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PHYSICS, PEDAGOGY, AND THE ART

OF TRUMPET PLAYING
BY ERIC D. WRIGHT

March 2009 • Page 31

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 PHYSICS, PEDAGOGY, AND THE ART
OF TRUMPET PLAYING
BY ERIC D. WRIGHT

This article was reviewed and approved for publication by the ITG Editorial Committee.
Introduction practice only increases one’s ability to buzz and has little prac-
Respiration, tone production, and articulation are the essen- tical application to actual performance.
tial components of brass instrument performance. Of these, Like buzzing, the practice of playing pedal tones is believed
tone production is the most complex and the least understood to help accomplish the development of the lip and facial mus-
component of performance. As a result, brass players rely on cles independently of the horn and mouthpiece. It is believed
the subjective analysis of bodily phenomena to guide their that such practice leads to increased facility and effectiveness in
teaching and performance techniques. However, most peda- the high register. Its usage probably stems from longstanding
gogical theories are based on an incomplete understanding of ideas concerning the role of the aperture between the lips in
the specific interactions that take place between the lungs, the controlling the volume of sound or the frequency of vibration
lips, and the horn. While there are numerous pedagogical of tones produced on the trumpet.
methods and approaches, few are rooted in sound acoustical Since most musicians and vocalists have an incomplete
theory and respirato- understanding of the mechanics of respiration,
ry mechanics. The “While there are numerous peda- breathing techniques for musical performance are
challenge to modern also described in a number of inappropriate
brass teachers and gogical methods and approaches, ways—”support from the diaphragm,” “open your
performers is to de- few are rooted in sound acoustical throat,” “keep your stomach firm,” “blow warm
velop a more com- air,” etc. At the least, these descriptions result in
plete understanding theory and respiratory mechanics.” inefficient respiratory practice and at best are iso-
of the mechanical metric, static actions that do not allow players to
and physical correlates that underlie sound production in generate effectively the amount of air pressure and air flow
order to ensure that the “how” of musical performance is con- necessary for good tone and musical execution. An under-
sistently communicated to students based on mechanical the- standing of the mechanics of respiration as an extension of the
ory and empirical observation. natural process of breathing frees the performer to focus on the
Myths and Misconceptions musical product.
Although there are certainly many more myths and miscon-
Among the many misconceptions associated with tone pro-
ceptions that are applied to brass playing, probably the most
duction is the over-emphasis placed on “correct embouchure.”
glaring is the idea that a change in one’s mouthpiece or horn
As a result any mention of a change of embouchure is accom-
can significantly improve a
panied by feelings of anxiety and
deficiency in one’s perform-
insecurity. Ironically, the term has “…there are few aspects of mouthpiece
ance, whether it be poor
different meanings in English
tone, lack of endurance, or
than it does in French. The Amer- design other than the diameter of the
lack of range. In recent years
ican concept of embouchure refers rim, the depth and shape of the cup, and
a number of devices have
to the perceived placement of the
been marketed to trumpeters
mouthpiece on the lips—high, shape of the back-bore that contribute
purporting to give a darker
low, centered, off-center (to the significantly to the color of one’s sound.”
tone, especially heavyweight
right or left). On the other hand,
mouthpieces. In actuality
the French word “embouchure” is
there are few aspects of mouthpiece design other than the
simply the term for the mouthpiece itself. Still, the American
diameter of the rim, the depth and shape of the cup, and shape
term shares with the French the idea of immutability and
of the back-bore that contribute significantly to the color of
rigidity in describing the muscular combinations necessary to
one’s sound. Similarly, although many modern trumpets are
produce a sound on the horn.
produced using brass alloys with higher copper content and
Various methods and techniques prescribe buzzing the lips
thicker gauge metal, it is the shape and length of the air-col-
independently and with the mouthpiece. There are also sever-
umn, from the mouthpiece to the bell, that determines the
al devices available designed to facilitate one’s mouthpiece
sound of the horn in conjunction with the input of air from
buzzing capability. However, very few works in the perform-
the lungs and lips.
ance literature that require buzzing the mouthpiece as a musi-
cal application. As for the assumption that buzzing increases Pedagogical Methods
the amount of blood flowing in the lips, unless there is a seri- The earliest methods for teaching brass performance by
ous problem with one’s circulatory system, there should always Cesare Bendinelli and Girolamo Fantini respectively date from
be an abundance of blood flow to the lips. Therefore, buzzing the 16th and 17th century and focused on teaching the skills

© 2009 International Trumpet Guild March 2009 / ITG Journal 31

needed by military trumpeters. They were also meant to
expose trumpeters to the techniques required for playing in the
clarino register of the Baroque trumpet. Like the flute method
of Johann Quantz from the mid-18th century, the focus of the
training is on articulation using a phonetic approach to devel-
op legato, staccato, and marcato articulations as well as dou-
ble- and triple-tonguing. With the develop-
ment of the cornet in the 19th century,
more extensive methods were developed for “Embouchure is one of the most figuration of the facial muscles
the new style of virtuoso technique. The talked-about and least under- when we play? Should the muscles
French cornetists J.B. Arban and Louis A.
Saint-Jacome based their comprehensive stood aspects of brass playing.” fixed position? How does it con-
texts on the pedagogical methods of string
and woodwind players, since the requirements of virtuosity
were equivalent. Virtually all subsequent methods developed
in the 20th century can be seen as extensions of Arban and
Saint-Jacome.
In the 1950s and 60s, the population explosion of the baby-
boom generation saw increased participation in high school
bands and community youth orchestras. Together with the
growth of the American middle class, this led to an increase in
private teaching opportunities for musicians. Many trumpeters
and other brass players developed popular and devoted follow-
ers among their legions of new students. The unifying theme
was a system of performance practice developed by the master
teacher which was shared among his students. Two of the most
revered teachers of their era were James Stamp and Claude
Gordon. Although their many students might disagree over
what they perceive to be the proper approach to playing the
trumpet, they will certainly agree that each stressed the impor-
tance of a well thought-out and extensive warmup routine that
featured extensive practice in the pedal register to improve
tone, range, and flexibility.
In the teachings of James Stamp and his followers, the
emphasis is on developing the independent control of the
facial muscles as an antidote to the excessive use of mouthpiece
pressure. Gordon’s extremely popular method proclaimed to
help the student develop a double high-C in 52 weeks and is
rooted in the virtuoso tradition of the late 19th and early 20th
century cornet style. It contains a year’s worth of progressive
lessons in technique based on the earlier methods of J.B.
Arban, Saint-Jacome, Herbert L. Clarke, Max Schlossberg, and
others. It is perhaps the most thorough and extensive pedagog-
ical tool ever developed for trumpet players. If it has a draw-
back, it is that most of the lessons take several hours to com-
plete in their entirety, which is often impractical if one has
other commitments. The approach developed by Carmine
Caruso relies heavily on isometric principles to develop control
of the facial muscles, emphasizing exercises played across a
wide dynamic range, from soft to loud and back again, and
executed in succession without removing the horn from the
lips. The isometric “burn” experienced in the muscles of the
face is meant as a testament to the effectiveness of this type of
practice.
These are but a few examples of the variety of pedagogical
approaches available to trumpet students. While there is little
debate that many wonderful musicians have benefited from
these practice methods, many more have fallen by the musical
wayside because they have been unable to grasp the concepts
as they were taught. Since each is based on subjective interpre-
tations of the acoustical and respiratory phenomena that occur
32 ITG Journal / March 2009
during performance, the question arises as to how they can all
apply to the same acoustical phenomena associated with pro-
ducing a sound on a brass instrument.
The Lips, Embouchure, and Mouthpiece
Embouchure is one of the most talked-about and least
understood aspects of brass playing. Does it refer to the place-
ment of the mouthpiece against
the lips? Does it describe the con-
move when we play or remain in a
tribute to producing a quality
sound? Most pedagogical approaches address the issue of
embouchure or placement of the mouthpiece on the lips in
their introductory pages. For example:
The mouthpiece should be placed in the middle of
the lips, two-thirds on the lower lip, and one-third on
the upper lip. At any rate, this is the position which I
have adopted, and which I believe to be the best. (J.B.
Arban, Complete Conservatory Method for Trumpet,
p. 7)
And,
There is always much discussion as to the place-
ment of the mouthpiece on the lips, and different
players have played successfully with different posi-
tions. However, for freer vibration and more
endurance in all registers and for power and control,
the mouthpiece should be placed more on the upper
lip. This gives the advantage of more lip in the
mouthpiece or more vibrating surface. The lower the
mouthpiece is placed, the more it tends to shut off the
vibration… (Claude Gordon, Systematic Approach to
Daily Practice for Trumpet, p. 5)
And also,
The whole embouchure consists of five definite
movements: 1) Putting the mouthpiece in contact
with the lips; 2) Putting tension on the lips for the
note to be played; 3) Positioning the jaw properly; 4)
Angling the instrument properly; 5) The blow.
(Carmine Caruso, Musical Calisthenics for Brass, p.7)
There are also several approaches given in the pedagogical
literature for changing frequency on the trumpet. Arban advo-
cated applying pressure from the mouthpiece:
In order to produce the higher notes, it is necessary
to press the instrument against the lips, so as to pro-
duce an amount of tension proportionate to the needs
of the note to be produced: the lips being stretched,
the vibrations are shorter, and the sounds are conse-
quently of a higher nature.
For descending passages it is necessary to apply the
mouthpiece more lightly, in order to allow a larger
opening for the passage of air. The vibrations then
become slower, owing to the relaxation of the mus-
cles, and lower sounds are thus obtained in propor-
tion to the extent to which the lips are opened.
(Arban, p. 7)
Therefore, the greater the pressure applied to the lips, the
greater the resultant frequency response.
Generally speaking, the application of mouthpiece pressure
works well, within limits, to generate changes in frequency and
© 2009 International Trumpet Guild
register, as the tissues of the mouth and face are remarkably
sensitive to changes in pressure. This approach makes use of
biological phenomenon known as linear stiffening in which
cells and tissues are observed to exhibit a stiffening response in
proportion to the level of applied stress. It is the approach
taken by most beginners as one of the simpler ways to produce
sounds on a trumpet or trombone. Still, there are physical lim-
itations to how much air pressure can be generated from the
lungs and how much pressure can be applied to the lips before
the force of the mouthpiece on the lips causes the skin tissues
or the muscle tissues to rupture.
Various low-pressure and non-pressure systems have been
developed as intuitive responses to the practical needs of main-
taining good health of the lip tissues. Their aim is to reduce the
dependence on the increased application of mouthpiece pres-
sure to generate an increase in playing frequency by emphasiz-
ing more independent control of the muscles of the mouth and
lips. This is the approach taken by Stamp:
Playing the mouthpiece alone, hold it in the left
hand with thumb and forefinger. Keep the fingers
loose and do not clench them. Hold the mouthpiece
an inch from the small end. This is to lessen the pres-
sure on the lips. What pressure is needed is added
after the breath. This applies also when playing the
instrument. This has proven to be a most important
point in my teaching. (James Stamp, Warm-Ups &
Studies, p. 3)
There are many apocryphal tales of trumpet players who
have injured themselves, sometimes permanently, from apply-
ing too much pressure as they perform. The problem remains
as to how best to apply pressure in a useful fashion beyond the
cautions given by Walter Smith:
Do not attempt to play without pressure, but try to
play with a light and uniform pressure throughout.
(Walter M. Smith, Lip Flexibility on the Cornet or
Trumpet, p. 3)
And by Gordon:
There is no such thing as “no pressure,” and it is
beneficial to dismiss the subject from your mind and
let proper development by routine practice take care
of the amount of pressure. (Gordon, p. 7)
Other approaches to changing frequencies on the trumpet
involve contracting the muscles of the lips and face, or raising
and lowering the position of the tongue in the mouth. Claude
Gordon suggests:
When ascending to higher register the lips should
contract toward the mouthpiece. When descending to
lower notes, the lips should relax. (Gordon, p. 5)
This approach describes the con-
traction of the orbicularis oris muscle
of the lips. But it contradicts Arban
“…embouchure describes the structural ed
who said: mechanism by which we are able to the horn. Embouchure also
The lips must never be pro-
truded. On the contrary, the produce sound on brass instruments…” of the various muscles of the
corners of the mouth must be
drawn down, enabling a freer, more open tone pro-
duction. (Arban, p. 7)
But Gordon also suggested that the work of the lip muscles
is not as important as many people believe them to be:
For years it was the opinion that the lips produced
the higher notes, and so, the theory of stretched lips
© 2009 International Trumpet Guild
and shorter vibrations. It is now known that this is
not true—the tongue controls the pitch changes.
(Commentary in Arban, p.7)
In this regard Gordon is in line with Smith who suggests
that the lips work in conjunction with the tongue. He intro-
duces his opening exercises with the following instructions:
The following… studies are designed solely to
develop the action of the lips and the back of the
tongue until the utmost flexibility and control of
these members is attained.
…The sole object is to build a movement of the lips
and tongue… The back of the tongue should rise
slightly toward the roof of the mouth with each suc-
cessive step upward, as though pronouncing the letter
E, and the lower lip should be at the same time drawn
upward and into the mouthpiece very slightly, while
the wind force is also increased to make up for the
narrowed opening between the lips. These muscles
should of course be relaxed again in descending.
(Smith, p. 3)
Smith’s instruction to increase the “wind force” is also an
example of “linear stiffening” that describes how cells and tis-
sues of the lips react to the applied stress of increased air pres-
sure in the mouth. However, this can lead to the effect of
“over-blowing,” which is associated with a sound quality that
is equated with the lack of control of both tone and volume.
The recommended solution is to develop “proper” muscle con-
trol, particularly through the practice of long tones and
dynamic studies as described by Carmine Caruso:
When you surpass a certain loudness quotient on
the horn, you may produce a note that’s raucous,
scratchy and generally unmusical. This is called an
“overblow,” and indicates that you have an abundance
of power and can’t use it. This happens when you get
past a certain speed of air and your muscles go out of
balance. What you want to do is master the overblow-
ing and turn it to your advantage; in other words,
increase the span of your control over dynamics. By
continually exposing your muscles to the greater air-
speed… you will quickly extend the muscular con-
trol. The muscles will eventually stay in balance, even
with the extra power you apply. The better balanced
your muscles become, the stronger your blow will be.
(Caruso, p. 53)
Ultimately, the term embouchure describes the structural
mechanism by which we are able to produce sound on brass
instruments by converting the kinetic energy of the air pres-
sure in the lungs into the mechanical energy of periodic injec-
tions of air into the mouth-
piece that are then convert-
into acoustical energy in
describes the coordination
mouth and face in generat-
ing sounds of a desired frequency and tone color. It describes
the relationship of the lips to each other as well as to the
mouthpiece and is the controlling apparatus that couples the
body to the horn. The challenge of developing a good
embouchure is in maintaining a consistent placement on the
lips while performing the necessary changes in lip tension
March 2009 / ITG Journal 33
needed to effect changes in frequency during performance.
These changes can be produced in a number of ways, but a
better understanding of how the lips interact with the mouth-
piece and horn can help to determine which approach is most
effective.
Music and Physics
For more than 125 years physicists have been attempting to
uncover what happens when we play. Many of the studies have
focused on understanding the mechanics of air columns in
pipes and the influence of the shape of the bell in musical
horns. Other studies have examined how the lips interact with
the horn to produce musical sounds. There are several books
and articles that provide a good introduction to the acoustics
of brass instruments.
Renold Schilke gives a very basic introduction to the physics
of sound production in an article entitled, “Practical Physics
for Trumpeters and Teachers” (The Instrumentalist Magazine,
July 1977). He opens by saying, “In order to produce a sound
on the trumpet (or any other brass instrument), air is expelled
under pressure through the lips, further compressed in the cup
of the mouthpiece, until it reaches the throat of the mouth-
piece, where it sets up a pattern in the air already in the instru-
ment.” (Schilke, p. 751) He goes on to describe the operation
of “standing waves” in horns; and follows with some words
about the importance of a clean horn and the proper choice of
mouthpiece to producing a clear sound.
One of the most thorough and probably most influential
studies on musical acoustics was published by Hermann
Helmholtz and published in 1863 as On the Sensation of Tone
as a Physiological Basis for the Theory of Music. In Chapter V,
Part 6, in his section on the “Musical Tones of Reed Pipes,”
Helmholtz describes how sounds are produced in reed instru-
ments:
The mode of producing the tones on these instru-
ments resembles that used for the siren: the passage of
air being alternately closed and opened, its stream is
separated into a series of individual pulses… In reed
instruments, elastic plates or tongues are employed
which are set in vibration and thus alternately close
and open the aperture in which they are fastened.
(Helmholtz, p. 95)
He describes the manner in which musical reeds open and
close as “striking inwards” or “striking upwards.” He goes on to
establish the idea of the lips as reeds, “Only two kinds of mem-
branous tongues have to be considered as musical instruments:
the human lips in brass instruments, and the human larynx in
singing.” (Helmholtz, p. 97) He follows with a description of
how the lips operate when playing that still serves as the basis
for most analysis:
The lips must be considered as very slightly elastic
membranous tongues, loaded with much inelastic tis-
sue containing water, and they would consequently
vibrate very slowly, if they could be brought to vibrate
by themselves. In brass instruments they form mem-
branous tongues which strike outwards… But as they
offer very slight resistance, they are readily set in
motion, by the alternate pressure of the vibrating col-
umn of air, when used with brass instruments.
(Helmholtz, p. 97)
How the lips were driven in their vibrations by the energy
produced in the horn was not entirely understood at the time.
34 ITG Journal / March 2009
The complexity of the interaction between the lips and the air
column is described by Helmholtz:
The vibrations of the air in these instruments is
unusually powerful, and require the resistance of firm,
smooth, unbroken tubes to preserve their strength. In
the use of brass instruments, the different form and
tension of the lips of the player act only to determine
which of the proper tones of the tube shall speak; the
pitch of the individual tones is almost entirely inde-
pendent of the tension of the lips. (Helmholtz, p. 98)
D.J. Blaikley in his the notes to the 1885 English translation
of On the Sensation of Tone, offers a somewhat contradictory
observation as to how the lips interact with the air column. He
suggests that the lips play a crucial role in selecting the desired
pitch:
The office of the air in the tube in relation to the
lips (leaving out consideration its working as a reso-
nant body, intensifying and modifying the tone) is to
act as a pendulum governor in facilitating the main-
tenance (not the origination) of a periodic vibration
of the lips. Prof. Helmholtz does not say above what
produces the alternate pressure, and I can conceive no
source for it but a periodic vibration of the lips of a
time suited to the particular note required. (Helm-
holtz, p. 97)
With regard to how vibration frequencies are altered in the
air column when we play, Blaikley adds:
The lips… do not vibrate throughout their whole
length, but only through a certain length determined
by the diameter of the cup of the mouthpiece. Prob-
ably also the vibrating length can be modified by the
mere pinch, at least this is the sensation I experience
when sounding high notes on a large mouthpiece.
(Helmholtz, p. 97.)
This line of inquiry was later taken up by Hayward Hender-
son and discussed in his article, “An Experimental Study of
Trumpet Embouchure,” (JASA, Vol. 13, July, 1942). Hender-
son observed in his study done in the 1940s:
Good trumpet players are constantly drawing the
lower lip inward… and, in effect, are “biting” on the
lips to force them tightly together. Using this method
part of the tension can be gotten by the strong biting
muscles, and, in addition, probably the lower lip is
supplied with stronger muscles than the upper. (Hen-
derson, p. 60)
With regard to applying pressure from the mouthpiece to
change the vibrating frequency, Henderson cautions:
Mouthpiece pressure is a substitute for muscular
tension, and undesirable when it takes over what
muscular tension should do… The ideal is not to use
no mouthpiece pressure, nor even a uniform pressure,
but a uniform, low rate of pressure change throughout
the trumpet range, changes being made continuously,
rather than in sudden jumps. The principal determi-
nant of pitch is the lip set, whether it be secured
chiefly through the aid of a small or large amount of
mouthpiece pressure. The lip set determines the air
pressure necessary to force the lip into vibration, and
this, in turn, determines the mouthpiece pressure to
be used, the amount used always being slightly more
than that needed to keep air from escaping around
© 2009 International Trumpet Guild
 the edges of the mouthpiece. (Henderson, p. 64)
Arthur Benade describes many aspects of the operation of
brass instruments in his 1976 textbook, Fundamentals of Musi-
cal Acoustics (Second, Revised Edition, Dover, 1990). But he
gives a more concise analysis of the interaction of the lips, and
the horn and the maintenance of standing waves is presented
in an earlier article entitled “The Physics of Brasses” (Scientific reed oscillator:
American, July 1973). He also outlines some of the problems
addressed by the then-current state of research based on mod-
els of the lip-reed as a pressure-controlled valve:
In a brass musical instrument the small end of the
horn is connected to the player through his lips,
which constitute a kind of automatically controlled
valve for admitting air from the player’s lungs to the
horn. The opening and closing of the valve is con-
trolled chiefly by the pressure fluctuations within the
mouthpiece as they act in concert with the steady
pressure from the lungs. (Benade, p. 26)
And,
As the player blows harder and harder, the flow
increases both because of the increased pressure across
the aperture formed by his lips and because his lips
are forced farther apart by the rising pressure inside
his mouth. Equally important is the variation
imposed on the flow by pressure variations inside the
mouthpiece, which tend to increase or decrease the
flow by their own ability to affect the size of the lip
aperture. It is this pressure-operated flow control by
the lips under the influence of the mouthpiece that
ultimately leads to the possibility of oscillation.
(Benade, p. 29)
He also addressed the contradictions between Helmholtz
and Blaikley mentioned above concerning the influence of the
lips on the air column and vice versa:
It is not in fact difficult to deal with the problem of
how the player selects one note or another. His lips
are so massive compared with the mass of the air in
his instrument that the influence of the air column on
the lips is relatively small. The player adjusts the ten-
sion of his lips in such a way that their natural ten-
dency of vibration favors oscillation at the desired
note, so that the air column and lips collaborate in
producing the desired frequency. (Benade, p. 29)
Within the past thirty years various researchers have worked
to develop theoretical models that accurately describe the
actions of the lips when we
play. Most begin where “…various researchers have worked to devel- passageway between
Helmholtz left off and are
aimed at the scientific com- op theoretical models that accurately drives the mucosal
munity rather than at prac- describe the actions of the lips when we play.” wave, which in turn
tical applications for the
performer. Still, they can provide some measure of insight that
allows us to come to an objective understanding of how we
play. Among these are the analyses of pressure-controlled
valves, excitation mechanisms in brass instruments, harmonic
generation in horns, and the relationship between air pres-
sure/air flow and sound production. More recent studies have
focused on the acoustical behavior of brass players’ lips in the
attempt to develop an accurate model of their operation. Some
of these have made use of stroboscopic studies of the lips sim-
ilar to those performed by Hayward Henderson and Daniel
© 2009 International Trumpet Guild
Martin in the 1940s.
Henderson’s observations led him to suggest that “there is a
difference in function of the two lips… the upper lip does the
vibrating… and the lower controls the frequency.” (Hender-
son, p. 58) His assumption was that the limited motion
observed for the lower lip serves to create the effect of single-
The lower lip, not being an entirely fixed body, is
forced into a limited vibration, which may also con-
tribute to the tone quality, but its main functions are
to provide something against which the upper lip can
vibrate and to control its vibration rate. (Henderson,
p. 59)
And,
The control of pitch by the lower lip, then, is
accomplished in the following manner: In the first
place, it increases the frequency by squeezing against
the upper lip, the resistance of the upper lip to this
action increasing its stiffness and, hence, the pitch is
raised in much the same way in which it is raised in a
reed or string. In the second place, the lower lip
increases frequency by restricting the vibratory move-
ment more and more to the part of the lip closest to
the opening between the lips, the frequency rising as
the vibrating mass decreases. (Henderson, p. 60)
Henderson concludes by saying, “Finally, contrary to the
generally accepted belief, the upper lip is the primary origina-
tor of tone, its vibration rate depending upon its degree of
stiffness and the mass which is allowed to vibrate, these two
factors being controlled chiefly by the lower lip’s ‘biting’ and
squeezing against it.” (Henderson, p. 64)
There are several theoretical models that have been explored
by physicists in an attempt to understand the motion of the
lips. Most approaches lean toward a description of the action
of lips as an outward striking and/or upward striking spring-
loaded mass. In addition, the motion of the upper lip is
described as operating in a fashion akin to a sliding door. The
motion of the lips, however, is extremely complicated due to
its interaction with the forces produced in the horn. In a cri-
tique of contemporary approaches to modeling the lip-reed
entitled “Basic Tests for Models of the Lip Reed,” R. Dean
Ayers describes the complexity of this motion:
Stroboscopic observations reveal a wave distur-
bance in the mucosa of the upper lip, much like that
on the surface of water but turned upside down.
Within the narrow
the lips, the air stream
acts as a valve for the
volume velocity injected into the mouthpiece.
(http://www.csulb.edu/~rdayers/Lip_R e e d _
Models_Research_Abstract/Lip_Reed_
Models_Research_Abstract.htm, 1997)
And,
Stroboscopic examination of the upper lip reveals a
heavily damped, strongly driven wave disturbance
with two antinodal regions in the narrow air channel
between the lips. The motion of each particle is
orbital… The ultimate model will probably have
March 2009 / ITG Journal 35
 much in common with that for the mucosal wave on
the vocal folds. (Ayers, 1997)
In observation we typically anticipate that the motion will
consist of some type of synchronous outward or upward flap-
ping of the lips. But this is not the case, as we see that the pre- explain these principles all lead to the same goals—good tone,
dominant motion includes that of two “quasi-sinusoidal”
waves that propagate in opposite directions, from right to left
and from left to right, through the tissues of the upper lip.
These two waves start at the boundary created by the circum-
ference of the mouthpiece and move along the surface of the
upper lip until they collide and the motion is cancelled. Due
to the complexity of this motion, there remains much more to
be understood about the operation of the lips when we play
before an accurate theoretical model can be developed.
Currently, what we do know about the action of the lips is
that, when set in motion by the force of air from the lungs,
they exhibit all of the characteristics of self-sustaining, pres-
sure-driven oscillators that are capable of a wide range of quasi-
musical sounds. These sounds are controlled chiefly by the
muscles of the lips and the pressure generated in the lungs. In
practice they are associated with buzzing the lips alone or into
a mouthpiece. When the kinetic energy of an air-column in a
horn is excited by the periodic mechanical input of air, it can
be induced to vibrate in a manner such that the energy pro-
duced by the acoustical coupling is many times greater than
the initial input. The primary qualification is that the frequen-
cy of the mechanical input matches one of the frequencies of
the length of tubing that comprises the horn. The energy pro-
duced in the horn will then overtake and dominate the out-
ward- and upward-striking motions of the lips, provided the
pressure from the lungs remains above a certain inertial bound-
ary. This has the effect of creating a periodic opening and clos-
ing of the lips that admits small puffs of air into the mouth-
piece and instrument.
Thus tone production is not determined by the flow of air
past the lips; rather it is the elastic stretching and recoil of the
lip tissues in response to steady pressure created in the lungs,
and the alternating pressure in the horn, that produces the
tone. Through their motion, the lips govern the acoustical
shape and frequency of each puff of air that is admitted into
the mouthpiece. In conjunction with the unique acoustical
characteristics of the horn, the lips also determine the quality
and amplitude of the tone being produced. When the lips and
mouthpiece are properly coupled to the horn they are capable
of producing truly musical sounds provided certain conditions
are met.
Conclusion
There are obviously many factors involved in producing
musical sounds in brass instruments. Though there are unique
approaches to understanding these factors, most are based on
subjective interpretations.
Between the subjective
analysis of what happens “Between the subjective analysis of what happens allow for the desired
when we play and the sci- when we play and the scientific analysis of what changes in frequency
entific analysis of what hap-
pens when we play lies an happens when we play lies an objective reality to make music on
objective reality that can be that can be applied to teaching and performance.” trumpets and other
applied to teaching and
performance. Objective an-
alysis of brass instrument performance would suggest that
there must be basic principles underlying sound production
36 ITG Journal / March 2009
that are shared by all performers. Still, there appears to be a
very large gap between acoustical theory and musical perform-
ance. It is the challenge of thoughtful students, teachers, and
performers to understand how the many approaches used to
good range, and good articulation. The ultimate goal is to
achieve greater control of the process of music making by lib-
erating our bodies and minds and allowing our musical imag-
inations to soar freely when we play.
References
J.B. Arban. Complete Conservatory Method for Trumpet. Edited
by Edwin Franko Goldman and Walter M. Smith. Anno-
tated by Claude Gordon. Carl Fischer, Inc., 1982.
R. Dean Ayers. “Basic Tests for Models of the Lip Reed.”
http://www.csulb.edu/~rdayers/Lip_Reed_Models_
Research_Abstract/Lip_Reed_Models_Research_Abstract
.htm,1997.
Arthur Benade. “The Physics of Brasses,” Scientific American,
(July 1973)
___. Benade, Fundamentals of Musical Acoustics (Second,
Revised Edition), Dover, 1990
Carmine Caruso. Musical Calisthenics for Brass. Almo Publica-
tions, 1979.
Claude Gordon. Systematic Approach to Daily Practice for
Trumpet. Carl Fischer, Inc., 1968.
Hermann Helmholtz. On the Sensations of Tone as a Physiolog-
ical Basis for the Theory of Music. Dover Publications,
1984.
Hayward W. Henderson. “An Experimental Study of Trumpet
Embouchure,” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America,
Volume 13, July, 1942.
Walter M. Smith. Lip Flexibility on the Cornet or Trumpet:
Forty-One Studies for Embouchure Development. Carl Fis-
cher, Inc., 1935.
James Stamp. Warm-Ups & Studies. Editions BIM, 1978.
Appendix: A Speculative Attempt
at Practical Applications of Theory
I feel strongly that “proper” embouchure is achieved by bal-
ancing the forces of the facial muscles as we align our lips to
the contours of the mouthpiece. Once the proper balance is
achieved, then the change in tension of relatively few muscles
can produce the desired changes in frequency that are required
to make music. Some facial muscles act largely on the tissues
of the upper lip while others act largely on the tissues of the
lower lip. It can been seen that some types of contraction of the
muscles of the lower part of the face will produce changes in
density of the tissues of the lips at the same time as they pro-
duce changes in stiffness. Other muscles will produce changes
in elasticity as they produce changes in mass. As a result, their
motions often cancel out any desired changes in frequency. But
there are several com-
binations that will
that are necessary
brass instruments
(for a better picture of how the muscles of the face interact to
vary the tension of the lips visit the following web site:
© 2009 International Trumpet Guild
http://face-and-emotion.com/dataface/expression/
muscles.jsp).
The model of the lip-reed currently preferred by many
researchers in the field of musical acoustics is that of a “sliding
door” spring-mass system. However, a double-reed model,
whether outward striking or upward striking, presents several
problems in practical application. In the case of a double-reed
model, one would have to establish a harmonic relationship
between the vibration frequency of the lower lip and the upper
lip in order to achieve a freely-blown oscillation, unassisted by
the mouthpiece or horn. This means that every time one
changes frequency the resonance would have to be maintained
by adjusting the tension of both lip-reeds. Both lips would
have to be tuned to each other as well as the horn, and as there
are several muscle groups in the lower face working in concert
when we play, this can produce an inordinate amount of
movement in the position and alignment of the lips. In practi-
cal applications we strive to keep movement to a minimum.
Like Henderson and Ayers, I feel strongly that the function
and motion of the upper lip is different from that of the lower
lip. When operating independently of the air column present-
ed by the horn, the lips function much like a single-reed oscil-
lator as described by Henderson with the exception being that
it is the upper lip that remains in a relatively fixed position
while the lower lip needs be free to change in varying degrees
of mass and stiffness in order to effect changes in frequency. It
then makes intuitive sense if we perceive the lower lip as out-
ward striking and the upper lip as essentially motionless dur-
ing startup.
During self-sustained oscillation the motion of the upper lip
dominates sound production while the motion of the lower lip
is highly dampened and only dominates during changes of fre-
quency. In the split second in which a valve is depressed or
when performing a lip-slur, the motion of the upper lip stops
as we pass through frequencies that don’t resonate with the
length of the horn. It takes a noticeable amount of muscular
energy, whether provided by the lips, lungs or arms, to over-
come that inertia of the periodic vibrations of air column at a
frequency associated with a maximum impedance of the air
column. However, the lower lip can vibrate with sufficient
energy to overcome the inertia of the oscillating system at fre-
quencies close to the harmonic frequencies of the horn.
I suspect that the “wave-like motion” of the upper lip is a
consequence of the acoustical energy produced by the opening
and closing of the lips when freely blown, or when coupled to
the mouthpiece or horn. When the motion of this wave
through the tissues of the upper lip is in phase with vibrations
of the lower lip, it creates a periodic upward-striking motion
coupled to the outward–striking motion of the lower lip. It is
this secondary acoustical opening of the upper lip that the
horn “sees” when it is coupled with its natural frequencies to
the vibration of the lips. I also suspect that the horn “feels” the
outward-striking motion of the lower lip only at startup or
when changing frequency, but at steady tone the horn only
“sees” the upward-striking, wave-like motion; and then only
when it is in proper phase. Thus, the upper lip in its motion
reflects both the wavelength of the frequency selected by the
lower lip as well as the periodic pressure fluctuations at the fre-
quency of the selected harmonic oscillations of the horn.
Based on the observations of Ayers, the upper lip is moving
in what appears to be a “quasi-sinusoidal” upward-striking
© 2009 International Trumpet Guild
fashion. If we treat this motion entirely as a wave moving
through the tissues of the upper lip rather than as a spring-
loaded mass system, we could then use the formula for fre-
quency that is described by the ratio of the speed of propaga-
tion of the wave to its wave length. Then the concepts of den-
sity and elasticity come intuitively into play when we attempt
to identify the variables that go into making musical sounds on
the trumpet.
The maximum wavelength can be achieved when the lips are
allowed to vibrate freely at their lowest frequencies, meaning at
their maximum elasticity and minimum stiffness. However,
the diameters of the mouthpieces of various instruments—
tuba, trombone, trumpet, and French horn—as well as varia-
tions in diameters of mouthpieces for particular instruments
serves to limit the functional wavelengths that are allowed.
Thus tubas and trombones operate at longer lip-wavelengths
than do trumpets and French horns. If the speed of propaga-
tion and the frequency of the vibration are such as to produce
wavelengths that are greater than the radius of the inner diam-
eter of the mouthpiece the rim of the mouthpiece will interfere
with or cancel completely the motion of the wave along the
upper lip.
There are two solutions to this problem: one is to increase
the frequency of the vibration, and the other is to reduce the
speed of propagation of the wave so that the wave propagated
on the tissues of the lip is smaller than or equal to the radius
of the mouthpiece. There are several types of actions that can
be taken to accomplish these ends, some of which work better
than others as the length of these waves is governed by the den-
sity and elasticity of the tissues of the upper lip; i.e., the medi-
um through which the waves are moving. The greater the elas-
ticity of the lip tissues, or the smaller their coefficient of den-
sity, the greater its speed of propagation, and consequently the
longer is the wavelength. Conversely, the smaller the coeffi-
cient of elasticity, or the greater the density of the lip tissues,
the slower is its speed of propagation, and the shorter its wave-
length. Provided, of course, that the frequency, in each case
remains fixed.
About the author: Eric Wright began playing the trumpet in
the sixth grade. While in high school he had the opportunity
to study with Mario Guarneri and Roy Poper who introduced
him to the teachings of James Stamp. He attended college at
UCLA (B.A., Music, 1979) and later pursued a Master’s degree
at Rutgers University (M.M., Performance, 1992) where he
studied with William Fielder. He has also studied with Uan
Rasey, Robert Divall, Everett Turner, and Sidney Lazar.
From 1990 to 2003 he actively pursued a career as a free-
lance musician in Los Angeles, CA, performing in a variety of
musical settings from jazz to salsa to classical. He has per-
formed and toured with artists such as Ricardo Lemvo, Teddy
Edwards, Chris Calloway, Bobby Caldwell, Tito Nieves, John-
ny Pacheco, and the L.A. Opera. It was during this time that
he began to explore the physics of brass playing in an attempt
to better understand the mysterious art of trumpet playing. He
currently resides in Deltona, Florida, where he teaches trum-
pet at Bethune-Cookman University. He continues to perform
as a freelance musician in central Florida as he develops prac-
tical applications from his research in musical acoustics and
respiration physiology.
March 2009 / ITG Journal 37