal energy. Then, we must
obtain the generalized equation of for any type of
electromagnetic energy. If we express the geometric media
of volumetric densities of the external electromagnetic
energy withing the particle by W, particularized in the
thermal energy case by W = = ,
and the volumetric density of rest inertial energy of the
particle by = pc2 = (m/V)c2, we verify that the expression
reduce to the form obtained by Donoghue and
Holstein. We can still verify that is generic
for the any type of electromagnetic energy. Then,
comparing the inertial mass (mi) and gravitational mass
(mg) equations, we have the following expression for mg :
mg = mi — Consequently, the generalized equation
of the gravitational mass for an elementary particle will be
The equation (1.04) says, therefore, that the grav-

itational mass of a particle will be equal to its inertial
mass only in the absence of electromagnetic fields external

to the particle (W = 0). On the other hand, as the value of
is very high then, for small values of W the ratio
becomes so small that detecting it
experimentally is very difficult.
This fact, no doubt, led Newton's Eotvos' and other's
experiments not to verify the difference between
gravitational and inertial mass.
The gravitational mass of a given atom can be obtained
by effecting the sum of gravitational masses of its
elementary particles with the gravitational mass from the
interaction energy of said particles. When the velocities of
all particles of the atom are small in comparison with the
light velocity, the gravitational masses of particles can be
considered equal to their rest gravitational masses, in such a
way that we can express the rest gravitational mass of an
atom through the following expression
In this expression, Wi, Wj and Wk refer respectively to the

geometric medias of the external electromagnetic
FRAN DE AQUINO 29
energy densities of each electron, proton and neutron of the

atom; are the volumetric densities
of rest inertial energies of said particles, and m0e, m0p and
m0n are their rest inertial masses.
Just as the interaction energy between electrons, protons
and neutrons is distributed within the atom itself, we can
say that the inertial mass m0x created by the interaction
energy of its particles is also distributed in the atom's
volume, Va, and will be a fraction of the atom's mass, i.e.
m0x = k-1m0a, (k > 1). Thus, the gravitational mass from the
interaction energy between the particle is equivalent to the
gravitational mass of an elementary particle of inertial mass
m0x and volume Vx = Va, i.e., according to the equation
(1.04), given by:
mg0 (interaction) = (1.06)
In this expression, Wx is the geometric media of

volumetric densities of external electromagnetic energy
within the mass particle m0x, i.e., (Wx = Wa), and
= m0xc2/Va; Va is the middle volume of the atom.
On the other hand, we can write that
where Thus, equation (1.06) can be

rewritten as follows:
mg0 (interactions) = m0x - (1.08)
Considering now the equation (1.08) in (1.05), we have:
Within the elementary particles and so

that we can write
In turn, within the mass particle m0x (interior of the

atom) the values of and will depend on the type of
atom. Thus,
(1.11)
FRAN DE AQUINO 31
where and It can be seen then

that, if the summation contained
in the equation (1.09) become neglectible in respect to
in a way that the equation (1.09) is
reduced to
In this expression, the index x of W was omitted in

order to abbreviate the writing; , as already seen, is given
by
where is the volumetric density of rest inertial mass of

the atom's.
In regard to the gravitational rest mass of a macroscopic
body made up of atoms of a same type, and with W equal in
all of them, it is seen that, as said atom's velocity is small in
comparison to the light velocity, the expression of mg0 (body)
can have all its small parts in respect to the a mg0 (atom)
neglected, i.e., we can write
Let us now make use of the Einstein's equations to

formulate the description of the unified interaction. As
we know, said equations, for mixed components, can be

written as follows:
(1.15)
where the energy-momentum tensor for elementary

particles, is given by:
(1.16)
In the General Theory of Relativity, the gravitational

and inertial masses are considered equivalent, so that
express indistictly the particle's mass density (the mass in
the particle's "own volume" unit). One must make here a
distinction between the particle's gravitational-
electromagnetic mass density from the other mass
densities. For such equation (1.16) will have changed for
and from now on, will be
used to assign the inertial mass density. Accordingly, the
equations (1.15) will express the gravitational-
electromagnetic field.
The theoretical complementations appearing as a result
of the introduction of the new concept of gravitational-
electromagnetic mass can be better seen in the non-
relativistic case.
In the limit case of small velocities, the component g00
for the metric tensor is, as we know, related to the
FRAN DE AQUINO 33
non-relativistic potential (now for the gravitational-

electromagnetic field), through the following expression
(1.17)
In addition, regarding the 4-velocity , we must disregard

all the spatial components and just leave the temporal
component i.e., we must write = 0, = = 1. Thus,
out of all components of the
energy-momentum tensor we have just
(1.18)
The zero index of was omitted in order to abbreviate the

writing. Therefore, from now on, refers to the density of
rest gravitational-electromagnetic mass of the particle (rest
gravitational-electromagnetic mass at the particle's "own
volume" unit.)
It is further verified that the scalar T will be equal to the
same quantity, i.e.,
T= = (1.19)
Taking then the equations (1.15) to = =0, and by

substituting =T= in the obtained
expression, it results
(1.20)
On the other hand, by making use of the general formula
(1.21)
we can demonstrate that
(1.22)
By comparing then the equations (1.20) and (1.22), it results
(1.23)
which is the expression of the unified field equation, in non-
relativistic mechanics. We can observe that it has the
Poisson's equations form. We can then write the general
solutions of (1.23) by analogy to the Poisson's equation i.e.
(1.24)
Particularly in the case of a single particle of rest

gravitational-electromagnetic mass mge creating the field,
we will have
(1.25)
which is the non-relativistic potential of the gravitational

electromagnetic field produced by the particle.
FRAN DE AQUINO 35
When me = 0 and W = 0 (absence of electromagnetic

fields) the gravitational-electromagnetic mass of a particle
is reduced in its rest inertial mass, m. In this case, the
equation (1.25) is reduced to
(1.26)
which expresses the non-relativistic potential of the

particle's pure gravitational field.
Pursuant to equation (1.02), the equation (1.25) can be
further written as follows:
where mg, mq = mp = mF, mf refer to the

rest masses ( for v = 0). As verified, the
second member of such an expression is made up by the
sum of potentials
which determine severally, in particles with masses

respectively, the following
forces:
This equations just are applicable, obviously, up to the

limits of the respectives fields. In the case of (1.33), (1.34)
and (1.35) they are valid for all r, seeing that this fields
extend themselves indefinitly. But in the case of the strong
and weak fields the reach is, as we know, on the order of 10-
15
m, so this is also the limit of applicability of the equations
(1.36) and (1.37).
Only quarks possess masses mF and mf. Thus, equations
(1.36) and (1.37), respectively, are the expressions of the
weak and strong forces between two
FRAN DE AQUINO 37
quarks. Only quarks suffer the effects of all interactions;

elementary particles, as we know, are made up of quarks, so
that the strong and weak nuclear interactions, commonly
observed among them, are nothing but manifestations of
more fundamental forces, those determined by the strong
and weak masses.
Hadrons, as we know, are made up of three quarks;
consequently, in the particular case in which only two
hadrons interact isolatedly, we will have 6 quarks in
interaction. Thus, it becomes obvious that resultants
and relative to the strong interactions between two
hadrons, as well as resultants and relative to the
weak interaction between them, will depend on the
distribution of 6 quarks, which can obviously make the
nuclear forces non-central, in agreement, as we know, with
the experience. On the other hand, the distribution of quarks
in the elementary particles11 must certainly depend on the
rotational motions of the particles, since in this type of
movement centrifugal forces will act upon the quarks by
modifying their relative position. Thus, resultants
will also depend on the magnitudes and
relative orientation of the angular momentums of spin
and
11
Hadrons, leptons, etc. Quarks will not considered here as elementary
particles, but as fundamental particles, in order to establish the appropriate
distinction.
orbital of the elementary particles. On the other

hand, although equation (1.36) is a function of r2, the
intensities of and obviously, will not be simply
inversely proportional to the squared distance between the
elementary particles.
The calculation of the strong and weak resultants is
certainly very difficult, since we are dealing with
simultaneous interactions between various particles and we
know, we cannot solve them even for three in Newton's
gravitational theory. However, in the specific case where
only two quarks with masses mF and interact, this
calculation is simple: the force between them is given by
equation (1.36). We do not know the expression of the
strong mass, but from the known expression of the fine
structure constant, given by
(1.38)
we can write
(1.39)
Recalling now that the relative intensities of the strong and

electrostatic forces respectively vary in a ratio of 1:1/137
and by comparing the first member of equation (1.39) with
the second member of equation (1.36), we can write
(1.40)
FRAN DE AQUINO 39
where Z is an admensional coefficient. From the experience

it is possible to conclude (measurements of strong nuclear
forces) that Z 1.
As we can easily verify, the equation (1.40) is satisfied
for
(1.41)
and
(1.42)
where KF = Z.
In order to obtain the expression of the weak mass, we
will start from the expression of coupling constant Gw of
weak interaction, given by:
(1.43)
We can rewrite this equation as follows
(1.44)
or else,
(1.45)
As we can observe, both members of this equation have the

mass dimension. On the other hand, by comparing the
second member of this equation with the expression
of the strong mass, we can by analogy conclude that it is the

expression of the weak mass, i.e.,
(1.46)
where, for non-zero weak mass particles (quarks), Kf = K /

10-6. Recalling now equation (1.37) of the
weak interactions, we see that Ff . This
explain why the relative intensities of the strong and weak
interactions are in the ratio of 1 : 10-12.
Experience shows that there are elementary particles
(such as those with spin 0, 1, 2) which do not interact
weakly. It also shows that there are particles (such as
mesons K+ and K0) which do not interact strongly. In the
former case, according to the above mentioned facts, the
quarks of the particles must have zero weak mass (Kf = 0).
In the latter case, they must have KF = 0. Since the quarks
of these particles are structurally identical, but not the
space-time geometry at the sites of the quarks, for it
depends on the conditions of confinement of the quarks in
the elementary particles, we conclude that coefficients Kf
and KF for each quark must be interrelated with the local
metrics of space-time. Thus, they may even become zero
when subjected to certain confinement conditions, such as
those which must occur in the previously mentioned
elementary particles. Under different conditions (free
FRAN DE AQUINO 41
quarks or in a new group forming another particle),

coefficients Kf and KF may take non-zero values, thus
causing strong and weak forces to reappear.
The expressions of mF and mf are quantum equations
and indicate the inclusion of the Quantum Theory in the
Gravitational-Electromagnetic Field Theory. We can
confirm this fact by verifing if the Uncertainty Principle can
be directly deduced from Gravitational-Electromagnetic
Field Theory. So, we will consider the equation (1.40) with
both members divided by r and , rewritten in the following
form:
(1.47)
As we can see, the term between parenthesis has the same
dimensions of the linear momentum; exchanging it by p,
and reminding that Z 1, the equation (1.47) is reduced to
(1.48)
Therefore, an uncertainty in the r co-ordinate
results in a uncertainty in the p momentum,
according to the formula
(1.49)
This is the uncertainty principle relation for position and
momentum. Therefore we can say that the uncertainty
principle is incorporated in the Gravitational-
Electromagnetic Field Theory. When we combine this
relation, directly obtained from theory, with the expression

derived from Fourier analysis and, according
to single properties commons for all waves, we obtain the
equations and E = that are the so called De
Broglie-Einstein relations, that express the wave-particle
duality. As we can verify, the uncertainty principle, in this
new context, it is not only the basis for the Heisenberg-Bohr
probabilistic affirmation, but it contain, in fundamental
level, the own wave-particle dualism, seen that we can
deduce from it the De Broglie-Einstein relations. It is than,
the own substratum of quantum physics.
The weak interaction is, as we know, responsible for the
ratioactive phenomena known as -decay. The simplest
example of -decay is that of neutron instability
where Q = 0.78 MeV, and the half-life
is of 12 min. The emission of natural radioactive
substances are of this same class with general reaction of
decay (Z, A) (Z + 1, A) + e- + + Q.
The violation of the parity conservation principle in
reactions of -decay was one of the more surprising facts in
Physics. Everything started, when in the middle of the
fifthies the physicists Yang and Lee were particularly
interested in the meson K decay. At that time they believed
that in this process, two particles called and were
involved. The strange fact was that such
FRAN DE AQUINO 43
particles showed exactly the same properties. They ad-mited

then, that in fact, there was only one particle; as a
consequence of this proposition, it resulted therefore, that in
the course of weak interactions, parity conservation
principle - that estipulate that brute matter must be unable to
distinguish its right from its left - was violated.
A few months after the publication of Yang and Lee
work, an experiment realised by C.S. Wu et al., indicated
the non-conservation of parity in the -decay reactions. The
experiment consisted of measuring the intensities of -
particles emited (by Co Nuclei) perpendicularly towards a
magnetic field and after repeat the measurement with the
orientation of the magnetic field inverted. As the intensities
differed in both cases, one can conclude that the parity was
not conserved in the -decay reactions.
The non-conservation of parity implies that electrons be
able to "choose" between their right and their left. Now,
where choosing exist, isn't there by definition a psyche, as
well ?
In physics, we want obstinately ignore the influence of
psyche; isn't it precisely by the fact that we don't consider
the possibility of such actions, in reactions of -decay that it
results to an apparent violation of the parity conservations
in weak interactions?
Let us consider the hypothesis that in reactions of -

decay the particles emited carry, for some time, a certain
quantity of psychic mass originated
from the transformation of equal quantity of nucleus inertial
mass. Thus, brute matter acquires conscience and therefore
do not conserve the parity anymore. Thus, there is no
violation of the principle of parity conservation, in the
course of the weak interactions. The parity non-
conservation solely occurs after the decay, for the emited
particles endowed with psychic mass. Consequently what
the experiment of C. S. Wu verified was only that the -
particle emited do not conserve the parity. And this is
because of the fact they are bearers of psychic mass.
In the psychic mass, we have the source of psychic field
responsible for the psychic interaction. If we add the
psychic mass with the gravitational-electromagnetic mass
given by (1.01) we will have the expression of the unified
mass, This addition imply in a new
potential in the equation (1.27) and,
consequently, we will have for the intensities of the forces
and between two isolated psychic mass and
the following equation:
If we admit, based on the energy conservation principle,
the reversibility of the psychic mass, i.e., that
FRAN DE AQUINO 45
psychic mass can be originated not only from inertial mass

but, also from any kind of mass and vice-versa, i.e.,
we will have as a consequence, that any type of mass, in a

psychic field, can be increased by the transformation of the
psychic field energy in the corresponding mass type and
vice-versa. This, according to the equations (1.33), (1.34),
(1.35), (1.36) and (1.37), means precisely the possibility of
psychic control of the four interactions and explain how the
psychic field act on brute matter.
A very great quantity of psychic mass can have been
always present in the Universe and remains in it for an
indeterminate time. In addition, the genesis of all masses of
the Universe (strong, electromagnetic, weak and
gravitational) can be the result of transformation of part of a
gigantic initial psychic energy or Supreme Conscience and,
this way, the Universe would be originated from the "will"
of this Supreme Conscience.
Let us now the go back to equations (1.34) and (1.35),
which are nothing but Coulomb's laws of electrostatic and
magnetostatic, respectively. When we
proceed with the particularization of the gravitational-

electromagnetic field equations for the non-relativistic case,
and we consider mge in equation (1.24) as the gravitational-
electromagnetic rest mass of the particle, we made, as a
consequence of these particularization procedures, the
electrodynamic force (Lorentz's force) disappear,
(1.50)
which is known to be a purely relativistic phenomenon. In
spite of this fact, it is always possible to obtain it by means
of a relativistic correction of equation (1.34) from the law of
transformation for the electric field, given by12
(1.51)
where is the so-called Lorentz

factor. We thus obtain Coulomb's law in its generic form for
free space, i.e.,
(1.52)
In which the motion of electrical charges is permitted. We

see in this expression that the electrostatic force
12
See Silvester, P., (1971) Campos Eletromagneticos Modernos, Ed. Poligno,
Sao Paulo, p. 150-155.
FRAN DE AQUINO 47
is subjected to a relativistic correction (D varies with

velocity), but we cannot make it disappear by selecting a
suitable referential.
Maxwell equations, in turn, may be deducted by
comparing equation (1.52) with that obtained by var-ing the
action S for an electrical charge in an electromagnetic
field13 (by means of Lagrange's equations), i.e.,
(1.53)
where is the potential vector and

is the potential scalar of the electromagnetic field.
From the comparison between equations (1.52) and
(1.53) we obtain the following expressions for the electric
field and magnetic flow density vectors:
These expressions, in turn, allow us to obtain the equations

containing and in a simple way. We will then
determine
(1.56)
13
See Landau, L. and Lifchitz, E. (1974), Teoria do Campo, Ed.
Hemus, Sao Paulo, p. 65-66.
However, the rotational of a gradient is zero; therefore,

equation (1.56) is reduced to
(1.57)
Taking the divergence of the two members of equation

(1.55), we will have But since the
divergence of a rotational is zero, we then have
(1.58)
Equation (1.57) and (1.58) constitute the first pair of

Maxwell's equations. In order to obtain the other pair, we
must return to expression (1.53), which is the equation of
the motion of a particle in a electromagnetic field. As
mentioned earlier, it was obtained from Lagrange's equation
written in a 3-dimensional form. From action S written in a
4-dimensional form, it is possible to obtain the motion
equation in 4-dimensional formalism; we then obtain the so-
called electromagnetic field tensor.14
On the other hand, by varing action S for an
electromagnetic field which contains rather than point
electrical charges a continuous density distribution we
obtain four equations in 3-dimensional
14
The reader may find the detailed calculations and results in Landau, L. and
Lifchitz, E., Teoria do Campo, Ed. Hemus, S. Paulo, p. 81-82.
FRAN DE AQUINO 49
form15 containing the components of the electromagnetic field

tensor. By substituting the respective values for such
componentes, we obtain equations which can been condensed
into two vectorial equations, given by
(1.59) and
(1.60)
which constitute the second pair of Maxwell's equations.

Let us return now to equation (1.33), which expresses the
intensity of the gravitacional force which acts on an
elementary particle of rest gravitational mass placed in the
gravitational field of particle with mass mg. By analogy the
intensity of force which acts on mg due to is given by:
(1.61)
Thus, with equation (1.04) in mind, we may write that
or, in vectorial form,
15
Idem, p. 99-100.
where versor has the direction of the line connecting the

centers of both particles, oriented from m towards m'.
As opposed to pure gravitational forces (W = W' = 0),
which are only attractive ones, we see now that gravitational
forces may be, besides attractive ones, repulsive or null.
Assuming, for example, that but
we see that the force
between the particles will be a repulsive one, given by:
(1.64)
However, if we make and

the force becomes an attractive one, i.e.,
(1.65)
In the case of interaction between macroscopic bodies

made up of one single type of atom, the gravitational forces
between them may be calculated through the same
expressions, since the expression of gravitational mass for
this type of body (equation 1.14) has the same form of
expression of the gravitational mass for elementary
particles, simply changing and by and
respectively. Under these conditions,
FRAN DE AQUINO 51
we observe that ratios and may be

rewritten in the following ways:
where
Considering the expression of given by equa-

tion (1.13), i.e., we see that most
monoatomic solids present E0 and H0 given by
(V/m), (A/m), k> 1 . (1.72)
As one can observe, these are very high values, but

which can be reduced by the following process: we know,
from quantum electrodynamics, that may be increased by
applying an oscillating electric field with a frequency
equal to any of the frequencies of the electromagnetic
spectrum of the substance. The
expression of without the dampening term (which makes the

value of finite in the case of ) is
(1.73)
The influence of the dampening term in the value of

varies for each value of frequency and it is quite likely that,
for certain frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum of the
substance, the value of will considerably increase.
When increases, the electric forces of attraction between
the electrons and the nuclei of the atoms decrease (F =
: ). Due to this, the eccentricities of
the electrons orbits decrease, and so, the middles radii ri of this
orbits increase, thus increasing the middles volumes of the atoms
and also the value of since the magnetic
(paramagnetic) susceptibility is, as we know, proportional to
the squared permanent atomic magnetic momentum, which, in
turn, is proportional to . Therefore, is directly
proportional to The incresed middles volumes of the
atoms obviously determines a decrease in the value of
Therefore, with the decrease of and the increase of and
factors and will decrease and, according to equations
(1.68) and (1.69), we see that the values of E0 and H0 may be
significantly
FRAN DE AQUINO 53
reduced, thus enabling the control of gravitation by

applying much less intense electric and magnetic fields (E
10l5V/m, H 1012 A/m).
This process, which fundamentally results from the
action of oscillating fields, or more accurately, from the
periodical inversion of electric and magnetic energy upon
matter will be hereinafter called electromagnetic reversion
process.
From the above we see that, by reducing the values of
E0 and H0 by means of the electromagnetic reversion
process, the possibility of controlling the gravitational
interaction by applying ultra-intense magnetic fields (H >
106A/m) becomes quite promising, especially now that our
technology already foresees the production of magnetic
fields thousands of times more intense than the maximum
produced in conventional inductors.
In practice, when it is possible to make H = H0, we will
experimentally prove the truthfulness of Mach's Principle.
That is, taking, for example, a particle of a subatomic
substance with mass m', for which we have W'/ = 1 (by
means of the electromagnetic reversion process and with the
aid of superconductor inductors), we will see that the
gravitational forces on the particle will cease, since they,
according to equation
(1.62) herein, are expressed by
(1.74)
Under these circumstances, according to Mach's principle,

the inertial properties of the particle must also cease. This
principle, as we know, states that the local inertial forces are
determined by the gravitational interaction of the local system
with the distribution of cosmic masses. Consequently, when the
intensities of the gravitational forces acting on the particle
become zero ( = 0), the inertial properties of the particle must
also disappear. As we can observe, the electromagnetic factor
postulated in the beginning of this work, which relates
gravitational mass to inertial mass, incorporates Mach's principle
to the gravitational theory. A propos, such incorporation was
greatly pursued by Einstein, who, as it is known, introduced the
cos-mological term into his equations with this purpose.
We will now deal with the verification of the influence of
thermal radiation on gravitational mass. According to the law of
distribution of radiation energy of a black body, we know that
thermal radiation contains photons of all frequencies. It is
common to relate the energy of such photons to temperature by
means of the expression < > kT. We can thus express the
average amount of thermal energy in the
FRAN DE AQUINO 55
interior of a microscopic particle by kT, where is an

absorption coefficient which depends on the particle.
Consequently, the expression of W, due exclusively to the
thermal radiation, may be written as W = kT/V where V is
the particle's "own" volume. In the case of an electron, for
example, considering equation (1.04), we have
(1.75)
From this expression we conclude that the gravitational
mass of the electron will only be equal to its inertial mass
when T = 0°K. At any higher temperature the gravitational
mass becomes smaller.
As we have already seen, in the case of atoms, their rest
gravitational mass can be expressed by
(1.76)
From equations (1.75) and (1.76), we can easily

conclude that, at the same temperature T, the difference
between inertial and gravitational mass is much larger than
in the case of elementary particles.
The term ( kT/moec2)2 for room temperature (T
300° K) is smaller than 10-15. Thus, to
experimentally ascertain variations in the gravitational mass
of the electrons (due to thermal radiation), highly accurate
instruments are necessary.
In a recent research work, B. Holstein and J. Donoghue, from

the Massachusetts University, using instruments a hundred
thousand times more accurate than those utilized by Dicke,
observed that the gravitational mass of an elementary particle
decreased with the increase of temperature, and that only at
absolute zero were gravitational and inertial masse equivalent. In
the case of electrons, it was possible to verify that they have
10-14% less gravitational mass at room temperature than at
absolute zero. In the case of atoms the difference is even smaller.
The fact of thermal radiations containing photons of all
frequencies means that they must contain radiations of the
electromagnetic spectrum of the substances, and thus, the
radiations of appropriate frequencies to significantly reduce the
E0, H0 of the atoms (electromagnetic reversion process).
However, since the densities of the power flows of such
radiations are very weak (for T 300°K), we see that in a given
body only a very small amount of atoms (as compared with the
total) will be subjected to the action of said radiations. Therefore,
only these atoms will have their E0, H0 decreased. Thus, in the
case of our applying an ultra-intense magnetic field H to the
body, making H > H0, these atoms will have their resulting gravi-
tationals significantly altered. This, however, practi-
FRAN DE AQUINO 57
cally does not influence the resulting gravitational of the

body if H is not much greater than H0.
In principle, we may significantly reduce the values of
E0, H0 of an atom, both by means of suitable radiations of
the elecromagnetic spectrum of the atom and by stationary
electromagnetic fields of the same frequency. In practice,
the disadvantage of radiation is high: besides the need of
intense flows to attain the largest number of atoms, such
kind of radiations have low matter penetration.
We will now consider the gravitational interaction at
the subatomic level. Initially, it is necessary to evalutate the
magnitudes of the volumetric densities of rest inertial
energies of the elementary particles to be able to determine
the rations W/ in the gravitational interactions of said
particles.
The inertial rest masses of the elementary particles are
well known16 They from the sum of all inertial masses
arising from all the internal energies of the particle.
Therefore, if is the volumetric density of the rest inertial
mass of an elementary particle, we can
16
The experiments used to determine the masses of the elementary particles
generally constitute inertial processes (in which forces intervene).
Therefore, what we measure is the inertial masses of the particles.
then express its volumetric density of rest inertial mass

by
However, the calculation of requires, besides the
knowledge of the rest inertial mass of the particle, the
knowledge of the "own volume" in which such mass is
contained.
Very little is known about the geometric structure of the
elementary particles. The hypothesis that such particles may
actually be true micro-universes contained in our Universe
is not new; it has been often proposed by several authors.
Such hypothesis contains, in its very essence, the idea
of similarity - in the spatial sense - between the micro-
universes of the elementary particles and our universe,
which in our opinion constitutes a strong indication that
similarly to the elementary particles, our universe is also
closed. This possibility leads us to see a spatial
correspondence between the micro-universes of the
elementary particles, our own Universe and Einstein's
model of the universe. That is, their volumes are finite, but
under the clear understanding that space has no boundaries.
In view of the above, the volumes of the elementary
particles may be calculated through the same equation that
expresses the volume of Einstein's universe, which,
FRAN DE AQUINO 59
as a consequence of
(1.77) is
written as
(1.78)
In the case of elementary particles, R refers then to the
respective curvature radii of these micro-universes; that is,
in the case of protons, for example, R = 1.4 x 10-15m, so that
for these particles the volumetric density of the rest inertial
energy is given by
(1.79)
In the nuclei with high atomic mass the geometric
media of the volumetric densities of external electro-
magnetic energy, W, in each nucleon (reciprocally produced
by electric and/or magnetic fields of the nucleons
themselves) determines a marked reduction in the grav-
itational mass of these particles, as we will see later on,
which in turn reduces the intensity of the gravitational
interaction between the atomic nuclei. We know that the
magnetic field of the nucleons, due to their spin magnetic
momentum, is given by
(1.80)
where is the spin magnetic momentum of the particle;

is the so-called gyromagnetic factor, the value of which is 5.5851
for the proton and -3.8256 for the neutron. is the spin angular
momentum. In the case of protons, besides the spin magnetic
field, they present an electric field (due to their electric charge e)
with intensity
(1.81)
In the atomic nuclei, we may consider that the distance r

between nucleons is of the same order as the diameter of these
particles. Thus, taking equations (1.80) and (1.81), it is possible
to verify, in a first-approximation evaluation, that the ratios
W2 / for the nucleons may reach values in the order of 10-2!
Thus, according to equation (1.62), this means that in the
gravitational interactions between the atomic nuclei, there may
occur intensity variations in the order of 1%.
Variations of such magnitude have been experimentally
detected17 having even led some authors to
17
S.H. Aronson, G.L. Bock, H.Y. Cheng and E. Fischbach (1982),
Phys. Rev. Lett. 48, 1306 and (1983) Phys. Rev. D28, 476, 495; E.
Fischbach, H.Y. Cheng, S.H. Aronson and G.L. Bock (1982), Phys.
Letters 116B, 73.
FRAN DE AQUINO 61
believe in the possible existence of a new type of interaction18

(hypercharge field).
The density W, within particle can be related with its rotation
kinetics energy. It is the case, for example, of the protons, neutrons and
electrons, when in orbital movement of radius R. The centripetal force
acting in these particles it places in a precession movement. This
movement give origin a additional magnetic field that, by analogy
with spin magnetic field (equation 1.80) can expressed by:
(1.82)
where is the precession gyromagnetic factor and the

precession angular moment, given by =
= seen that rp rpartic; as
we know, can be expressed by = r.Fc/S = R/S. The
sign (+) in equation (1.82) indicates that the spin of the
particle have the same orientation that its precession
movement and, therefore, opposite orientation at its
translation in the orbit of radius R. The sign (—) indicates
the opposite.
In this last case, the field will have opposite ori-
entation at , so that the density of electromagnetic energy
within particle doesn't increase. So, W = 0. If however, the
translation movement is opposite at
18
E. Fischbach, D. Sudarsky, A. Szafer, C. Talmadge, S.H.
Aronson (1986), Phys. Rev. Lett. 56, 3.
the spin, will have the same orientation that and,

therefore, the density W within particle will be Wpartic =
The atomics electrons spin in the same orientation of its
translation around the nucleus (s == +1/2), and so for these
electrons is opposite to so that, in
this case W = 0.
In macroscopic case, if a body turn in opposite orientation at
the spin of its protons, neutrons and electrons, in each one of that
particles will have a density Wpartic. The geometric media of that
densities will expresses the value of W for the body.
Let us consider now a sphere with density that turn
with angular velocity The gravitational forces between the
sphere and the world, according to equation (1.63), for great
values of will be repulsive, and given by:
(1.83)
As we see, if the sphere have very high rotation, the repulsive

force can become very great than rest weight force of the
sphere (P = msg).
We are therefore, in front of another possibility of
gravitational contro. In this case, with the utilization of
mechanical devices!
II. COSMOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS
The Gravitational-Electromagnetic Field Theory
suggests explanations for interesting cosmological ques-
tions, such as that of the final stage of gravitational
contraction of massive stars (M ) as well as
of the Universe itself in each cycle and for the anomalies
observed in recent analyses of the red-shift in galaxies and
stars.
Initially we shall discuss the problem of the stars'
gravitational contraction.
As is generally known, in a star's gravitational con-
traction process its fate is directly linked to its mass. If the
star's mass, at the moment of its birth, is less than 1.4
(the Schemberg-Chandrasekhar limit), its be-
comes a white dwarf. If, however, its mass exceeds that
limit, the pressure generated by the degenerate state of
matter no longer counterbalances the gravitational pressure,
and the contraction proceeds. There then occur reactions
between protons and electrons (capture of electrons),
forming neutrons and anti-neutrinos. The collapse continues
until the system regains stability (when the pressure
generated by the neutrons is sufficient to stop the
gravitational colapse). Such systems are the so-called
neutron stars. There is also a critical mass for the stable
configuration of neutron stars. This limit has not been fully
defined as yet, but it is known that it is located between
1.8 and 2.4 Thus,
should the mass of the star exceed above-mentioned critical

mass (massive stars), the collapse may continue.
The continuation of gravitational contraction also
occurs in the remnants of neutron stars1. In that case, the
process is slow, since such systems are generally endowed
with great velocities of rotation around themselves (because
of the conservation of the angular moment of rotation,
during the contraction of the star), which rotation causes
centrifugal forces that run counter to gravitational
contraction. Nonetheless, the velocities of rotation
diminishes progressively because the star emits
electromagnetic radiation whose energy is taken precisely
from its rotational energy. Therefore, however slowly, the
contraction continues.
There thus exists a natural convergence of massive
systems towards a state in which the neutrons are con-
tinuosly compressed, causing a systematic reduction of the
distances between their centers of mass. In that case, the Hn
magnetic fields of the neutrons given by
(2.01)
1
This is the case with pulsar, for instance, which become neutron stars at the
end of their existence.
FRAN DE AQUINO 67
determine reciprocally, in their interiors, densities of

magnetic energy WHn = 1/2 which increase in
magnitude as the distances between neutrons decrease.
Since WHn r-6 and the rest inertial energy density of the
neutrons is proportional to , i.e. (where rn is
the "radius" of the neutrons), the total density W in the
interiors of the neutrons grows much more rapidly - with
the decrease in the volumes of neutrons - than
Consequently, the ratio W2/ for each neutron undergoes a
progressive increase as the gravitational compression of the
star proceeds. With that, the gravitational mass of the
neutrons keeps on diminishing: as a result, the attracting
gravitational forces between them also keep on
progressively diminishing (equation 1.62). The
phenomenon progresses up to a certain critical point, at
which the gravitational pressure falls below the internal
pressure produced by the neutrons. When this occurs, there
starts an oscillatory catastrophic process that culminates in
the star's explosion. This phenomenon has been noted in
recent astronomical observations and clearly shows what -
on a much greater scale - happened at the Big Bang. In
other words, just as massive stars and systems of greater
mass explode when they reach a critical point in the
gravitational contraction process, the Universe too exploded
due to an identical process in the final
instants of its contraction periods. The singularity in Friedmann's

cosmological model is thus eliminated.2
The possibility that this process may occur, in the final stage
of contraction of massive stars and greater-yet systems, as well as
with the Universe itself in the final instants of its contraction
periods, does not prevent the existence of black holes, as is
predicted in the solution of Einstein's equation obtained by
Schwarzchild3 which allows us to write
(2.02)
It will be seen that for
(2.03)
there occurs a singularity. That is the so-called Schwarzchild

radius, which means that nothing, not even light, can escape from
a body with mass mg if the latter is contained in a sphere whose
radius is rs. Thus, any mass mg placed in a sphere of radius rs =
2G mg/c2 would be a black hole. However, if its matter became an
ensemble of supercompressed neutrons - as occurs in the final
stage of the gravitational compression process
2
PYiedmann, A. (1918). Z. Physik 10, 377.
3
Schwarzchild, K. (1916). Sitz. Preuss. Akad. Wiss., 189.
FRAN DE AQUINO 69
of massive stars - the black hole would explode for the same
reason that they (massive stars) explode upon reaching the
critical point.
For some time the existence of so-called white holes
has been debated. Several authors have suggested that these
may represent regions where matter is spurting in our
Universe.
From all the preceding, we may infer that white holes
represent either black holes that exploded, or massive stars
of greater-yet systems that exploded because at a given
moment their internal pressure overcame the gravitational
pressure, following the process described above.
Let us now consider the problem of anomalies in the
spectral red-shift of certain galaxies and stars. As we know,
that phenomenon is generally explained as resulting from a
combination of two effects - the Doppler-Fizeau and the
Einstein (or gravitational) effects. The former is associated
with the relative velocities of the source and of the observer,
while the latter is caused by the difference in gravitational
potential between source and observer.
If is the frequency of light at the moment of its
emission, and if we assume that the red-shift resulted from
the Doppler-Fizeau effect, the frequency that we will
observe will be expressed by the following:
(2.04)
In this expression, v is the velocity of the source in relation

to us which, according to Hubble's law, is given by
(2.05)
where is the so-called Hubble's constant and is the
distance from the source in question. Recent determinations
have assigned the value of 2.5 x 10-18 s-1 to Hubble's
constant.
If we assume that the red-shift was caused by the
Einstein effect, the relation between and is expressed
by
(2.06)
where and are the gravitational field potentials at,

respectively, the point of emission and the point of
observation of the spectrum. If we observe on Earth a
spectrum emitted by the Sun or stars, the
according to equation (2.06), < 0, i.e., the shift occurs
in the direction of lower frequencies (red-shift). Both the
red-shift caused by the Doppler-Fizeau effect and that
caused by the Einstein effect are generally accepted as
having been experimentally confirmed.
FRAN DE AQUINO 71
Nonetheless, for some years a number of observers have been

noting red-shift values that cannot be explained by either the
Doppler-Fizeau or the Einstein effect.
That is, for instance, the case of the so-called Stefan quinted
(made up of five galaxies discovered in 1877), whose galaxies are
all located at approximately the same distance from Earth,
according to very reliable and precise measuring methods.
However, when measuring the velocity of each galaxy by the red-
shift it produced, one finds that four of them move away at
velocities much greater than that of the fifth.
Similar observations have been made on the Virgo
constellation, where galaxies that belong to the same cluster
feature great differences in their velocities of expansion, as
deduced from their red-shifts.
It was furthermore found that galaxies of the spiral type
feature a red-shift greater than that of galaxies located at the same
distance.
The Sun, too, shows a red-shift that is greater than what
would have been predicted by the Einstein effect.
All these anomalies in red-shifts are easily explained by the
Gravitational-Electromagnetic Field Theory. They are the result
of the fact that we disregarded the influence of electromagnetic
energy in gravitational interaction. Thus, the expression for the
grav-tiational spectrum shift supplied by Einstein's theory is
nothing but a special case of a more general expression,

which now can be easily obtained on the basis of the
explanations provided in Chapter I. Let us admit, for
convenience's sake, that the emitting body (Body 1) is made
up of atoms of the same kind with W1, being equal in all of
them. In that case, in accordance with equations (1.14) and
(1.28), the potential at point of emission will be given by
(2.07)
where refers to the volumetric density of the rest inertial

energy of the atoms of body 1.
By analogy we may write for the observation point
(body 2):
(2.08)
Transferring equations (2.07) and (2.08) to (2.06), we

obtain:
FRAN DE AQUINO 73
If we assume that m1 m2, W1/ 1, and

W2/ 1, the latter equations is reduced to
(2.10)
That means that the shifts computed by the Einstein effect

in this case should be multiplied by the factor (W1/ )2. We
may thus conclude that the anomalies found in above-
mentioned cases should be interpreted as having been
caused by the existence of an enormous density of
electromagnetic energy in the observed bodies.
Furthermore, the large red-shifts of quasars should not be
interpreted as Dopper shifts - as is normally done - but as
gravitational red-shifts calculated according to equation
(2.09). This will eliminate the fantastic hypothesis (which
would result from assuming a Doppler shift) to the effect
that quasars are moving away from us at velocities close to
the velocity of light and are therefore the located a fabulous
distances from Earth. It will also eliminate the hyphotesis
that, in order to appear as brilliantly as we see them, at such
a distance, quasars must possess a very special kind of
energy source. They are simply closer to us.
III. GRAVITATIONAL SPACECRAFT
In the electromagnetic reversion process, the oscillating
fields applied to a given substance may have a frequency
equal to any of the frequencies of the electromagnetic
spectrum of the substance. However, the value of must
only suffer significant increases for certain frequencies of
said spectrum; among them, there will certainly be a critical
frequency for which the maximum value of will occur.
These critical frequencies must be the object of
experimental determination. On the other hand, as the low
levels of generally correspond to frequencies in the
infrared and microwave spectrum, we conclude that the
oscillating fields to be used in the electromagnetic reversion
process must be of extra high frequency.
In practice, the distribution of these fields depends on
the objectives to be attained with gravitation control. In a
spacecraft, for example, the objective of which is to use
gravitation to its full extent, we may position a source of
such fields in the center of the spacecraft and others
conveniently distributed on its outer surface (Fig. 3.1). With
such a distribution, we may attain, as we shall see later on,
an unheard-of performance for spacecrafts.
Fig. 3.1 - Gravitational Spacecraft

FRAN DE AQUINO 79
These sources may be able to produce oscillating fields

in the various critical frequencies of the substances in which
we intend to control gravitational interaction. One of these
fields, produced by the central source, must have a suitable
frequency to reduce the value of H0 of the nuclei of reactors
R1 and R2 (gravitational reactors) in such a manner that,
with an ultra-intense magnetic field HR, one is able to
control the gravitational interaction on the nucleus of these
reactors, thus permitting the spacecraft to rise, descend or
incline as to its vertical axis.
To propel the spacecraft in the longitudinal direction,
we may actuate the ultra-intense magnetic field He together
with the sources of oscillating fields positioned in the front
portion of the spacecraft (Fig. 3.2). If frequency of the
electromagnetic fields produced by said sources equals
frequency (critical frequency of the electromagnetic
spectrum of nitrogen), the ratio He/HON to nitrogen in the
region of actuation of the activated oscillating fields may
become greater than 1. Consequently, according to equation
(1.62), the gravitational force between the Earth and the
nitrogen in this region becomes strongly repulsive, with
nitrogen being subjected to an acceleration aN, given by
(3.01)
Thus, in the front region, the velocity of air (relative to the

spacecraft surface) increases. Consequently, according to
Bernoulli's equation, the atmospheric pressure in this region
must decrease. A pressure gradient between the back and
front part is thus established and, as a consequence, a force
capable of propelling the spacecraft is created.
On the other hand, the continuity equation establishes
that the increased velocity of the air in the front region of
the spacecraft must cause the air density in this region to
decrease. Thus, the higher the air velocity, the more rarefied
it is. Consequently, the attrition between the front region of
the spacecraft and the atmosphere will be reduced and,
therefore, the thermal effects resulting from this attrition
will also be reduced. In this manner, the spacecraft will be
able to travel in the atmosphere at hypersonic velocities
without undergoing excessive heat.
Another important fact to be observed is that the
spacecraft can be braked in its displacement simply by
inactivating the front sources of its oscillating fields and at
the same time activating the sources distributed on the back
part of the craft. Under these circumstances, the process is
reversed; a force contrary to the displacement of the craft
begins to act upon it, thus causing it to brake.
FRAN DE AQUINO 81
Fig. 3.2 - Propulsion in the Atmosphere

The spacecraft can be displaced to the left or to the right by

the same process, that is, to displace it to the left we must activate
sources distributed on the left surface of the craft, and those
located on the right to displace it to the right. We can also have it
rise by activating sources distributed on its top (Fig. 3.3-c).
When the spacecraft is parked on the surface of the Earth, we
may generate a repulsive gravitational field around it by simply
activating magnetic field Hi (Fig. 3.2) and making Hi/H0
1. Under these circumstances, the repulsive gravitational force
between the spacecraft and any body close to it may become very
intense, since it is expressed by:
(3.02)
Thus, in order to stop any individual from approaching the

spacecraft, simply make Hi/H0 103.
Another gravitational effect likely to be obtained is that of
controlling the inertial properties of the spacecraft. It is initially
necessary to determine in the electromagnetic spectra of the
substances which make up the spacecraft the frequencies for
which it is possible to reduce the H0 of these substance to the
same value. Thus, if the central source produces oscillating fields
at these frequencies and field Hi is activated, making Hi/H0 = 1,
we see that, according
FRAN DE AQUINO 83
to equation (1.62), the gravitational forces upon the spacecraft

cease and, as a consequence of Mach's principle, and so must its
inertial properties. This allows the crew not to suffer the inertial
effects derived from maneuvering the craft.
All these possibilities demonstrate that gravitational
spacecrafts are exceptionally advantageous in many instances.
They could be designed with the most varied forms and
according to the most varied objectives. Therefore, we will be
able to design spacecrafts not only for transportation in the
atmosphere (small and large distances) but also for interstellar
trips. Spacecrafts of this kind, when leaving the atmosphere of
the planet, must be positioned towards their destinations and
activate their gravitational reactors positioned on the rear part
(Fig. 3.4). The nucleus of the reactor is then subjected to a
gravitational acceleration due to the planet, given by
(3.03)
where HR is the magnetic field of the reactor. HOR the value of H0

for the nucleus of the reactor and M the mass of the planet.
Fig. 3.3 - Secondary Displacements

FRAN DE AQUINO 85
Fig. 3.4 - Propulsion in the Outer Space

Once propelled by the reactor, the spacecraft is

subjected to an acceleration
(3.04)
where mR is the mass of the reactor nucleus and mn the

spacecraft mass.
We then observe that, in this way, the spacecraft may
be strongly accelerated (an g) for several hours.
We have already seen that, with the aid of magnetic
field Hi we can make the gravitational interactions upon the
spacecraft become zero and, therefore, offset the inertial
forces upon it. This means that under these conditions we
can impart the spacecraft with high accelerations without
subjecting it or its crew to the inertial effects of such
accelerations. In this manner, it is easy to see that
gravitational spacecrafts, starting from rest, may be
accelerated up to velocities close to that of light within a
matter of a few minutes.
By travelling at such velocities, the distances in the
Universe are significantly shortened for the crew members.
This is what is known as Lorentz's contraction.
IV. LEVITATION
In this chapter, our purpose is to show that the human
body has at its disposition some resources, towards
controlling the gravitational interaction on itself.
First of all, however, let us say something about the
neurons and the way they might give rise to extra-high
frequency electromagnetic fields, necessary for the
electromagnetic reversion process.
The main portion of a neuron is the so-called cell's
body, and does not differ widely from that of the other cells.
It is made up by the nucleus and cytoplasm. What renders
the neuron different from the other cells are the
ramifications (the so-called dentrites), which leave the cell
body and get thinner, as they elongate.
In a given place within the cell body there is a
particulary long extension, named axon, which might have
over a meter of length and is branched only at its end.
A neuron contacts another by means of ramifications
that are developed at its axon's end. When the nervous
impulse reaches the axon's ramifications, something we
name synaptic transmission of the impulse is performed.
The synapsis is the functional contact between the
membranes of two excited cells. The distance between the
presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes, usually named
synaptic cleft, is usually
from 15 to 20 nm. Said cleft is even larger in myoneural

unions, ranging from 50 to 100 nm. There are also synapsis
with presynaptic an postsynaptic membranes quite close to
each other which, sometimes even touching themselves. In
these cases, the direct electronic transmission of the impulse
is renderred possible. Most of the times, however, when the
cleft is large, the transmission of impulse is made through a
chemical process, which starts with the synthetization, by
the cell itself, of a chemical substance named acetylcholine,
which results from the reaction of acetic acid and choline,

two componentes of the cells.
The acetylcholine is able to alter the sodium pump1
work by producing the cell membrane dispolar-ization.
The acetylcholine being formed in the cell, its existence
is for a short length of time, otherwise no repolarization of
the cell would exist, while acetylcholine remained within it.
In fact, nervous cells have an enzyme
1
A mechanism through which sodium ions are moved within the cells,
giving rise to the membrane polarization.
FRAN DE AQUINO 91
named cholinesterase, which produces the decomposition of

acetylcholine into acetic acid and choline, as in the
beginning. With the decomposition process, the cell
membrane alters once again, and then the repolarization
proceeds. Thus, dispolarization and repolarization cycles
suceed, the frequency of which depends on how fast the
acetylcholine composition and decomposition take place.
Thus, the dentrites (or even the cell body) in the other
neuron are affected by means of acetylcholine release, so
starting a new electric impulse in the neighbour neuron. The
impulse then runs up the second neuron, until the chemical
effect comes into play again, at the axon's end, to overcome
the following synapsis, and so on.
The electric charge densities at the axon ramifications'
ends during said process give rise to reasonably intensive
oscillating electric fields, the oscillation frequency of which
may become very high, if also the cell's polarization and
dispolarization rythm so becomes.
This possibility suggest us that the levitation might
occur under special circumstances in which the polarization
and dispolarization frequency for the nervous system's
neurons becomes very high, reaching the critical frequency
of the water's electromagnetic spectrum.
We know that nearly 45 to 75%2 of the human body is made

up by water molecules. We also know that the H2O molecules are
a part of the so-called polar group of molecules, which are
featured by a permanent electric dipole. In case of a H2O
molecule, the electrons tend to agglomerate around the oxygen
atom which, because of that, becomes slightly negative in respect
to the hydrogen atoms. Two electric dipoles are then established
(with intensities of 5 x 10-30C.m) in the molecule and,
consequently, with electric fields at the order of 109 V/m,
through the water molecule. Accordingly, if the oscillation
frequency of the electromagnetic fields produced by the neurons
equals the frequency (the critical frequency of the water's
electromagnetic spectrum), then the values of E0, H0 for the
human body's water molecules might be reduced significantly, by
renderring E4/ 1, which possibilitates the levitation.
In order to evaluate the magnitude of we must at first
observe that we can express the rest gravitational mass for a
given molecule through the following expression:
2
Depends on the fat contents of an individual and his age. Younger
and slimmer individuals have a higher water contents in their
bodies.
FRAN DE AQUINO 93
(4.01)
Since the interaction energy between the atoms is
distributed within the molecule itself, we can, also here,
admit that the inertial mass moy created by the interaction
energy of the atoms is distributed within the volume VM of
the molecule and it will be a fraction of the molecule mass,
i.e., moy = n-1m0M, (n > 1). Thus, the gravitational mass due
to the interaction energy between the atoms is equivalent to
the gravitational mass of an elementary particle with inertial
mass moy and volume Vy = VM, i.e., according to the
equation (1.04) given by:
(4.02)
In this expresion, Wy is the geometric media of volumetric

densities of external electromagnetic energy within the mass
particle moy, i.e., (Wy = WM) and = moyc2 / VM. On the
other hand, we can write that
where The equation (4.02), thus, can

be rewritten as follows:
(4.03)
By taking this expression to equation (4.01), we obtain
(4.04)
and taking equation (1.12) into account, we can write
In case of light molecules, n is very large3 so results

and, therefore, we can write
(4.06)
3
Interatomic interaction energy in the molecule is very small in relation to the
molecule's rest inertial energy.
FRAN DE AQUINO 95
For water molecules, in the absence of magnetic fields (H =

0), we can then write:
(4.07) where
is given by
(4.08)
Thus, if is reduced (by means of the electromagnetic

reversion process) to a given value lower than the electric
field through of the water molecules (due to the electric
dipole), resulting E4/ 1, said molecules will be
subject to a gravitational force that is repulsive in relation to
Earth, i.e., they will be subject to a gravitational
acceleration
(4.09)
If all the water molecules of the human body are subject

to such an acceleration, the repulsive gravitational force in
the body would be very intense. However, this does not
occur because the oscillating electric field produced by
polarization and dispolarization of neurons is sufficiently
intense only in the surroundings of the nervous system's
ramification ends. Accordingly, only the water molecules
close to said ends will have
their reduced by the electromagnetic reversion

process. This way, only a small part of the H2O molecules
in the human body will be subject to a repulsive
acceleration and, consequently, the repulsive force on the
human body should not be intense, but sufficient to make it
levitate.
Based on the aforementioned in this chapter, the
performace of a gravitational spacecraft can be improved
even further. For example, we can conceive a "gravitational
elevator" to hoist human bodies into a spacecraft. It would
be the same principle as that of levitation. In this case,
however, the oscillating electric field with the frequency
would be produced in a given place of the spacecraft by
means of a source specifically designed for such a purpose.
The production of artificial gravity within a spacecraft
for the purpose of attracting the crew to be spacecraft's
ground is another example of control on the gravitational
forces acting on the human body's water molecules. This
can be achieved by intensifying the gravitational attraction
between the human body's water molecules and those
intentionally placed into a reservoir beneath the spacecraft's
ground. The central source of oscillating fields (fig. 3.1)
must produce then an electromangetic field with a
frequency so that E / 1 results, either for the
water
FRAN DE AQUINO 97
molecules placed beneath the ground, or those contained in

the crew members' bodies. So, according to equation (1.62),
the gravitational forces between the water into the reservoir
and that in the crew members' bodies will be attractive, the
human bodies' water molecules, therefore, being subject to
the following acceleration:
(4.10)
In order to obtain the desired gravity, the water mass within

the reservoir, , must be previously estimated.
V. ENERGY CONVERSION
The gravitational energy can be directly converted into
rotational kinetic energy, in a system we name gravitational
motor. Quite similar to a water turbine, the gravitational motor is,
therefore, entirely sealed, so that the water cannot escape from
the rotor chamber (fig. 5.1). It has two sources, A and B, with
electromagnetic fields with frequency to reduce the values of
for the water molecules. Thus, for example, when the
source A is turned on and the value of for the water
molecules to the left of the chamber become very lower than the
electric fields through these latter (as a result of the permanent
electric dipoles) the gravitational forces between the Earth and
the water molecules at that place will become repulsive, as
already seen. With this, the water mass in the left side of the
motor tendes to move upwards. Simultaneously, the water mass
to the right of the engine, under the effect of the attracting
gravitational force, tends to displace downwards. A rotational
water flow is then established, which moves the rotor of the
motor, by providing it a given movement quantity.
In order to increase the motor power, an ultra-intense
magnetic field, H, can be applied to the water chamber's left
side, making H / >E/ In addition, it is seen that the
rotation direction of the rotor can be inverted, by turning off the
source A
Fig. 5.1 - Gravitational Motor

FRAN DE AQUINO 103
and turning on the source B. In this case, the water

molecules at the right of the motor will be repealed by the
Earth, contrarily to those at the left side.
An important feature of the gravitational motor is the
fact that the impact of its utilization on the environment will
be virtually neglectible. Gravitational motors are not air-
pollutant as the conventional combustion engines. They will
be silent and demand no special installations for their
operation. On the other hand, its relatively simple
construction will allow this type of engine to be used for the
most different purposes. In the conversion of gravitational
energy into electric power, for instance, said engine -
connected to an electric generator - will make up a
gravelectric unit. In opposition to the hydroelectric plants,
whose operation demand rivers, the graveletric units are
able to run at whatever part of the Earth surface, since its
operation will depend just on the control of gravitational
forces acting on the water volume, at the rotor chamber. It is
obvious that the intensities of gravitational forces acting on
the water molecules will depend on the motor's relative
position, i.e., its position in relation to the distribution of
masses throughout the Universe. Consequently, and in order
to achieve a better performance, the gravitational motors
must be close to relatively massive celestial bodies, such as
planets,
for instance. At Earth surface, a gravitational motor might

have a considerable power available, able to supply our
energetic needs.
Another important utilization of the gravitation
electromagnetic control for the energy conversion, can be
found in a nuclear fusion gravitational process.
Said process is a simple one, basically consisting in
intensifying the gravitational forces acting between atomic
nuclei, so that their intensities surpass the intensities of
electrostatic repulsive force between them. The atomic
nuclei, then, get close to each other, in a way to allow the
action of strong forces, so causing the nuclear fusion.
Let us consider, for example, a given amount of
hydrogen atoms, for which we reduce significantly the
respective value of (by means of the electromagnetic
reversion process). If, then, an extra-intense magnetic field
H is applied to the system, so that the ratio H/ becomes
4
very greater than 3.3 x 10 , one verifies, according to
equation (1.62), that the gravitational attracting forces
between the hydrogen atoms nuclei (for E = E' = 0) are
given by
(5.01)
FRAN DE AQUINO 105
By comparing the intensities of said forces with the

intensities of electrostatic repulsive forces between said
nucleus, as given by
(5.02)
it is seen that, under said circumstances, the hydrogen atoms

will be subject to strong gravitational attraction, and such
reactions as those of the type
are able to accur. In this process, where the gravitational

energy is used to make the nuclei to unite and react,
independently from the electrostatic respulsion, the need of
thermal energy (high temperatures) is obviously eliminated,
in order to have the reactions processed. It is, therefore, a
process where cold fusion is achieved, which, in the
practice, might become relevant for energy production.
It is also important to observe that the gravitational
attracting forces between hydrogen atoms can be
intensified not only due to the action of magnetic fields, but

because of electric fields as well. In this case, as easily
verified, the attracting gravitational force expression (for H
= H' = 0) is similar to equation (5.01), i.e.,
(5.07)
for E/ 3.3 x 104, the nuclear fusion is likewise

caused.
We have seen in chapter I of this book that some atoms
of a given body could have their E0, H0 considerably
reduced by the action of electromagnetic fields of the
electromagnetic spectrum radiations of the substance,
contained in the thermal radiation. This way, in a given
volume of hydrogen, for instance, atoms with
significantly reduced are able to occur.
In order to evaluate the magnitude of for hydrogen
atom, we must at first calculate the value of k = moa / m0x =
As we know,
(5.08) and
(5.09)
FRAN DE AQUINO 107
so that, in case of hydrogen atom, we have k = 3.5 x 107. Now, by

means of the equation (1.68), the value of can be reached,
i.e.,
(5.10)
Thus, if the value of E0 for these atoms is reduced to such a level

that < 1010V/m (see chapter IV), as a result of the
electromagnetic reversion process (herein determined through the
thermal radiation), then it is easy to verify (equation 5.07) that the
gravitational fusion of hydrogen atoms can occur, if they are
within a region wherein the geometric media of volumetric
densities of electromagnetic energy, W, is such that E > 1014V/m.
A favorable situation for this to occur is when two hydrogen
atoms are so close to each other that the distance between them is
similar to their electrons' radii orbits (fig. 5.2-a). Under these
circumstances, the geometric media of the volumetric densities of
external electromagnetic energy, as caused reciprocally within
each atom by the electric fields of electrons, is such that E ~
1015V/m.
Recent experimental results confirm our forecast that, under
said situation, the fusion of nuclei might occur by the
gravitational process of nuclear fusion. From early this year
(1989), reactions of nuclear fusion
have been detected between deuterium nuclei placed within

paladium. In this process, when an atom of deuterium
displaces towards the octaedrical site of the other in the
paladium crystalline structure (with all the octaedrical sites
being occupied), a situation results, where the distance
between the deuterium atoms is sufficiently small (fig. 5.2-
b). It is then created, by the tensioning resulting from the
presence of high deuterium contents locally concentrated
within the paladium structure, a favourable situation for the
gravitational fusion of the deuterium atoms. However, for
occur the fusion it is also necessary that said atoms have
been reached by critical frequency radiation from the
deuterium electromagnetic spectrum, contained in the
thermal radiation and therefore, being with their
reduced to values of nearly 109 V/m. Finally, it is important
to point out that, through the gravitational process of
nuclear fusion, not only the transmutation of light chemical
elements might be produced, but also that of high atomic
mass elements. That is because, in case of high atomic mass
(although the nuclear electrostatic repulsion is higher), the
inertial masses of nuclei will be also higher and, therefore,
the attracting gravitational forces between them will be
higher. In addition, of course, it is always possible to
increase the attracting gravitational force
FRAN DE AQUINO 109
Fig, 5.2 - (a) A favorable situation to gravitational fusion of hydrogen nuclei. (b)
Cubic layout of paladium atoms (larger circles) and the localization of
deuterium atoms (smaller circles), in a situation where these latter occupy all the
octaedrical sites. If a deuterium atom displaces to the site of another one, a
favorable situation for the gravitational fusion of nuclei occur.
by means of increasing the field Accordingly, in said

process, either the transmutation of light elements or the
heavy ones will have practically the same rate of difficulty.
VI. SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
The origin of superconductivity remained unknown for
almost half a century after it had been discovered by Kamerlingh
Onnes. Only in 1957, the physicists J. Bardeen, L. N. Cooper and
T. Schrieffer, manage to formulate a theory for it. This theory
which is called BCS, named after its authors is considered one of
the most elegant theories of condensed matter physics; it explains
all the effects observed so far and allows us to understand the
origin of this phenomenon.
Besides explaining the origin of superconductivity in the
traditional substances, BCS' theory shows the behavioral
differences seen in the electrons of superconductors and on those
of the common metals.
While in common metals the electrons form a gas (Quantum
Gas) in the superconductor materials they join together in pairs
(Cooper's pairs). However, the quantum character of the electrons
make the superconductor state to become more than just a gas in
pairs. The laws of quantum physics determines amazing con-
sequences like, for instance; all Cooper's pairs must move at the
same velocity, incurring, therefore, in the important conclusion
that the superconductor state is a coherent one, in which all pairs
travel at the same velocity.
In the metal conductors, the erratic trajectory of the electrons
obey one restriction only and that is: the
Pauli's Exclusion Principle, which does not allow more than

two electrons to share identical states.
In a superconductor with electrical current the pairs of
electrons can occupy the same quantum state, being not
subject, therefore, to the exclusion principle, which applies
to single electrons. To detain the current, Cooper's pairs can
be destroyed getting back, then, to the normal state.
As far as Cooper's pairs formation is concerned the
BCS' theory shows that, in certain circumstances, attracting
interaction between electrons may occur. This interaction is
mediatted by the displacement of the ion crystalline
structure when a electron passe through. Such forces are,
however, very weak and a temperature of a few degrees can
destroy the pairs.
In the case of ceramics superconductors it was verified,
recently, that similar state to that proposed by BCS' theory
occurs, except that the atracting interaction has a different
origin, i.e., has been demonstrated that interaction of
magnetic origin or those of transference of charge between
ions could originate in these complex materials stronger
attracting interactions than those caused by the
displacement of the ions, in the crystalline structure.
From all the preceding and considering the
Electromagnetic-Gravitational Field Theory it is easy
FRAN DE AQUINO 115
to see that we can utilize the electromagnetic control of the

gravitational interaction to intensify the gravitational forces
between the electrons, so that the intensities of these forces
surpass the intensities of the eletrostatic repulsion forces between
them, making it possible the Cooper's pairs formation.
If a substance has an atomic structure in such way that in
each of its atoms, the electron furthest from the nucleus is
suficiently near (r < 10-12m) of the most external electron of the
neighboring atom (fig. 6.1), the electric field of each one of these
electrons inside the other will have intensity E = >
1015V/m. In these if the value of Eoa is in the order of 1014 V/m,
as it occurs to most of the monoatomic solids (see equation 1.72)
and, if by the electromagnetic reversion process it is reduced to a
value in the order of 109 V/m then, the ratio E/Eoa will be, as a
result, greater than 105. On the other hand, according to the
equation (1.62) we can see that gravitational atraction forces
(atomics) between the two electrons (for H = H' = 0) will be
given by.
(6.01)
So, in order for the gravitational forces intensity be greater than

the electrostatic repulsion forces we must
have
(6.02)
Therefore we can conclude that in the conditions men-

sioned here the electrons can be subject of gravitational
atraction strong enough for them to bound together forming
Cooper's pairs.
To stop the electric current we can destroy the Cooper's
pairs by turning off the extra high frequency
electromagnetic field used in the electromagnetic reversion
process, to reduce Eoa. Once this is done, the value of Eoa
returns to its normal value and the gravitational forces
between the electrons will become very small.
Electromagnetic field of extra-high frequencies,
necessaries in the electromagnetic reversion process, may
be produced by Josephson Junctions that, as we know,
consist in two superconductors separated by a dieletric.
When a difference of potential V is applied to the
superconductors, electrons tunneling through the dieletric
establish a alternate supercurrent whose frequency is
function of V and, may reach values in the order of 1012 Hz.
To produce the two superconductors of a Josephson
Junction we may follow the tradictional way utilizing a
superconductor material of low temperature such as a
FRAN DE AQUINO 117
Fig. 6.1 - Cubic disposition of atoms of a substance capable of becoming

superconductor by the gravitational process of Cooper's pairs formation.
Niobio-Titanium alloy (which requires a liquid helium

cooling system) or then, search for a type of material that
would become superconductor in higher temperatures. As
the supercondutivity gravitational process described in this
chapter also requires electromagnetic fields with extra-high
frequencies, as we have already seen, we verify that the
utilization of the above mentioned process in the production
of the superconductor for Josephson Junctions will be
possible only if there would exist a specific substance (with
atomic structure especificated in the fig. 6.1) that would
become a superconductor under the effect of an
electromagnetic field of smaller frequency, which may be
produced from conventional electronic keying (up to 1010
Hz.).
In this case, it will be possible then, to produce, by
means of superconductivity gravitational process the
superconductors of the Josephson Junctions and then,
produce oscillating fields with greater frequencies, and by
this way making possible not only the gravitation control,
by means of electromagnetic reversion process, but also
make other substances superconductors.
VII. EXPERIMENTAL
In this chapter we will present the design of seven
experimental set-ups which can be carried out in order to
verify fundamental phenomena foreseen by the
Gravitational Electromagnetic Field Theory.
When we devised such experimental set-ups, our
intention was only to facilitate the work of the reader
interested in the experimental verification of said phe-
nomena. All experiments proposed herein are relatively
simple and, in our opinion, will be sufficient for the
experimental corroboration of the theory.
The necessary equipament and the experimental layouts
for each experiment are generally quite traditional and
known by all those familiar with Experimental Physics.
To build the experimental set-ups, the following
equipament will be necessary:
- An ± 800V, lMHz/100GHz AC source.
- A 1G/100 KG magnetometer.
- A neutron and gamma ray detector.
- A digital ohmmeter, sensitive to 1
- A 0/200V DC power supply.
- An aerometer, 0-50 m/s.
- A thermometer, 0-120°C.
- A centrifugal water pump (1 1/2").
- Two dynamometers (as illustrated).
- Two volumetric flasks (glass balloons).
- One glass tube ( = 38mm) sealed at one end.
Experiment 1 - Superconductivity Gravitational Process
In order to experimentally verify the superconductivity

gravitational process explained in Chapter VI herein, it is
necessary to discover a substance whose cubic arrangement
of its atoms is analogous to that shown in Figure 6.1,
Chapter VI.
A substance with this characteristic is germanium.
Thus, this may be the first of the substances to be
experimentally tested.
Method - A germanium rod must be subjected to an
oscillating electric field with a frequency equal to the
critical frequency of the electromagnetic spectrum of
germanium, (Ge). Thus, by means of the electromagnetic
reversion process, one is able to reduce the value of Eo for
germanium, making it much smaller than the intensity of
electric field E reciprocally determined in the interior of the
outer electrons. One thus strongly intensifies the
gravitational attraction between said electrons and they may
join each other to form Cooper's pairs. When this takes
place, germanium must become superconductive and then
an ohm-meter connected to it (set-up 1) must indicate a null
FRAN DE AQUINO 123
SET-UP 1
resistance. Another form of ascertaining the supercon-

ductive state is to place a magnet on the germanium rod and
observe its flotation (Meissner's effect).
Set-up 1. - In this case the experimental set-up is
extremely simple. The substance to be tested must be placed
on an insulating base and the leads of the high-frequency
voltage source must be positioned very close to the ends of
the substance being tested.
Experiment 2 - Production of an ultra-intense magnetic

field
Once the substance capable of becoming supercon-

ductive through a superconductivity gravitational process is
discovered, one may then build a ring with this substance
and, from a conventional inductor, induce an electromotive
force on the superconductive ring, thus giving rise to a
supercurrent which, in turn, will produce an ultra-intense
magnetic field.
Method - The ring must be positioned between the ends
of the leads from the high-frequency voltage source, as
shown in set-up 2. Thus, it becomes superconductive when
the oscillating field is activated, returning to its normal state
when the oscillating field is deactivated.
One must position the end of the magnetometer probe
one meter away from the center of the ring
FRAN DE AQUINO 125
(vertical direction). The objective here is to measure

intensity H of the magnetic field produced by the ring at
that distance and, from this value, to calculate the
magnitude of the field in the center of the ring (H0) through
the known expression H = (r/d)3H0, where r is the ring
radius and d the distance measured on the ring axis to the
point being considered (in this case, d=l m).
Set-up 2 - The conventional inductor must be
approximately 10 cm from the leads of the high-frequency
voltage source to prevent the electric field lines of the
oscillating field from deviating towards it, which would
impair the concentration through the ring. On the other
hand, as far as its location is concerned, it must have its
center aligned with the superconductive ring. Another
important aspect to be observed is the placement of the
leads from the high-frequency voltage source inside a
dielectric material conduit, to prevent the oscillating field
lines (in the case of a metallic conduit) from dispersing
away from the region where their concentration is
necessary. Regarding the placement of the magnetometer
probe, one must make sure that it does not contain
ferromagnetic substances (which would be strongly
attracted by the superfield). The probe must be fixed to a
dieletric stand void of parts made of ferromagnetic material.
Generally
SET-UP 2
FRAN DE AQUINO 127
speaking, one must remove from the experimental region

any parts made of ferromagnetic material in order to avoid
the action of the superfield on them.
Experiment 3 - Gravitational Interaction Control
The objective of this experiment is to verify the

electromagnetic process of control the gravitational
interaction by testing the theoretical assumptions.
Method - In this experiment, we will subject several
substances (for which the critical frequencies of their
electromagnetic spectra have already been determined) to
oscillating fields with a frequency equal to the critical
frequency of the substance, simultaneously subjecting them
to an ultra-intense magnetic field. Thus, we will be able to
verify the accuracy of the new expressions for the
gravitational force deducted from Chapter I herein. We will
also verify in this experiment the levitation principle
proposed in Chapter IV. For this purpose, we must simply
deactivate superfield H and subject a given volume of water
to the action of an oscillating electric field whose frequency
is equal to the critical frequency of water.
SET-UP 3
FRAN DE AQUINO 129
Since most substances must certainly have a critical

frequency above 100 GHz, we selected Josephson junctions
to produce oscillating fields with higher frequencies. It is
noteworthy observing that the superconductors of
Josephson junctions may be produced by the
superconductivity gravitational process.
Set-up 3 - The experimental set-up in this case is
similar to the previous one, except for the addition of the
device for the Josephson junctions and the device
containing the test body and the dynamometer.
Experiment 4 - Nuclear Fusion Gravitational Process
In Chapter V herein we saw the nuclear fusion grav-

itational process. The process is simple and basically
consists in intensifying the gravitational forces acting
between the atomic nuclei so that their intensities exceed
the intensities of the electrostatic repulsive forces between
them. The nuclei will then get sufficiently close and nuclear
fusion can occur.
In the specific case of hydrogen atoms, as already
shown, the necessary condition for the fusion to occur is
that H/HOH > 3.3 x 104. That is, EOH must be reduced by the
electromagnetic reversion process whereas the magnetic
field H applied must be made sufficiently intense.
SET-UP 4
FRAN DE AQUINO 131
Method - Considering the quantity of energy released in

nuclear fusion reactions, we see that, in order for the total
quantity of energy released during the unit of time (<
104J/s) not to be very large, which would make the
experiment unfeasible, fusion must occur in very small
volumes of hydrogen, something around 10-10m3/s. Thus,
we have devised an experimental system where by very
small hydrogen bubbles formed in a volume of water rise to
a certain region where fusion will take place (fusion zone).
Thus, besides controlling the volume of hydrogen, we may
easily evaluate the rate of energy released by heating the
water. On the other hand, we must also have a system to
detect neutrons and gamma rays, for as we know, reactions
of this kind are characterized not only by a high production
of heat but also by the emission of neutrons and gamma
rays.
Set-up 4 - Similar to the preceding one, except for the
device containing the test body and the dynamometer, and
the placement of a glass cylindrical container with water
through the superconductive ring. The lower portion of this
container is fitted with the hydrogen inlet. In the upper
portion we conveniently position a thermometer and the gas
outlet. The neutron and gamma ray detector must obviously
be placed close to the fusion zone.
Experiment 5 - Principle of artificial gravity in

spacecrafts
The production of artificial gravity inside a spacecraft

in order to attract the crew members to the floor of the
spacecraft is another important phenomenon of this theory.
Said gravity is obtained by intensifying the gravitational
attraction between the molecules of water in the human
body and those purportedly placed in a water reservoir
below the spacecraft floor. The phenomenon will be
observed here by intensifying the gravitational attraction
forces between the two volumes of water contained in two
glass balloons fastened to dynamometers, as shown in set-
up 5.
Method - A Josephson junction produces an oscillating
electric field with a frequency equal to the critical frequency
of water. The water molecules close to said junction have
their Eo reduced, which then become much smaller than the
electric field E ~ 109 V/m arising from the permanent
electric dipole of the water molecules. When E4/ 1,
the gravitational force between the water molecules is
attractive (equation 1.63), with an intensity of F ~
(E/Eo)8Gmm'/r2.
Set-up 5 - Two glass balloons containing water are
rigidly fastened to two dynamometers which, in turn, are
fastened to the system's structure. A Josephson
FRAN DE AQUINO 133
SET-UP 5
junction placed close to them is activated to produce the

oscillating field with frequency
Experiment 6 - Control of gravity on atmospheric air

(atmospheric propulsion principle)
According to Chapter III herein, if an ultra-intense

magnetic field is activated in a certain region of the
atmosphere and if we simultaneously apply to this region
oscillating fields of frequencies equal to the critical
frequencies of the gases which make up the air, we will see
that relationships H/H0 for the air molecules in this region
may become much greater than 1. Consequently, according
to equation (1.63), the gravitational force between the Earth
and the air in this region will become strongly repulsive.
Method - Two Josephson junctions simultaneously
produce oscillating fields of frequencies respectively equal
to the critical frequencies of nitrogen and oxygen (for, as we
know, the average composition of air in the trophosphere is
78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen). When we activate the
ultra-intense magnetic field H, the relationships H/H0 for
the molecules of such gases will become much greater than
1, thus causing them to strongly accelerate inside the hard
PVC tube placed through the superconductive ring. A
suitably placed aerometer measures the velocity of air inside
the tube.
FRAN DE AQUINO 135
SET-UP 6
Set-up 6 - Similar to that of experiment 2, except for the

addition of the Josephson junctions and the PVC tube with
the aerometer.
Experiment 7 - Gravitational Motor Principle
When an oscillating field of frequency equal to the

critical frequency of water makes smaller than E
(because of the permanent electric dipoles), the gravitational
forces between the Earth and the local molecules of water
become repulsive, as seen above. If these molecules are in a
sealed tubular circuit, a water flow is established in the
piping, which can drive a turbine connected to the circuit.
Method - With the application of an oscillating field
with frequency equal to the critical frequency of water, we
will then have < E for the water contained in the
piping, in the region where the oscillating field actuates. As
a result, a water flow is established in the circuit, with a
velocity which can be intensified by the action of an ultra-
intense field H, when we make H/ E/ .
Set-up 7 - Also similar to that in experiment 2, except
for the addition of a Josephson junction and a closed tubular
circuit containing a centrifugal water pump to act as a
turbine.
FRAN DE AQUINO 137
SET-UP 7

Aquino - Gravitational-Electromagnetic Field Theory (1992)

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Aquino - Gravitational-Electromagnetic Field Theory (1992)

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

• Unification of the Interactions

• Interrelation between Gravitation and Electromagnetism

II. Cosmological Applications...........................................63

III. Gravitational Spacecraft ............................................75

V. Energy Conversion ...................................................... 99

VI. Superconductivity ...................................................111

VII. Experimental............................................................ 119

In this book we shall show that interactions may be

precisely that the gravitational interaction may be controlled

the nuclei come close to each other and react, simply by

Sao Luis, (MA), Brasil

by Einstein in describing gravitation, by an equivalent

In the thirties, two new forces were added to the known

unification - that of the strong, weak, and electromagnetic

in which the scattering between neutral and charged leptons

expected that a unified theory of interactions, designed to

which only differs significantly from unity under conditions

analogous effects with electromagnetic energy densities that

for their nucleons can reach magnitudes of the order of 10-2

causing the explosion of the system. Everything suggests

spacecrafts may be endowed with unique performance

even be further improved. Among the gravitational effects

fusion, a process which basically consists of using grav-

mge =mg + me (1-01)

where me is the electromagnetic mass which, in turn, is made up

and the electric and magnetic masses can be expressed as

coefficients of proportionalities. The expression for mF and mf

for the simple pendulum period. Since no variation was found,

by Roppl, Krotkov and Dicke8 and by Braginskii and Panov9 the

for inertial mass (m,) and gravitational (mg); mi = m

The expression of obtained by Donoghue and

The equation (1.04) says, therefore, that the grav-

mass only in the absence of electromagnetic fields external

In this expression, Wi, Wj and Wk refer respectively to the

energy densities of each electron, proton and neutron of the

mg0 (interaction) = (1.06)

In this expression, Wx is the geometric media of

where Thus, equation (1.06) can be

mg0 (interactions) = m0x - (1.08)

Considering now the equation (1.08) in (1.05), we have:

Within the elementary particles and so

In turn, within the mass particle m0x (interior of the

where and It can be seen then

In this expression, the index x of W was omitted in

where is the volumetric density of rest inertial mass of

Let us now make use of the Einstein's equations to

we know, said equations, for mixed components, can be

where the energy-momentum tensor for elementary

In the General Theory of Relativity, the gravitational

non-relativistic potential (now for the gravitational-

In addition, regarding the 4-velocity , we must disregard

The zero index of was omitted in order to abbreviate the

Taking then the equations (1.15) to = =0, and by

On the other hand, by making use of the general formula

we can demonstrate that

Particularly in the case of a single particle of rest

which is the non-relativistic potential of the gravitational

When me = 0 and W = 0 (absence of electromagnetic

which expresses the non-relativistic potential of the

where mg, mq = mp = mF, mf refer to the

which determine severally, in particles with masses

This equations just are applicable, obviously, up to the

quarks. Only quarks suffer the effects of all interactions;