Fathom 2 Help

© 2007 KCP Technologies

Fathom 2 Help

Table of Contents
Foreword 0
15
Part I Fathom 2 Help
1 Credits and ...................................................................................................................................
Acknowledgements 15

18
Part II What's New in Fathom 2?
23
Part III Getting Started
1 Getting Data................................................................................................................................... 24
Open a Fathom ..........................................................................................................................................................
Sample Document 24
Enter Data from
..........................................................................................................................................................
Scratch 25
Copy and Paste..........................................................................................................................................................
Data from Another Program 26
Have Fathom ..........................................................................................................................................................
Randomly Generate Data 27
Import Census ..........................................................................................................................................................
Microdata 30
2 Beginner Graphing
................................................................................................................................... 31
3 Undo and Redo
................................................................................................................................... 32

33
Part IV How To’s
1 Work with Graphs
................................................................................................................................... 33
Replace an Attribute
..........................................................................................................................................................
on a Graph with Another Attribute 35
Add Another Attribute
..........................................................................................................................................................
to an Already Occupied Axis 35
Add an Attribute
..........................................................................................................................................................
to the Middle of a Graph 36
Remove Attributes
..........................................................................................................................................................
from a Graph 37
Select Data in..........................................................................................................................................................
a Graph 37
Drag Data in a..........................................................................................................................................................
Graph 39
Change Axis Scales
.......................................................................................................................................................... 40
Change Axes.........................................................................................................................................................
by Dragging 40
Change Axes.........................................................................................................................................................
Numerically 41
Zoom In or .........................................................................................................................................................
Out in a Graph 41
Rearrange.........................................................................................................................................................
Categories on an Axis 42
Reverse a.........................................................................................................................................................
Graph’s Axis Scale 42
Dynamically Link
..........................................................................................................................................................
Axes to Each Other 43
Prevent Graph ..........................................................................................................................................................
Axes from Automatically Rescaling 45
Change Bin Width
.......................................................................................................................................................... 46
Change Bin .........................................................................................................................................................
Width by Dragging 46
Change Bin .........................................................................................................................................................
Width Numerically 47
Add Lines and..........................................................................................................................................................
Functions to Graphs 48
Add a Movable
.........................................................................................................................................................
Line to a Graph 48
Plot a Line.........................................................................................................................................................
at a Given Value on a Graph 49
Show Measures
.........................................................................................................................................................
of Spread in a Graph 51
Plot a Distribution
.........................................................................................................................................................
Over a Histogram 52
Add Fitted.........................................................................................................................................................
Lines to a Graph 53
Plot a Function
.........................................................................................................................................................
on a Graph 53
Plot Functions
.........................................................................................................................................................
on a Function Plot 54
Plot a Function
.........................................................................................................................................................
You Can Vary Dynamically (Using a Slider) 55
Trace on .........................................................................................................................................................
a Function or Fitted Line 56
Edit a Plotted
.........................................................................................................................................................
Function 56

2
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Copy Functions
.........................................................................................................................................................
from One Graph to Another 57
Remove a.........................................................................................................................................................
Function from a Graph 57
Show Squares
......................................................................................................................................................... 57
Make a Residual
.........................................................................................................................................................
Plot 58
Plot Values
.........................................................................................................................................................
or Functions with Units 59
Add Grid Lines ..........................................................................................................................................................
to Graph 60
Add Error Bars ..........................................................................................................................................................
to Scatter Plots 60
Filter a Graph.......................................................................................................................................................... 61
Sort Data in a..........................................................................................................................................................
Graph 61
Work with Graph..........................................................................................................................................................
Backgrounds 62
Change the Size..........................................................................................................................................................
of Data Points 63
Change Bar Charts
..........................................................................................................................................................
to Reflect a Function Other Than Count 64
Format Values ..........................................................................................................................................................
displayed in Graph Equations 65
2 Work with Case
...................................................................................................................................
Tables 65
Make a New Case..........................................................................................................................................................
Table 66
Add Cases in ..........................................................................................................................................................
a Case Table 67
Add Attributes..........................................................................................................................................................
in a Case Table 68
Rename an Attribute
..........................................................................................................................................................
in a Case Table 69
Delete Attributes
..........................................................................................................................................................
from a Case Table 69
Add Attributes..........................................................................................................................................................
by Pasting from Somewhere Else 69
Add Attributes..........................................................................................................................................................
from Another Case Table Using Table Join 70
Select Attributes
..........................................................................................................................................................
in a Case Table 71
Select Cases ..........................................................................................................................................................
in a Case Table 72
Work with Formulas
..........................................................................................................................................................
in a Case Table 72
Show/Hide .........................................................................................................................................................
a Case Table’s Formula Row 72
Define an.........................................................................................................................................................
Attribute by Formula When the Formula Row Is Hidden 73
Vertically .........................................................................................................................................................
Resize the Formula Row 73
Adjust Column ..........................................................................................................................................................
Width 74
Sort Data in a..........................................................................................................................................................
Case Table 74
Rearrange Attributes
..........................................................................................................................................................
in a Case Table 74
Hide/Show Attributes
.......................................................................................................................................................... 75
Change the Way ..........................................................................................................................................................
Numbers Are Displayed in a Case Table 75
Manage Units..........................................................................................................................................................
in a Case Table 77
Entering Values
.........................................................................................................................................................
with Units 77
Apply a Unit
.........................................................................................................................................................
Using the Units Row 78
Convert Values
.........................................................................................................................................................
to a Compatible Unit 79
Changing.........................................................................................................................................................
an Attribute Unit Without Converting (Correcting Mistakes) 79
3 Work with Collections
................................................................................................................................... 79
Get Data into ..........................................................................................................................................................
Fathom 80
Paste Data.........................................................................................................................................................
into a Collection 81
Import Data
.........................................................................................................................................................
from a Text File 81
Import U.S.
.........................................................................................................................................................
Census Microdata from IPUMS 82
Change Number.........................................................................................................................................
of Cases Imported from IPUMS 84
Import More Attributes .........................................................................................................................................
from IPUMS 84
Import Households .........................................................................................................................................
from IPUMS 86
Import Specific Geographical
.........................................................................................................................................
Areas from IPUMS 87
Import Historical.........................................................................................................................................
Data from IPUMS 87
Import Data
.........................................................................................................................................................
from the Internet 88
Rename a Collection
.......................................................................................................................................................... 89
Show a Collection’s
..........................................................................................................................................................
Inspector 90
Add an Attribute
..........................................................................................................................................................
to a Collection 91
Add Cases to ..........................................................................................................................................................
a Collection 91
Manage Units..........................................................................................................................................................
in the Collection’s Inspector 92

3
Fathom 2 Help

Define an Attribute
..........................................................................................................................................................
by Formula Using the Collection’s Inspector 93
Generate Random..........................................................................................................................................................
Values 94
Clear a Formula..........................................................................................................................................................
for an Attribute 95
Copy and Paste ..........................................................................................................................................................
an Attribute’s Formula 95
Rename an Attribute
..........................................................................................................................................................
in a Collection’s Inspector 95
Delete Cases .......................................................................................................................................................... 96
Delete an Attribute
..........................................................................................................................................................
in an Inspector 96
Restrict the Cases
..........................................................................................................................................................
You See by Filtering Data 96
Add a Filter
......................................................................................................................................................... 97
Remove a.........................................................................................................................................................
Filter 97
Force a Numeric..........................................................................................................................................................
Attribute to Be Treated Categorically 98
Force a Categorical
..........................................................................................................................................................
Attribute to Be Treated as Numeric 98
Control Behavior
..........................................................................................................................................................
of Categorical Attributes Using Category Sets 99
Create a New
.........................................................................................................................................................
Category Set and Apply It to an Attribute 99
Create a.........................................................................................................................................................
Category Set from Existing Values 100
Reorder .........................................................................................................................................................
Categories in a Category Set 101
Force Nonexistent
.........................................................................................................................................................
Values to Appear in Display Objects 101
Permanently
.........................................................................................................................................................
Force a Numeric Attribute to Be Categorical 102
Remove.........................................................................................................................................................
a Category Set from an Attribute 103
Delete a.........................................................................................................................................................
Category Set 103
Copy a Collection
.......................................................................................................................................................... 103
Merge Two Collections
.......................................................................................................................................................... 104
Copy Cases
.........................................................................................................................................................
from One Collection to Another 104
Prevent Data..........................................................................................................................................................
from Being Changed in Graphs 104
Define a Measure
.......................................................................................................................................................... 105
Restructure ..........................................................................................................................................................
Data-Stack Attributes 105
Export Data ..........................................................................................................................................................
to Other Programs 106
Change the Appearance
..........................................................................................................................................................
of Cases in a Collection 106
4 Work with Summary
...................................................................................................................................
Tables 108
Make a New ..........................................................................................................................................................
Summary Table 108
Add or Remove
..........................................................................................................................................................
a Summary Table’s Attributes 110
Add or Remove
..........................................................................................................................................................
a Summary Table’s Formulas 111
Case Selection
..........................................................................................................................................................
in Summary Tables 111
Use a Summary
..........................................................................................................................................................
Table Without Attributes 112
Sort Categories
..........................................................................................................................................................
in a Summary Table 112
Format Values
..........................................................................................................................................................
in a Summary Table 113
5 Work with Dynamic
...................................................................................................................................
Parameters (Sliders) 113
Change a Slider’s
..........................................................................................................................................................
Scale 114
Animate a Slider
.......................................................................................................................................................... 115
Change a Slider’s
..........................................................................................................................................................
Animation Speed 115
Restrict the Values
..........................................................................................................................................................
a Slider Can Take 116
Limit the Space
..........................................................................................................................................................
Used by Sliders 116
Define a Slider
..........................................................................................................................................................
by Formula 117
Create and Use
..........................................................................................................................................................
Sliders Whose Values Have Units 117
Use a Slider ..........................................................................................................................................................
to Compute Things Based on a Collection 118
Make a Slider..........................................................................................................................................................
Do a Random Walk 119
Make a Non-numeric
..........................................................................................................................................................
Slider and Use It in a Filter 119
Use a Slider ..........................................................................................................................................................
to Create Experiments 120
6 Work with Formulas
................................................................................................................................... 120
Write a Filter.......................................................................................................................................................... 121
Enter a Formula
..........................................................................................................................................................
for an Attribute 121
Work with the ..........................................................................................................................................................
Formula Editor 122
Open the.........................................................................................................................................................
Formula Editor 123

4
 Contents

Anatomy.........................................................................................................................................................
of the Formula Editor 125
Use the .........................................................................................................................................................
Keyboard in the Formula Editor 126
Color-Coding
.........................................................................................................................................................
in Formulas 127
Use the .........................................................................................................................................................
Keypad 128
Use the .........................................................................................................................................................
Attribute and Function List 128
Adjust the
.........................................................................................................................................................
Formula Editor Panes 128
Move the.........................................................................................................................................................
Cursor and Select a Portion of an Expression 129
The Effect of Selection
......................................................................................................................................... 129
Make Exponents
......................................................................................................................................................... 129
Make Boolean
.........................................................................................................................................................
Expressions 130
Express .........................................................................................................................................................
a Condition with an If-Statement 130
Compute.........................................................................................................................................................
a Running Sum 131
Recode .........................................................................................................................................................
with a Switch Statement 131
Recode .........................................................................................................................................................
Numeric Values to Categories 132
Recode .........................................................................................................................................................
Ranges of Numeric Values to Categories 134
Use Units.........................................................................................................................................................
in Formulas 134
Frequently Asked
..........................................................................................................................................................
Questions About Formulas 135
7 Work with Surveys
................................................................................................................................... 136
Limitations and
..........................................................................................................................................................
Cautions 137
Use Fathom ..........................................................................................................................................................
Surveys 137
Create a.........................................................................................................................................................
Survey 138
Create Survey .........................................................................................................................................
Instructions 139
Add Multiple-Choice .........................................................................................................................................
Answers 139
Upload a.........................................................................................................................................................
Survey to the Website 140
Make Changes.........................................................................................................................................
to a Survey Form 140
Publish a Survey .........................................................................................................................................
(Allow Students to Take Survey) 141
Publish Survey.........................................................................................................................................
Results (Allow Students to See Survey Results) 142
Upload an Existing .........................................................................................................................................
Fathom Document as a Survey 142
Customize a Survey ......................................................................................................................................... 142
Get a Survey
.........................................................................................................................................................
Filled Out 143
Approve.........................................................................................................................................................
Surveys Created by a Student 143
View and.........................................................................................................................................................
Download the Results 144
Replace Survey.........................................................................................................................................
Data on the Website 144
Delete Survey Results ......................................................................................................................................... 145
Duplicate .........................................................................................................................................................
a Survey 145
Delete a.........................................................................................................................................................
Survey 145
Sort Surveys
......................................................................................................................................................... 145
Search Surveys
......................................................................................................................................................... 146
Install Fathom
.........................................................................................................................................................
Surveys on Additional Computers 146
Manage User..........................................................................................................................................................
Accounts 146
Explanation
.........................................................................................................................................................
of User Roles 147
Log In to.........................................................................................................................................................
Your Fathom Surveys Account 148
Add Instructor
.........................................................................................................................................................
Users 148
Add Student
.........................................................................................................................................................
Users 148
Allow a Student
.........................................................................................................................................................
to Upload Surveys 149
Update User
.........................................................................................................................................................
Information 150
Change .........................................................................................................................................................
Administrators 151
8 Create Experiments
................................................................................................................................... 151
Work with Meters
.......................................................................................................................................................... 151
Make a New
.........................................................................................................................................................
Meter 152
Collect Values
.........................................................................................................................................................
from a Meter 153
Connect Sensors
.......................................................................................................................................................... 153
Set Up an Experiment
.......................................................................................................................................................... 154

5
Fathom 2 Help

Add Attributes
.........................................................................................................................................................
to an Experiment 155
9 Create Simulations
................................................................................................................................... 156
Sampling Simulations
.......................................................................................................................................................... 157
Take a Sample
......................................................................................................................................................... 157
Change .........................................................................................................................................................
the Number of Cases Sampled 158
Collect Another
.........................................................................................................................................................
Sample 158
Collect Measures
..........................................................................................................................................................
and Other Results 159
Define a.........................................................................................................................................................
Measure 159
Make a Measures
.........................................................................................................................................................
Collection 160
Collect More
.........................................................................................................................................................
Measures 160
Create a.........................................................................................................................................................
Collection from the Cells of a Summary Table 161
Collect Results
.........................................................................................................................................................
from Statistical Objects 161
Use Scrambling
..........................................................................................................................................................
to Test for Independence 162
Make a Scrambled
.........................................................................................................................................................
Collection 162
Simulation Examples
.......................................................................................................................................................... 163
Probability
.........................................................................................................................................................
of a Pair 163
Generate.........................................................................................................................................................
a Sampling Distribution 164
Make a Coin-Flip
.........................................................................................................................................................
Simulation 166
Simulate.........................................................................................................................................................
Brownian Motion 168
Test for .........................................................................................................................................................
a Difference in Medians Between Two Groups 170
10 Work with Statistical
...................................................................................................................................
Objects 171
Use Raw Data ..........................................................................................................................................................
in Statistical Inference Objects 172
Enter Summary..........................................................................................................................................................
Statistics in Statistical Inference Objects 172
Shorten the ..........................................................................................................................................................
Output in Statistical Inference Objects 173
Use Sliders to
..........................................................................................................................................................
Vary Summary Information in a Statistical Object 173
Estimate Parameters
..........................................................................................................................................................
and Compute Confidence Intervals 174
Estimate.........................................................................................................................................................
the Population Mean from Raw Data 175
Estimate.........................................................................................................................................................
the Population Mean from Summary Statistics 176
Estimate.........................................................................................................................................................
Difference of Means from Raw Data 176
Estimate.........................................................................................................................................................
Difference of Means from Summary Statistics 178
Estimate.........................................................................................................................................................
the Population Proportion from Raw Data 178
Estimate.........................................................................................................................................................
the Population Proportion from Summary Data 179
Estimate.........................................................................................................................................................
Difference of Proportions from Raw Data 179
Estimate.........................................................................................................................................................
Difference of Proportions from Summary Statistics 182
Test Hypotheses
.......................................................................................................................................................... 183
Using Hypothesis
.........................................................................................................................................................
Test Objects 184
Test Mean.........................................................................................................................................................
from Raw Data (t-Test) 184
Test Mean.........................................................................................................................................................
from Summary Statistics 185
Compare.........................................................................................................................................................
Means from Raw Data (Two-Sample t-Test) 186
Compare.........................................................................................................................................................
Means from Summary Statistics 187
Compare.........................................................................................................................................................
Means When the Values Are Paired (A Paired t-Test) 188
Analysis.........................................................................................................................................................
of Variance 188
Test Proportion
.........................................................................................................................................................
from Summary Data 189
Test Proportion
.........................................................................................................................................................
Against a Value from Raw Data 190
Compare.........................................................................................................................................................
Proportions from Raw Data 191
Compare.........................................................................................................................................................
Proportions from Summary Data 193
Goodness .........................................................................................................................................................
of Fit (Chi-Square) Test from Raw Data 195
Goodness .........................................................................................................................................................
of Fit (Chi-Square Test) from Summary Data: Equal Probabilities 196
Goodness of Fit (Chi-Square Test) from Summary Data: Unequal
Probabilities
......................................................................................................................................................... 198
Test for .........................................................................................................................................................
Independence from Raw Data 199
Test for .........................................................................................................................................................
Independence from Summary Data 200
Test Slope
......................................................................................................................................................... 201
Test Correlation
......................................................................................................................................................... 202

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Build a Linear
..........................................................................................................................................................
Model 202
Simple Linear
.........................................................................................................................................................
Regression 203
Multiple .........................................................................................................................................................
Regression 203
Building the Model ......................................................................................................................................... 204
Interpreting the.........................................................................................................................................
Model 206
Adding, Removing, and Moving Predictor Attributes: The Goal of Model
Building ......................................................................................................................................... 207
Changing Multiple .........................................................................................................................................
Regression Output 208
Plotting Predicted .........................................................................................................................................
Values and Residuals 208
Polynomial Regression......................................................................................................................................... 209
Collect Measures
..........................................................................................................................................................
from a Test or Estimate 210
11 Share Your...................................................................................................................................
Results: Presenting and Printing Fathom Results 211
General Techniques
..........................................................................................................................................................
and Ideas 211
Add Comments
.........................................................................................................................................................
to a Collection 212
Work with.........................................................................................................................................................
Text in Text Objects 213
Format Text
.........................................................................................................................................................
in Text Objects 213
Paste Pictures
......................................................................................................................................................... 213
Share Your Fathom
..........................................................................................................................................................
Documents 214
Present in Fathom
.......................................................................................................................................................... 214
Prepare to Print
..........................................................................................................................................................
a Fathom Document 214
Paste Pictures
..........................................................................................................................................................
of Fathom Objects into Another Program 215

215
Part V Movies
1 Graphs ................................................................................................................................... 215
2 Importing Data
................................................................................................................................... 217
3 Inspectors ................................................................................................................................... 218
4 Measures ................................................................................................................................... 219
5 Menus ................................................................................................................................... 219
6 Plotting ................................................................................................................................... 220
7 Summary Tables
................................................................................................................................... 223
8 Surveys ................................................................................................................................... 224
9 Using Formulas
................................................................................................................................... 225
10 Other ................................................................................................................................... 226

227
Part VI Tours
1 Exploring Data—Census
...................................................................................................................................
at Schools 228
2 Data and Prediction—Arm
...................................................................................................................................
Span 234
3 Importing US
...................................................................................................................................
Census Microdata 240
4 Using Formulas
...................................................................................................................................
to Explore the Planets 246
5 Generating...................................................................................................................................
Mathematics—Change Playground 251
6 Simulation—Polling
...................................................................................................................................
Voters 255
7 Testing a Hypothesis—Plant
...................................................................................................................................
Growth 259
8 Testing for...................................................................................................................................
Independence—Pets and Sports 264
9 Numerical Integration—The
...................................................................................................................................
Elevator Experiment 273
10 Classroom...................................................................................................................................
Survey 277
Making the Survey
.......................................................................................................................................................... 278

7
Fathom 2 Help

A First Look..........................................................................................................................................................
at the Survey 279
Modifying the
..........................................................................................................................................................
Survey 280
Taking the Survey
.......................................................................................................................................................... 281
Getting the Data
..........................................................................................................................................................
as the Survey Maker 281
Getting the Data
..........................................................................................................................................................
as a Survey Taker 282
11 Typing Tutor
...................................................................................................................................
Experiment 282
12 How Fast Do
...................................................................................................................................
You Walk?—Measuring Distance with Sensors 283
13 Cooling Water—Measure
...................................................................................................................................
Temperature Over Time 285
14 Timings with
...................................................................................................................................
Photogates 286

289
Part VII Sample Documents
1 Education ................................................................................................................................... 290
2 Fathom Techniques
................................................................................................................................... 291
3 Language and
...................................................................................................................................
the Arts 291
Text Passages
.......................................................................................................................................................... 292
4 Learning Guide
...................................................................................................................................
Starters 293
5 Mathematics
................................................................................................................................... 293
Algebra .......................................................................................................................................................... 294
Calculus .......................................................................................................................................................... 295
Geometry .......................................................................................................................................................... 296
Number Theory
.......................................................................................................................................................... 296
Other Mathematics
.......................................................................................................................................................... 297
Probability .......................................................................................................................................................... 297
6 Science ................................................................................................................................... 299
Astronomy .......................................................................................................................................................... 300
Biology .......................................................................................................................................................... 301
Chemistry and
..........................................................................................................................................................
Physics 301
Earth Sciences
.......................................................................................................................................................... 302
Technology .......................................................................................................................................................... 304
7 Social Science
................................................................................................................................... 304
Canada .......................................................................................................................................................... 304
Canadian.........................................................................................................................................................
Census Files 307
Europe .......................................................................................................................................................... 308
Latin America
.......................................................................................................................................................... 309
United States
.......................................................................................................................................................... 309
States ......................................................................................................................................................... 311
US Census
.........................................................................................................................................................
Files 312
World .......................................................................................................................................................... 313
8 Sports ................................................................................................................................... 314
9 Statistics ................................................................................................................................... 315
Correlation and
..........................................................................................................................................................
Regression 315
Descriptive .......................................................................................................................................................... 317
Distributions.......................................................................................................................................................... 317
Inference .......................................................................................................................................................... 319
Confidence
.........................................................................................................................................................
Intervals 319
Hypothesis
.........................................................................................................................................................
Testing 320
Independence ......................................................................................................................................... 321
Non-parametric.........................................................................................................................................
Tests 322
Modeling .......................................................................................................................................................... 322

8
 Contents

Sampling .......................................................................................................................................................... 323

10 Teaching Math
...................................................................................................................................
with Fathom 325
Algebra 1 .......................................................................................................................................................... 325
Algebra 2 .......................................................................................................................................................... 326
Precalc and ..........................................................................................................................................................
Calculus 326
Statistics .......................................................................................................................................................... 327
11 Walkthrough
...................................................................................................................................
Guide Starters 327

328
Part VIII An Overview of Fathom
1 Where Are ...................................................................................................................................
the Data? 328
2 Cases ................................................................................................................................... 329
3 Attributes ................................................................................................................................... 330
Tips for Naming
..........................................................................................................................................................
Attributes 330
Values .......................................................................................................................................................... 330
Numeric vs. ..........................................................................................................................................................
Categorical Attributes 330
Attributes with
..........................................................................................................................................................
Units 331
Attributes with
..........................................................................................................................................................
Category Sets 332
4 Measures ................................................................................................................................... 333
5 Objects and
...................................................................................................................................
Windows 333
6 Collections................................................................................................................................... 334
7 Case Tables
................................................................................................................................... 334
8 Graphs ................................................................................................................................... 335
9 Summary Tables
................................................................................................................................... 335
10 Inspectors ................................................................................................................................... 336
11 Formulas and
...................................................................................................................................
the Formula Editor 338
12 Sliders ................................................................................................................................... 339
13 Meters ................................................................................................................................... 340
14 Derived Collections
................................................................................................................................... 340
15 Statistical Objects
................................................................................................................................... 341
16 Documenting
...................................................................................................................................
Your Work with Text Objects and Pictures 342

342
Part IX Reference
1 Graphs Available
...................................................................................................................................
in Fathom 342
Graphs with..........................................................................................................................................................
Numeric Attributes on One Axis 343
Dot Plot ......................................................................................................................................................... 343
Line Plot......................................................................................................................................................... 344
Histogram......................................................................................................................................................... 345
Ntigram ......................................................................................................................................................... 345
Box Plot......................................................................................................................................................... 346
Percentile
.........................................................................................................................................................
Plot 346
Normal Quantile
.........................................................................................................................................................
Plot 347
Graphs with..........................................................................................................................................................
Categorical Attributes on One Axis 347
Bar Chart......................................................................................................................................................... 348
Ribbon Chart
......................................................................................................................................................... 349
Graphs with..........................................................................................................................................................
Categorical Attributes on Both Axes 350
Split Bar.........................................................................................................................................................
Chart 350

9
Fathom 2 Help

Breakdown
.........................................................................................................................................................
Plot 350
Graphs with..........................................................................................................................................................
Numeric Attributes on Both Axes 351
Scatter Plot
......................................................................................................................................................... 351
Line Scatter
.........................................................................................................................................................
Plot 352
Function.........................................................................................................................................................
Plot 352
2 Inspector Panels
................................................................................................................................... 353
Cases Panel.......................................................................................................................................................... 354
Measures Panel
.......................................................................................................................................................... 355
Comments Panel
.......................................................................................................................................................... 356
Display Panel
.......................................................................................................................................................... 356
Categories Panel
.......................................................................................................................................................... 357
Import URL Panel
.......................................................................................................................................................... 358
Microdata Panel
.......................................................................................................................................................... 358
Sample Panel.......................................................................................................................................................... 359
Collect Measures
..........................................................................................................................................................
Panel 360
Survey Panel.......................................................................................................................................................... 361
Experiment Panel
.......................................................................................................................................................... 362
Scramble Panel
.......................................................................................................................................................... 363
Stack Panel .......................................................................................................................................................... 363
Graph Properties
..........................................................................................................................................................
Panel 364
Graph Cases..........................................................................................................................................................
Panel 365
Slider Properties
..........................................................................................................................................................
Panel 365
Meter Properties
..........................................................................................................................................................
Panel 366
Multiple Regression
..........................................................................................................................................................
Cases Panel 366
3 Fathom Menus
................................................................................................................................... 367
File Menu .......................................................................................................................................................... 368
New ......................................................................................................................................................... 368
Open ......................................................................................................................................................... 368
Open Sample
.........................................................................................................................................................
Document 369
Close ......................................................................................................................................................... 369
Save ......................................................................................................................................................... 369
Save As......................................................................................................................................................... 369
Import ......................................................................................................................................................... 370
Import From File ......................................................................................................................................... 370
Import From URL ......................................................................................................................................... 370
Import U.S. Census .........................................................................................................................................
Data 371
Export Collection
......................................................................................................................................................... 371
Revert Collection
......................................................................................................................................................... 371
Show Page.........................................................................................................................................................
Breaks 372
Print Preview
.........................................................................................................................................................
(Win only) 372
Page Setup/Print
.........................................................................................................................................................
Setup 372
Print ......................................................................................................................................................... 372
Exit/Quit......................................................................................................................................................... 372
Edit Menu .......................................................................................................................................................... 372
Undo ......................................................................................................................................................... 373
Redo ......................................................................................................................................................... 373
Cut ......................................................................................................................................................... 374
Copy ......................................................................................................................................................... 374
Copy As.........................................................................................................................................................
Picture 374
Paste ......................................................................................................................................................... 374
Delete ......................................................................................................................................................... 375
Select All
......................................................................................................................................................... 375
Edit Formula
......................................................................................................................................................... 375

10
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Cut Formula
......................................................................................................................................................... 376
Copy Formula
......................................................................................................................................................... 376
Paste Formula
......................................................................................................................................................... 376
Clear Formula
......................................................................................................................................................... 376
Text Font......................................................................................................................................................... 376
Text Size......................................................................................................................................................... 376
Text Style
......................................................................................................................................................... 377
Show/Hide.........................................................................................................................................................
Text Palette 377
Preferences
......................................................................................................................................................... 377
Object Menu.......................................................................................................................................................... 378
New ......................................................................................................................................................... 378
Inspect [Object]
......................................................................................................................................................... 378
Duplicate.........................................................................................................................................................
[Object] 379
Delete [Object]
......................................................................................................................................................... 379
Add/Remove
.........................................................................................................................................................
Filter 379
Hide [Object]
......................................................................................................................................................... 380
Show Hidden
.........................................................................................................................................................
Object(s) 380
View In Window
......................................................................................................................................................... 380
Collection Menu
.......................................................................................................................................................... 380
Rerandomize/Sample
.........................................................................................................................................................
More Cases/Scramble Again/Collect More Measures 381
New Cases......................................................................................................................................................... 382
Prevent .........................................................................................................................................................
Changing Values in Graphs 382
Rename.........................................................................................................................................................
Collection 382
Sample .........................................................................................................................................................
Cases 382
Scramble .........................................................................................................................................................
Attribute Values 383
Collect Measures
......................................................................................................................................................... 383
Stack Attributes
......................................................................................................................................................... 384
Table Menu .......................................................................................................................................................... 385
New Attribute
......................................................................................................................................................... 385
Rename.........................................................................................................................................................
Attribute 385
Hide Attribute(s)
......................................................................................................................................................... 385
Show Hidden
.........................................................................................................................................................
Attributes 386
Format Attribute
......................................................................................................................................................... 386
Autofit Column
.........................................................................................................................................................
Widths 387
Show/Hide.........................................................................................................................................................
Units 388
Show/Hide.........................................................................................................................................................
Formulas 388
Sort Ascending
......................................................................................................................................................... 389
Sort Descending
......................................................................................................................................................... 389
Use As Caption
......................................................................................................................................................... 389
Graph Menu.......................................................................................................................................................... 390
Remove.........................................................................................................................................................
X Attribute: [AttributeName] 391
Remove.........................................................................................................................................................
Y Attribute: [AttributeName] 391
Remove.........................................................................................................................................................
Legend Attribute: [AttributeName] 391
Show/Hide.........................................................................................................................................................
Axis Links 391
Unlink [X/Y]
.........................................................................................................................................................
Axis 392
Rescale .........................................................................................................................................................
Graph Axes 392
Stack Dots
......................................................................................................................................................... 392
Scale ......................................................................................................................................................... 393
Least-Squares
.........................................................................................................................................................
Line 394
Median-Median
.........................................................................................................................................................
Line 394
What Is a Median-Median
.........................................................................................................................................
Line? 395
Add Movable
.........................................................................................................................................................
Line 395
Remove.........................................................................................................................................................
Movable Line 395
Show Squares
......................................................................................................................................................... 396

11
Fathom 2 Help

Make Residual
.........................................................................................................................................................
Plot 396
Lock Intercept
.........................................................................................................................................................
at Zero 397
Plot Value
......................................................................................................................................................... 397
Plot Function
......................................................................................................................................................... 398
Sort Bars......................................................................................................................................................... 399
Sort By Plotted
.........................................................................................................................................................
Value 399
Format Value
......................................................................................................................................................... 400
Slider Menu .......................................................................................................................................................... 400
Format Value
......................................................................................................................................................... 400
Summary Menu .......................................................................................................................................................... 400
Add Formula
......................................................................................................................................................... 401
Add Basic.........................................................................................................................................................
Statistics 402
Add Five-Number
.........................................................................................................................................................
Summary 402
Remove.........................................................................................................................................................
Attribute 404
Sort Categories
.........................................................................................................................................................
by Formula Value 404
Create Collection
.........................................................................................................................................................
From Cells 404
Format Value
......................................................................................................................................................... 405
Estimate Menu.......................................................................................................................................................... 405
Verbose......................................................................................................................................................... 405
Remove.........................................................................................................................................................
Attribute 406
Collect Results
.........................................................................................................................................................
As Measures 406
Test Menu .......................................................................................................................................................... 407
Verbose......................................................................................................................................................... 407
Remove.........................................................................................................................................................
Attribute 408
Collect Results
.........................................................................................................................................................
As Measures 408
Show Test.........................................................................................................................................................
Statistic Distribution/Show p_hat Distribution 409
Model Menu.......................................................................................................................................................... 409
Verbose......................................................................................................................................................... 410
Remove.........................................................................................................................................................
Attribute 410
Collect Results
.........................................................................................................................................................
As Measures 411
Hide/Show.........................................................................................................................................................
Sequential Contributions Chart 411
Hide/Show.........................................................................................................................................................
ANOVA Table 412
Show/Hide.........................................................................................................................................................
Predictors in ANOVA Table 412
Window Menu .......................................................................................................................................................... 413
Cascade.........................................................................................................................................................
(Win only) 413
[Documents]
......................................................................................................................................................... 413
Help Menu .......................................................................................................................................................... 413
Context (Right-Click)
..........................................................................................................................................................
Menus 413
4 Fathom Operators,
...................................................................................................................................
Functions, and Units 413
Operators .......................................................................................................................................................... 414
Arithmetic Functions
.......................................................................................................................................................... 415
Trigonometric..........................................................................................................................................................
Functions 416
Statistics Functions
.......................................................................................................................................................... 417
One Attribute
.........................................................................................................................................................
Statistics Functions 417
Transformations
......................................................................................................................................................... 419
Two Attributes
......................................................................................................................................................... 420
Random Functions
.......................................................................................................................................................... 421
Date/Time Functions
.......................................................................................................................................................... 422
Distribution ..........................................................................................................................................................
Functions 423
Binomial.........................................................................................................................................................
Distribution 425
Chi-Square
.........................................................................................................................................................
Distribution 425
Exponential
.........................................................................................................................................................
Distribution 426
F-Distribution
......................................................................................................................................................... 427
Geometric.........................................................................................................................................................
Distribution 428

12
 Contents

Normal Distribution
......................................................................................................................................................... 428
Other Distributions
......................................................................................................................................................... 429
List Functions
.......................................................................................................................................................... 429
Logical Functions
.......................................................................................................................................................... 430
Conditional Functions
.......................................................................................................................................................... 431
Text Functions
.......................................................................................................................................................... 431
Other .......................................................................................................................................................... 433
Special Values
.......................................................................................................................................................... 434
Special Values
..........................................................................................................................................................
for Summary Table 434
Special Value
..........................................................................................................................................................
for Histogram 435
Special Value
..........................................................................................................................................................
for Ntigram 435
Units .......................................................................................................................................................... 435
5 Keyboard Shortcuts
................................................................................................................................... 441

444
Part X Troubleshooting
1 Problems with
...................................................................................................................................
Data 445
My Data Are ..........................................................................................................................................................
Gone 445
My Data Don’t
..........................................................................................................................................................
Paste into Fathom 446
Fathom Won’t..........................................................................................................................................................
Let Me Open/Import My File 446
A Web Page ..........................................................................................................................................................
Doesn’t Import 446
Census Microdata
..........................................................................................................................................................
Import Attempt Failed 446
Fathom Treats
..........................................................................................................................................................
Numeric Data as Categorical 447
I Assigned a..........................................................................................................................................................
Wrong Unit and Can’t Fix It 447
I’m Having Trouble
..........................................................................................................................................................
Opening a Fathom Document from My Browser 448
2 Problems with
...................................................................................................................................
Graphs 448
I Want to Split
..........................................................................................................................................................
a Numeric Graph, Not Make a Scatter Plot 448
I Have Frequencies:
..........................................................................................................................................................
How Do I Make a Histogram? 449
I Can’t Drag ..........................................................................................................................................................
Data in a Graph 449
The Text in My
..........................................................................................................................................................
Graph Is Unreadable or Takes Up Too Much Space 449
The Dots Became
..........................................................................................................................................................
Colored Squares 450
No Data Show ..........................................................................................................................................................
in the Graph 450
Problems with..........................................................................................................................................................
Residual Plots 451
3 Problems with
...................................................................................................................................
Sliders 451
I Can’t Drag ..........................................................................................................................................................
the Slider’s Thumb 451
My Slider Rounds
..........................................................................................................................................................
Its Value How Can I Make It Stop? 451
4 Problems with
...................................................................................................................................
Inspectors 451
I Can’t See the
..........................................................................................................................................................
Panel I Need 451
Where’s the ..........................................................................................................................................................
Show Details Button? 452
5 Problems with
...................................................................................................................................
Formulas 452
Fathom Won’t
..........................................................................................................................................................
Recognize a Function I Typed 452
Error Messages
..........................................................................................................................................................
for Formulas 452
6 Problems with
...................................................................................................................................
Statistical Inference Objects 452
I Don’t See Statistical
..........................................................................................................................................................
Objects on the Shelf 453
This Object Says
..........................................................................................................................................................
I’m Required to Use Raw Data, But I Should Be Able to Enter Summary Data 453
7 Problems with
...................................................................................................................................
Surveys 453
I Can't Find the
..........................................................................................................................................................
Fathom Surveys Website 453
I Made a Survey
..........................................................................................................................................................
and Can’t Upload It 453
I Uploaded a..........................................................................................................................................................
Survey, but Don't See It on the Website for Students 453
8 Problems with
...................................................................................................................................
Experiments 453
My Sensor Is..........................................................................................................................................................
Not Working 454

13
Fathom 2 Help

My Experiment
..........................................................................................................................................................
Is Running Very Slowly 454
9 My Problem
...................................................................................................................................
Still Isn’t Solved 454

454
Part XI Glossary

Index 461

14
 Fathom 2 Help

1 Fathom 2 Help
Getting Started 23

Learn Fathom by diving right in and using it.

How To’s 33

Find step-by-step instructions for accomplishing specific tasks.

What’s New in Fathom 2? 18

Read about what’s changed since Fathom version 1.

Movies 215
Watch short movies showing how to accomplish specific basic tasks.

Sample Documents 289

Browse brief descriptions of the Sample Documents that come with Fathom.

An Overview of Fathom 328

A description of how Fathom is structured and an introduction to the basic components of its interface
such as objects and inspectors.

Reference 342
Read comprehensive reference materials, including descriptions of all the graphs Fathom makes; menu-
by-menu explanations of menu commands; explanations of each of Fathom’s inspectors; the lists of
operators, functions, and units; or keyboard shortcuts.

Troubleshooting 444
See how to solve a specific problem you’ve encountered.

1.1 Credits and Acknowledgements

KCP Technologies

Project Director and Software Designer: William Finzer

Software Engineers: Kirk Swenson, Matthew Litwin, Yoram Meroz
Programmers: Rommel Manuel, Scott Johnson

15
Fathom 2 Help

Project Coordinators: Jill Binker, Vishakha Parvate

QA Engineers: Marina Raskin, Karleen Stone
Testers: Jonas Robledo, Juliana Froggatt, Leonid Vainerovsky, Marc Morris
Software Assistants: Christin O’Leary, Jordan Liu
Key Curriculum Press

Project Editor: Heather Dever

Editorial Assistants: Aneesa Davenport, Christa Edwards
Production Director: Christine Osborne
Production Editor: Kristin Ferraioli
Copyeditor: Tara Joffe
Production Coordinators: Ann Rothenbuhler, Thomas Brierly
Design Supervisor: Marilyn Perry
Graphics Designers: Keith Nguyen, Jeff Williams
Executive Editor: Casey FitzSimons
Publisher: Steve Rasmussen
Consultants
Design Consultant: Tim Erickson
Design Consultant: Nicholas Jackiw
Localization Consultants: Nathalie Sinclair, Lise Sinclair
Statistical Consultant: Robin Lock
This material is based in part upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under awards
numbered III-9400091 and DMI-0131833. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations
expressed in this paper are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National
Science Foundation.
Fathom © 2007 by KCP Technologies. All rights reserved.
Fathom’s Formula Editor © 1999 by Pacific Tech
Macintosh Tooltips using SolarPanel © Gabriele de Simone, 1998-1999.
™Fathom Dynamic Data and the Fathom logo are trademarks of KCP Technologies.
Key Curriculum Press
1150 65th Street
Emeryville, CA 94608
techsupport@keypress.com
www.keypress.com
The Minnesota Population Center

16
 Fathom 2 Help

It has been our good fortune to collaborate with the IPUMS-USA project, part of the Minnesota
Population Center, to make possible Fathom’s census microdata import capability.
Citation: Steven Ruggles, Matthew Sobek, Trent Alexander, Catherine A. Fitch, Ronald Goeken, Patricia
Kelly Hall, Miriam King, Colin C. Davis, and Chad Ronnander. Integrated Public Use Microdata Series:
Version 3.0 [Machine-readable database]. Minneapolis, MN: Minnesota Population Center [producer and
distributor], 2004.
Acknowledgements
Fathom Version 2 would not have come to be without the help and support of a wonderful community
of educators. We gratefully acknowledge Luis Acuna, Jim Albert, Christian Aviles-Scott, Ron Avitzur,
Wesley Bailey, Rolf Biehler, Bill Block, Jim Bohan, Frank Briody, Gail Burrill, Ruth Carver, Karen Coe,
Jere Confrey, Gord Cooke, Brian Cooley, Steward Craven, Gretchen Davis, Colin Davis, Bob delMas,
Chris deMers, Lew Douglas, Brian Erwin, Len Fellman, Joan Garfield, Rob Gould, Jim Hammerman,
Chris Hancock, David Hoppe, Cliff Konold, Katie Makar, Craig Miller, Paul Myers, Sara Nerlove, John
Olive, Chris Olsen, Henri Picciotto, Andee Rubin, Steve Ruggles, Al Sagel, Mike Shaughnessy, Franklin
Sheehan, Tom Steinke, Tony Thrall, Carolyn Wales, Joel Yan, Joshua Zucker, and Steven Zucker.
No project this size comes to fruition without the help of many family members and friends. Among
these are Brigid McCaw, Lauren Finzer, Devin Finzer, Liam, Kieran, and Ramona Swenson,
Anne Erickson, and Meg Holmberg.
Excerpts from Version 1 Acknowledgements

Many people over many years helped us in many ways.

On the original NSF advisory board, Gail Burrill focused us on improving the lot of practicing teachers;
Chris Hancock taught us the Tabletop metaphor and how to be concrete; Cliff Konold started us on the
fruitful path of resampling; Andee Rubin not only warned us off dice but kept us thinking about learning;
Mike Shaughnessy showed us the relationship between offline and online simulation; and Frank Sheehan
brought us back time and time again to the statistical and probabilistic heart of the matter.
Many teachers served as reviewers, consultants, and field testers. We mention Gretchen Davis, who did
not fear to tell us the hard truths; Chris Olsen, who told us what he really wanted; Leona Mirza, who had
faith in Fathom from the beginning; Howard Amerlan, who funneled both his own and his students’
ideas to us; Paul Myers, who helped us see the power of Fathom; Susann Mathews, who helped us think
about uses for the network; Dudley Brooks, who gave countless good suggestions; Chris True, who made
the first Fathom poster; Sue Gordon, who encouraged us with stories of student understanding; Sharon
Shrader, who took Fathom home from the Teaching Statistics with Technology Institute and even
surveyed her students about it; Mark Vosskamp, who advocated a balance between discovery and
structure; Jim Fensom, who holds the record for bug submissions; David Hoppe, who gave us insightful
criticism; and Joyce Smart, who was available for on-the-phone debugging; Len Fellman who has stuck
with us through thick and thin, and Robin Lock for invaluable critiques, insights, and suggestions.
Ron Avitzur provided not only an excellent formula engine and editor, but also valuable insights into how
his engine should and could link to Fathom.
Many people at Key Curriculum Press contributed to Fathom beyond their normal call. Dan Bennett
critiqued just about everything; James Browne found last-minute bugs; Stefanie Liebman tested and told
us she enjoyed it; Jennifer Strada tested tours and instructions; and Candice Miller helped us with naming
Fathom.
Steve Rasmussen believed in us, supported us, critiqued everything from ad copy to user interface, and
did more than anyone else outside the team to make Fathom real.

17
Fathom 2 Help

Nick Jackiw not only contributed in major ways to Fathom’s design, he continually brought us back to
the fundamental vision of educational software we are pursuing.

2 What's New in Fathom 2?

There are many new features in this second major release of Fathom. The new features are described in
this section, with links to the appropriate section of Help for details. However, at least as important as the
new features are the many hundreds of small improvements that will make learning Fathom easier for
both newcomers and experienced users.

Meters and Experiments

You can now use a new object called a meter as an interface to external Vernier sensors or to sliders.
Connect these meters to a collection to create an experiment.
See Work with Meters 151 , Create Experiments 151

Date/Time
Fathom now understands date and time formats for data and sliders.

U.S. Census Microdata from 1850 to 2000

A new and easy-to-use interface makes it possible to import historical and current census microdata
containing more than 50 attributes about individuals who filled out the long form of the census.
See Import U.S. Census Microdata from IPUMS 30 .

Units
Fathom 2 recognizes and understands units, from pounds to fathoms. This means you can now have data
that answer the question “How many what’s?” Unit designations appear on graphs and other objects. You
can easily convert from one unit to another; formulaic computations respect units and can include explicit
mention of units.
See Manage Units in a Case Table 77 or Manage Units in the Collection’s Inspector 92 .
See Units 435 for a comprehensive list of built-in units Fathom recognizes.

Format Text Objects, Complete with Mathematical Typesetting

Fathom now includes the text editor that comes with The
Geometer’s Sketchpad Version 4. Not only can you format your
descriptions of your work to your heart’s content, you can even
create mathematical expressions with symbols, fractions, subscripts
and superscripts, and much more.

See Format Text in Text Objects 213 .

18
 What's New in Fathom 2?

Colors
Colors are used to tie corresponding elements together. For example, both the case table and the Cases
panel have the same blue shading. Computed values show a gray background. Empty cells have a yellow
background. Attribute names, measure names, functions, units, slider names, and constants each have a
unique color that is used wherever that kind of word appears.
See Color-Coding in Formulas 127 .

Multiple Attributes on Graph Axes

This profound change improves the graphing capabilities of Fathom 1 and makes possible a host of new
graphs.
See Add Another Attribute to an Already Occupied Axis 35 .

Grid Lines and Backgrounds in Graphs

You can now make graph displays more meaningful by adding grid lines and image backgrounds to
graphs.
See Add Grid Lines to Graph 60 , Work with Graph Backgrounds 62 .

Error Bars in Scatter Plots

You can now account for uncertainties in real-life data by using error bars in scatter plots.
See Add Error Bars to Scatter Plots 60 .

Link Axes
You can now link axes so that their scales match, and stay matched, even when rescaled.
See Dynamically Link Axes to Each Other 43 .

Graph Properties
Now graphs have their own inspectors that allow you to change the size of points and axis bounds, add
error bars, determine whether axes will automatically rescale, and even change the direction of increasing
numbers.
See Graph Properties Panel 364 .
New Bar Charts

19
Fathom 2 Help

Two bar charts, one with side-by-side bars and the other with bars split into multiple groups, are now
possible.
See Bar Chart 348 and Split Bar Chart 350 .
Show Squares to Plotted Functions
In Fathom 1 the squares of residuals could only be shown for lines. Now they can be shown for plotted
functions. The sum of squares is shown, as well.
See Show Squares 57 .
Multiple Movable Lines in Bivariate Plots
Now you can add any number of movable lines to a bivariate plot.
Least-Squares Regression and Median-Median Lines Computed Separately for Each Cell
When a scatter plot has been split with a legend attribute, or with multiple attributes on an axis,
computing a fitted line shows the line and its equation for each cell rather than a single line for all the
data.
See Least-Squares Line 394 and Median-Median Line 394 .
Plotted Function Tracing
As your mouse moves over a line or plotted function in a bivariate graph, a red dot appears indicating
where you are, and the coordinates of the dot appear in the status bar. By clicking the mouse, you can
display the coordinates directly in the graph.
See Trace on a Function or Fitted Line 56 .
Powerful New Slider Capabilities
Fathom 2 greatly increases slider usefulness while preserving accessibility for getting started with sliders.
You can now control animation speed, restrict values to multiples, compute slider value with a formula,
refer to collection attributes and measures in a slider formula, and allow self-reference in slider formulas.
See Work with Dynamic Parameters (Sliders) 113 or Slider Properties Panel 365 .
Linear Models
The statistical objects include a linear model object as well as interval estimates and hypothesis tests.
See Build a Linear Model 202 .
Multiple Linear Regression Model
This new statistical object brings important statistical capabilities to Fathom’s dynamic dragging
environment. It has its own set of attributes for working with predicted and residual values.
See Multiple Regression 203 .
Correlation Matrix
Add numeric attributes to both dimensions of a summary table, and you get a flexible correlation matrix.

20
 What's New in Fathom 2?

Basic Statistics and Five-Number Summary

The summary table now lets you add a set of basic statistics and/or the five-number summary statistics to
a summary table with menu commands.
See Add or Remove a Summary Table’s Formulas 111 , Add Basic Statistics 402 , or Add Five-Number
Summary 402 .
Duplicate Object
Select a Fathom object and duplicate it. This really helps when you’ve gone to a lot of trouble to get an
object just the right size, with the right attributes and the perfect format, and now you want another one
that you can modify just a bit.
See Duplicate [Object] 379 .
Table Join
You have two different collections and they both have an attribute that can serve as a key for looking up
values. Drag this attribute from one case table to its mate in the other case table to join the two
collections.
See Add Attributes from Another Case Table Using Table Join 70 .
Navigation
 Move selected objects with keyboard arrows.
 If a case table or text object is selected, Page Up, Page Down, Home, and End keys will navigate
through it.
 If no case table or text object is selected, Page Up, Page Down, Home, and End keys will navigate
through the document.
 It is now much easier to navigate through the case table and inspector tables with the keyboard. When
editing attribute names in a case table, Tab will take you to the next attribute. When editing attribute,
measure, or category names in an inspector, Enter or Return will take you to the next attribute.
See Keyboard Shortcuts 441 .
Sorting in Graphs and Summary Tables
The categories displayed in many graphs and summary tables can now be sorted.
See Sort Data in a Graph 61 .

21
Fathom 2 Help

See Sort Categories in a Summary Table 112 .

Category Sets
Use category sets to control how categorical attributes behave: control their order, and force null
categories to appear in graphs and tests (for example, in a dice-rolling experiment, when you didn’t get
any 3s).
See Control Behavior of Categorical Attributes Using Category Sets 99 .
Editable Values in Statistical Objects Allow Editing in Place
You no longer have to show a formula editor to make a simple change to a value in a statistical object.
(But you still can if you need to.)
See Enter Summary Statistics in Statistical Inference Objects 172 .
Preferences
There a few more preferences that Fathom remembers each time you launch it: three default font sizes,
an option to not show statistical objects on the shelf (to be less confusing to non-statistics users), an
option for the display of linear equations, and the ability to set the default verbosity of statistical objects.
See Preferences 377 .
Change Case Order and Attribute Order
Sorting data in a case table now changes the order of cases in the underlying collection. In addition,
changing the order of attributes in the case table affects that order in inspectors, and vice versa.
Multiple Attribute Drag
You can now select more than one attribute in a case table and put them all in a graph, summary table, or
statistical object with one drag-and-drop move.
Formula Editor Improvements
The formula editor was probably the least-loved object in Fathom 1. It is much improved for Version 2.
The most obvious changes are:
 Enter or Return now not only accepts the formula, but dismisses the formula editor.
 You can change the font size when editing a formula. If you’re having trouble, use a bigger font.
 The “left side” of the equation is displayed, indicating that you don’t need to type that.
 You can edit a long number by clicking within it and editing (rather than having to replace the whole
thing).
 To replace a “nugget” within a complex expression, you can now select what you want to replace and
type your new text. Don’t delete the offending bit first; just replace it. Pressing the á key will select
progressively larger nuggets.
 Measures now live in their own list, rather than mixed up with attributes.
 We’ve changed the look, rearranged the buttons, and increased the font size for the formula itself. Note
the exponent button is now labeled with a ^.

22
 What's New in Fathom 2?

 When the cursor is in a denominator or exponent, a tip appears informing the user that the right-arrow
key will move the cursor out of the denominator or exponent.
Rerandomization Is Much Less Aggressive
Under many, but not all, circumstances in which Fathom 1 would rerandomize all computed values,
Version 2 will only rerandomize directly affected values.
New Functions
missing itemSum monthName
isPrime itemCount now
linRegrPredicted firstItem second
linRegrResidual lastItem stringToDateTime
logRelativeError nthItem stringToTimeDuration
scalar sortItems ticks
unitOf date today
cardIcon dayOfMonth year
indexOfCategory dayOfWeek
lookupValueByIndex dayOfWeekName
lookupValueByKey dayOfYear
popCovariance hour
sampleCovariance minute
month

Other Improvements
 You can now copy a picture of an object (especially a graph) even when cases are selected.
 Double-clicking a column boundary in a case table automatically resizes that column to be the correct
width to show all its values. A menu command allows you to do this to multiple columns or all
columns.
 Clicking on cells in a summary table selects all the cases corresponding to that cell. If all the cases
corresponding to a cell are selected, the cell highlights.
 The command File | Open Sample Document takes you directly into the Sample Documents folder
so you don’t have to search for it (provided your sample documents are stored in the same folder as the
application).
 The Help menu has commands that will open your Web browser to useful online locations.
 On the Macintosh, z+? will launch Help.

3 Getting Started
People have many different ways of approaching a new program, so we have provided a variety of ways
to learn Fathom.

The subtopics in this section show just the basics of getting and graphing some data. They also provide
links to the rest of Fathom Help for more functionality. To start, go to Getting Data 24 .

Another option is to start with Getting Started, a Fathom document with data in it and instructions for
starting to look at that data.

If you like taking step-by-step guided tours, you’ll find them in the Learning Guide that comes with

23
Fathom 2 Help

Fathom. These can also be accessed from the Tours 227 section of Help, which includes tours for the
survey and experiment features (these tours are not in the printed book). Printable PDF files of the
Learning Guide and Fathom Help are located in the Documentation folder.

If you want to see brief movies showing Fathom in use, go to Movies 215 .

If you like to understand the logic of a program before using it, see An Overview of Fathom 328 first.

3.1 Getting Data

Fathom is primarily a tool for exploring and analyzing data. How will you get data to work with? There
are several ways, depending on what data you want and the form of the data.

 I want to use some data already in Fathom: Open a Fathom Sample Document 24
 I want to type data to work with (Hint: use a case table): Enter Data from Scratch 25
 I have data in electronic form that I want to bring into Fathom (Hint: paste it into a collection): Copy
and Paste Data from Another Program 26
 I want to work with data about individual people from the U.S. Census: Import U.S. Census Microdata
30

 I want to begin by simulating data (take a brief tour and flip a virtual coin): Have Fathom Randomly
Generate Data 27

Some other ways in which you can get data from outside sources are surveys and sensors.
 I want to use web-based surveys to gather responses to questions as data (see Using Fathom Surveys)
136 .

 I want to collect values from Vernier sensors and construct experiments around them (see Create
Experiments 151 and Connect Sensors 153 ).

3.1.1 Open a Fathom Sample Document

Fathom comes with several hundred sample documents. Most are collections of data; some demonstrate
simulation techniques. For convenience, Fathom has a separate command for opening the Sample
Documents folder.

1. Choose File | Open Sample Document.

You get a standard dialog box open to the Sample Documents folder.

24
 Getting Started

In Sample Documents are folders with documents for learning about Fathom (for example, Learning
Guide Starters contains documents you need to follow the guided tours, and Fathom Techniques
shows some of Fathom’s advanced features), but most folders, such as Science or Sports, are subjects
or topics. You could pick an interesting area and explore.
See Sample Documents 289 to read about all of Fathom’s sample documents, or choose one of our
recommended documents.
2. Navigate to the document you want to open.
Recommendations:
Science | Elements.ftm
Science | RegionalCarbon.ftm
Social Science | World | CountriesUnemployment.ftm
Education | United States | FacultySalaries.ftm
3. Double-click the file to open it.
In order to graph the data in your sample document, you need to be able to see the data’s attributes
(some programs call them variables), to drop them on graph axes. If you can’t see the attribute names,
double-click the file’s collection, the box of gold balls, to show its inspector.
You are now ready to go to Beginner Graphing, or watch a movie showing how to make graphs: Four
Basic Objects-Case Table, Graph, and Summary Table.

3.1.2 Enter Data from Scratch

When you have data to type into Fathom, the place to do it is in a case table. (You can see a movie
illustrating data entry: Entering Data and Making a Graph.) These instructions assume you have Fathom
running and have an empty document window.

25
Fathom 2 Help

1. Drag a case table from the object shelf, and drop it in the
document.
In a case table, rows represent cases and columns represent
attributes (or variables).

2. Click <new>, type a name for the new attribute and press
Enter. (If necessary, repeat this step to add more attributes;
pressing Tab instead of Enter moves you to the next column.)

3. Click in the blank cell under the attribute name and begin typing values. (Press Tab to move from cell
to cell.)
When you named your first attribute, Fathom created an empty collection to hold your data (a little,
empty box). The collection is where your data are actually stored. Deleting the collection deletes your
data. When you add cases by typing values, the collection icon fills with gold balls.

Collection 1 Collection 1

You are ready to graph your data, go to Beginner Graphing 31 .

3.1.3 Copy and Paste Data from Another Program

There are several ways of getting data from other programs or from a Web site into Fathom. The one
most familiar to most people is to copy the data and paste it into a Fathom collection.

26
 Getting Started

1. Open the file with your data in its current program.

Your data need to be arranged correctly: columns represent
attributes (or variables); each row is a case (or record). It’s
best if the first row consists of the attribute names, as in this
image.
2. Copy the data (including the attribute names).
3. Switch to Fathom.

In Fathom, a data set is stored in a collection, so you need to

make a collection to hold the copied data.
4. Create an empty collection by dragging one from the shelf
and dropping it in the document.
5. With the collection selected, choose Paste Cases from the
Edit menu.
It’s a good idea to see if the data came in the way you Collection 1
intended. Check this by using a case table. Nam e Sex Age Birthpla...

6. Drag a new case table from the shelf. 1 Kirk m 34 PA

2 Christin f 29 CA
3 Jill f 46 CA
4 Bill m 57 IL
5 Matt m 32 CA

If your data didn’t come in perfectly, you might need to fix things (for example, give the attributes better
names or delete a bogus case).
If what you got is too much trouble to fix, you might make the data conform to Fathom’s structure (as in
the screen shot above) in its current program and try again. Or you could try importing it, rather than
copy/paste. See Import Data from a Text File 81 or Import Data from the Internet 88 for more detail.
You are ready to graph your data, go to Beginner Graphing 31 .
See also
Rename an Attribute in a Case Table 69

Work with Collections 79

3.1.4 Have Fathom Randomly Generate Data

If you want to start with simulated rather than real data, you can do that in Fathom fairly easily. This
mini-tour will illustrate randomly generating a series of coin flips.

27
Fathom 2 Help

In Fathom, all data are stored in an object called the

collection.
1. Make a new, empty collection by dragging one from the
object shelf at the top of the Fathom window and
dropping it in your document.
You get a little icon that represents an empty collection. (The
box is empty.)
2. Double-click the box (double-clicking the name would let
you rename the collection).

The collection’s inspector appears. You can use this to

define attributes and give them formulas. When you have
data, you can use the inspector to drag attributes to graphs.
3. Click <new> and type a name for the first attribute (flip).
Press Enter or Return on your keyboard.

The first attribute has been named flip, and the cursor is in
place to name the second attribute. Notice that the value cell
has a different colored background to show there’s no value in
it. You’ll tell Fathom how to generate values with a formula.
4. Double-click the Formula cell for flip.

You get a formula editor.

5. Type this formula:
RandomPick("heads", "tails")

6. Press Enter or Return on your keyboard to tell Fathom to

accept the formula and close the editor (you can’t do
anything else in Fathom when the formula editor is open).

28
 Getting Started

Fathom has accepted the formula, but you don’t yet have a
value because you don’t have any cases.
7. Select the collection (the empty box icon) by clicking it,
and choose Collection | New Cases.
8. Type 10 and press Enter or Return.

You’ve just created a fair coin and flipped it ten times. You
can scroll through your ten flips by clicking the arrows in the
bottom-left corner of the inspector.
Choosing Rerandomize from the Collection menu will
generate a new set of flips.

Here are a few ideas for where to go from here (some are simple; others require delving into other areas
of Fathom Help).
 Add a second attribute with the formula runLength(flip) to compute how many heads and tails
you get in a row.
 Graph your data. (Drag a graph from the shelf and drop an attribute on its horizontal axis.
See Beginner Graphing 31 for more detail.)
 Look at all of the cases at once in a case table. (Select the box of gold balls and drag a case
table into your document. See Work with Case Tables 65 for more detail.)
 Add more cases.
 Edit the formula to make the coin unfair, for example, randomPick("heads", "tails", "tails", "tails")
then see if you get longer or shorter run lengths.
 Open the collection by dragging a corner, and change the images of the cases to those of
heads and tails of a nickel using formulas in the inspector’s Display panel. (see Change the
Appearance of Cases in a Collection 106 .)
Try some of Fathom’s random number generators, which can be found in the formula editor’s list of
functions. You can also learn about them by reading the Random Functions 421 section of Help.
See also
Work with Summary Tables 108
Create Simulations 156

29
Fathom 2 Help

3.1.5 Import Census Microdata

You can directly import samples of U.S. census microdata (data about individual people) from the
Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS) Web site at the University of Minnesota. This is a rich
source of interesting data, which Fathom makes easy to access and explore. There are dozens of attributes
available, and the site includes data from censuses as far back as 1850. A movie illustrates this process:
Importing Census Microdata.
For Canadian census microdata, see Canadian Census Files 307 , a folder of sample documents.

1. In a new, empty Fathom document, choose File | Import | U.S. Census Data.
Fathom creates an empty collection and opens its inspector to the Microdata panel.

Fathom provides default selections for you. You can download the request at this point or expand the
headings to specify sample size, places and years to sample from (Choosing Cases), and more information
about each person (Attributes). You can also decide to import samples of households, rather than of
individual people. (see the Subsections below for more detail.)
2. Click Download Data in the lower-right corner of the inspector.
Fathom sends a request to the IPUMS Web site and returns the requested data. When the download is
complete, the status area changes to reflect the number of cases imported, and the collection icon image
changes to a box full of gold balls.
The categorical attributes (see Numeric vs. Categorical Attributes 330 ) and Census_Year have category
sets assigned to them automatically. (see Control Behavior of Categorical Attributes Using Category Sets
99 .)

Subsections
Change Number of Cases Imported from IPUMS 84

Import More Attributes from IPUMS 84

Import Households from IPUMS 86

Import Specific Geographical Areas from IPUMS 87

30
 Getting Started

Import Historical Data from IPUMS 87

See also
Work with Graphs 33

Make a New Case Table 66

Attributes with Category Sets 332

Microdata Panel 358
Import U.S. Census Data 371

3.2 Beginner Graphing

To see your data in a graph, make an empty graph, then drop an attribute on one of its axes. (If you
want, you can put attributes on both axes or drop them in the middle of your graph as well.)
1. Drag a new graph from the object shelf, and drop it into a
blank space in your document.

2. Drag an attribute from the case table or inspector, and drop it on the prompt in the
graph under the horizontal axis or to the left of the vertical axis.

31
Fathom 2 Help

You get a graph. If the attribute you graphed was numeric, you get a dot plot 343 ; if it was categorical,
you get a bar chart.

Change the graph’s type using the pop-up menu at top right in the graph.
You can add an attribute to the same axis, to the other axis, or in the plot area. See Replace an Attribute
on a Graph with Another Attribute 35 , Add Another Attribute to an Already Occupied Axis 35 , or Add
an Attribute to the Middle of a Graph 36 .
You can have as many graphs as you want. If you select data in one graph, it will be selected everywhere.
See Select Data in a Graph 37 .
With just some data and graphs, you can go far in data exploration and analysis. Of course, there’s much
more you can do in Fathom, as described in the rest of Fathom Help.
See also
Work with Graphs 33

Work with Case Tables 65

Work with Summary Tables 108

Work with Collections 79

Graphs Available in Fathom 342

3.3 Undo and Redo

Fathom supports (almost) unlimited undo 373 and redo 373 . Choose Undo from the Edit menu or press
Ctrl+Z (Win) z+Z (Mac) to undo the previous action. Choose Redo to redo the most recently undone
action: Ctrl+R (Win) z+R (Mac).
See also
Troubleshooting 444
Revert Collection 371

32
 How To’s

4 How To’s
This section lists many common Fathom tasks and provides directions for each. If you’re new to Fathom
and want to dive right in, consider starting with the Getting Started 23 section of Help.

Subsections
Work with Graphs 33
Work with Case Tables 65
Work with Collections 79
Work with Summary Tables 108
Work with Dynamic Parameters (Sliders) 113
Work with Formulas 120
Work with Surveys 136
Create Experiments 151
Create Simulations 156
Work with Statistical Objects 171
Share Your Results: Presenting and Printing Fathom Results 211

4.1 Work with Graphs

To graph data, you need a graph object, which you can get
from the shelf at the top of the Fathom window, and you
need to drop attributes onto the graph. Therefore, you need
to be able to see your attribute names. If you have a case table
or collection inspector visible, you can drag your attributes
from there. (To get a collection inspector, double-click the
collection, or select the collection and choose Object |
Inspect Collection; if necessary, click the Cases tab to go to
the Cases panel.)

1. Make a new (empty) graph by dragging one from the shelf into a blank area of your document or by
choosing Object | New | Graph.
2. Drag the name of an attribute to one of the axes of the graph.
The first sequence shows graphing a numeric attribute, and the second shows graphing a categorical
attribute.

33
Fathom 2 Help

The prompt that appears in the graphs tells you how to force Fathom to treat your numeric attribute as
categorical or to ignore categorical values and plot only numbers in a categorical attribute. Most of the
time, you just drop what you want to see, so you can ignore the prompt. (For more detail, see Force a
Categorical Attribute to Be Treated as Numeric 98 and Control Behavior of Categorical Attributes Using
Category Sets 99 .)
This produces a graph of the data, though it may not be the kind you want.
3. Choose the kind of graph you want from the
pop-up menu on the graph.

Here are some things to know about graphs:

 You can make as many graphs as you want. When you select one or more cases in one graph,
they appear selected everywhere (in other graphs, the collection, or tables). (see Select Data in
a Graph 37 and Drag Data in a Graph 39 .)
 If you want to replace an attribute with another, just drop the new attribute on top of the old
one. You can add attributes to the other axis, drop them in the middle of the plot, or even (in
many cases) add a second attribute to the already occupied axis. (see Replace an Attribute on a

34
 How To’s

Graph with Another Attribute 35 or Add Another Attribute to an Already Occupied Axis 35

or Add an Attribute to the Middle of a Graph 36 .)

 When a graph is selected, the Graph menu appears in the Fathom menu bar. To make the
Graph menu appear, select the graph you want to work with.
You can see each kind of graph Fathom can make by browsing Graphs Available in Fathom 342 .
See also
Add Fitted Lines to a Graph 53

Change Axis Scales 40

4.1.1 Replace an Attribute on a Graph with Another Attribute

To look at a different attribute on an existing graph, drop the new attribute on top of the old one.

Dropping an attribute on the plus sign of an axis will add the attribute to the one already there, rather than
replace it.
See also
Add Another Attribute to an Already Occupied Axis 35

Remove Attributes from a Graph 37

4.1.2 Add Another Attribute to an Already Occupied Axis

Once you have an attribute on an axis, you can add more attributes (of the same type) to that axis.

 Drag an attribute to the graph, and drop it directly on top of the plus sign. (When you’re over the right
spot, the whole-axis highlighting disappears, and highlighting appears around the plus.)

35
Fathom 2 Help

Fathom adds the attribute to the graph, giving you a split dot plot (or histogram, box plot, etc.).
Here are circumstances in which you can add attributes to already occupied axes:
 Add as many numeric attributes as you want to a numeric univariate plot (such as a dot plot
or histogram).
 Add as many numeric attributes as you want to one axis of a scatter plot.
 Add one categorical attribute to a bar chart.

See also
Replace an Attribute on a Graph with Another Attribute 35

Remove Attributes from a Graph 37

Graphs Available in Fathom 342

4.1.3 Add an Attribute to the Middle of a Graph

When you have a graph with data on an axis, dropping a categorical attribute in the middle of the plot
gives you a different kind of splitting than dropping on the other axis. (This is available for graphs that
show their data as dots, and for bar and ribbon charts.) If you drop an attribute on an empty graph, it has
the same effect as dropping it on the horizontal axis.

Numeric plot with categorical legend

Dropping sex in the plot area of the dot plot of age changes the dots representing the men from gray
circles to blue squares (each category gets its own symbol). A legend appears below the plot area.
Split categorical plot (by dropping a second categorical attribute in the middle of a bar or ribbon chart)

Dropping sex in the plot area of the ribbon chart of Labor_force_status divides each section of ribbon to

36
 How To’s

reflect the proportion of each sex within that labor status category. A legend appears below the plot area.
 You can drop a numeric attribute in the plot area of a dot plot or scatter plot.

In the scatter plot of mass and speed of extra solar planets, period is dropped in the plot area. Each case
is now colored to reflect its period, and a legend appears below the plot area.
 Remove an attribute from the graph by selecting the graph and choosing Graph | Remove
[AttributeLocation]: [AttributeName].

4.1.4 Remove Attributes from a Graph

The Graph menu contains Remove items for each attribute on the selected graph.

 To remove an attribute from a graph, select the graph by clicking on it and choose Graph | Remove
[location:] [AttributeName].

If you want to replace an attribute on an axis or in a legend with another attribute, you don’t need to
remove it first; simply drop the attribute(s) you want on top of the attribute you want to replace (see
Replace an Attribute on a Graph with Another Attribute 35 ).

4.1.5 Select Data in a Graph

When you select cases in a collection, case table, graph, or summary table, those cases appear as selected
everywhere they are visible, providing a simple but powerful technique for exploring your data.

37
Fathom 2 Help

 To select one bar or dot, click it.

 To select multiple bars or dots, draw a selection rectangle around them. All cases, bars, or
bins even partially within the rectangle will be selected.

 To select all cases in a category, click the legend symbol for that category.

38
 How To’s

There is a movie illustrating selection: Selecting Cases.

See also
Drag Data in a Graph 39
Zoom In or Out in a Graph 41
Select Cases in a Case Table 72
Case Selection in Summary Tables 111

4.1.6 Drag Data in a Graph

You can drag numeric data to change them. (If you don’t want this to happen, you can prevent it by
selecting the collection and choosing Collection | Prevent Changing Values In Graphs.)
Although you can use this feature to adjust your data, its real value is in seeing the effect that changing
data has on other representations. For example, if you have a scatter plot with a least-squares line, you
can see the effect of an outlier dynamically by dragging a point around.
You can always restore the data you have changed through Undo, or you can choose File | Revert
Collection, which restores your data to its last saved state. (Revert Collection is only available if the
data have been saved and the collection is selected.)
See also
Prevent Changing Values in Graphs 382
Revert Collection 371

39
Fathom 2 Help

4.1.7 Change Axis Scales

When you first make a graph, Fathom scales the axes so that all the data are visible. But you often want to
change the scale of the axes to study features of the graph more closely. There are three ways to
accomplish this. You can Change Axes by Dragging 40 , Change Axes Numerically 41 , or Zoom In or
Out in a Graph 41 . You can also Reverse a Graph’s Axis Scale 42 , Prevent Graph Axes from
Automatically Rescaling 45 , or Dynamically Link Axes to Each Other 43 .

In the first graph, you see the movement caused by the Kobe earthquake over its entire duration. In the
second graph, after zooming in to a time slice of three minutes, the graph axes scale automatically to
show ticks in terms of seconds.
To watch movies illustrating some of these techniques, see Rescaling Axes and Zooming in Graphs.

4.1.7.1 Change Axes by Dragging

The basic way to work with axes in Fathom is to drag the axis numbers. Dragging in the middle translates
the axis, moving the range without changing the scale. Dragging closer to the ends expands or contracts
the range, keeping the opposite end of the axis constant. You can think of this action as pulling new
numbers onto the axis (zooming out) or pulling them off (zooming in). This action, though hard to
describe, is easy to learn and completely undoable. You can see how it works in the movie Rescaling Axes
.

40
 How To’s

Note: You can always return to the original all-points state by choosing Graph | Rescale Graph Axes or
by re-selecting the plot type from the pop-up menu in the graph.
See also
Change Axes Numerically 41
Zoom In or Out in a Graph 41
Prevent Graph Axes from Automatically Rescaling 45

4.1.7.2 Change Axes Numerically

If you want to specify axis bounds numerically, use the graph’s inspector.

1. Double-click in the graph to show its inspector; if necessary, go to the Properties panel.

2. Edit the value for the upper or lower bounds of the x- or y-axis as desired (Tab moves you to the next
property), and press Enter or Return.
If you want an axis to stay put and not automatically rescale, you can change that axis’s AutoRescale
property to false.
See also
Change Axes by Dragging 40
Zoom In or Out in a Graph 41
Graph Properties Panel 364

4.1.7.3 Zoom In or Out in a Graph

To zoom in or out in a graph:

1. Move the cursor over a graph axis or plot area, and hold down Ctrl (Win) Option (Mac). The cursor
changes to a zoom-in cursor.
2. Click on an axis to expand the graph around that point or drag a rectangle around the area you want to
focus on (the rectangle expands, filling the plot area).
 Holding down Shift as well reverses the process, making you zoom out.

41
Fathom 2 Help

 Return to the original all-points state by choosing Graph | Rescale Graph Axes or by re-
selecting the plot type from the pop-up menu in the graph.
You can see how it works in the movie Zooming in Graphs.
See also
Change Axis Scales 40

4.1.7.4 Rearrange Categories on an Axis

By default, if there is no category set applied to a categorical attribute, its categories will appear in
alphabetical order in graphs and summary tables. To change the order of categories on a categorical axis:
 Drag the category name to the desired position.

Whether changing the order of categories on a graph axis affects that graph only, or all objects in which that
attribute is displayed depends on whether the attribute has a category set applied to it or not. If no
category set, then the effect is on one object only. If there is a category set, then the effect is on all
objects. (see Control Behavior of Categorical Attributes Using Category Sets 99 .)
See also
Attributes with Category Sets 332

4.1.7.5 Reverse a Graph’s Axis Scale

Sometimes you want to reverse a graph’s axis; for example, when looking at data about the stars,
constellations often appear backward in graphs, as in this graph of Pleiades.
1. Double-click the graph to show its inspector; if necessary, go to the Properties panel.

42
 How To’s

Each axis has a property allowing you to reverse its scale, which is set to false by default.
2. Set the [axis]ReverseScale property for the axis you want by selecting true from the popup.

The horizontal (x) axis has been reversed; Pleiades is oriented correctly.

4.1.8 Dynamically Link Axes to Each Other

When you are comparing two different graphs of data, it is often helpful to have the scales be the same.
Suppose you want the x-axes of the two graphs shown below to have the same scale.

43
Fathom 2 Help

1. Select one graph.

2. Choose Graph | Show Axis Links.

A broken link icon appears on each axis of the selected graph.

3. Drag the link from one axis that you want linked, and drop it on the other axis.

An animation shows that the axes are now linked, and the chain link is closed.

Rescaling either axis will automatically rescale the other to keep them matched up.

44
 How To’s

You can continue to link as many axes together as you want.

 To break the link relationship, click any unbroken chain to select it and choose Graph |
Unlink [this] Axis.
See also
Change Axes Numerically 41

Change Axes by Dragging 40

4.1.9 Prevent Graph Axes from Automatically Rescaling

When cases are added to a collection, Fathom checks the bounds of axes of graphs of the data in that
collection to make sure all the data will show on the graph. Usually this is a good thing, but there are
times when you would like the bounds of the graph’s axes to remain fixed while cases are added, for
example, if you are collecting measures to build a sampling distribution, and you want to watch the graph
as it grows.

1. Double-click the graph, to show its inspector (if necessary, go to the Properties panel).
Each axis of the inspected graph has a property for auto rescaling. By default, these are set to true.
2. Set these to false for each axis you want to set.
Fathom will not change that axis’s bounds automatically, but you can change it manually either by
dragging or by choosing Graph | Rescale Graph Axes.

45
Fathom 2 Help

 To reverse this, enter true.

See also
Change Axes Numerically 41
Graph Properties Panel 364

4.1.10 Change Bin Width

When looking at a histogram or ntigram, you may find it informative to see how the graph looks with
different bin sizes. There are two ways to accomplish this: dynamically, by dragging a bin edge, or
numerically, by typing a bin width (histogram) or bin number (ntigram) in the Properties panel of its
inspector. There’s a movie that covers both methods A Dot Plot, a Histogram, and a Box Plot.

1. Double-click the graph, to show its inspector (if necessary, go to the Properties panel).

2. Change the value for the binWidth property. (For ntigrams, change the numBins property.)

See also
Change Bin Width by Dragging 46

Change Bin Width Numerically 47

4.1.10.1 Change Bin Width by Dragging

If you want to see the effect the bin width has on the overall look of your data, you can easily change the
bin width dynamically by dragging an edge of a bin.

1. Move the cursor over the boundary between two bins.

46
 How To’s

The cursor changes to a double-arrow horizontal resize shape.

2. When you have the resize cursor, drag.

The bins resize as you drag.

 To get the bins back to default, re-select the plot type from the graph’s pop-up menu, or
choose Graph | Rescale Graph Axes.
You can also set bins to a particular width. See Change Bin Width Numerically 47 .

4.1.10.2 Change Bin Width Numerically

47
Fathom 2 Help

If you want to specify a bin width for your histogram numerically (or the number of bins in an ntigram
), use the graph’s inspector.

1. Double-click the graph to show its inspector; if necessary, go to the Properties panel.
2. Change the value in the binWidth property, and press Enter or Return.
See also
Change Bin Width by Dragging 40

Graph Properties Panel 364

4.1.11 Add Lines and Functions to Graphs

Fathom allows you to add lines or curves to numeric graphs (graphs that have at least one numeric
attribute on at least one axis) or to function plots. You can add movable lines, plot values, plot a
distribution (on a histogram), plot functions, or add fitted lines (to scatter plots). (see Subsections listed
below.)
When you have at least one line or curve plotted on a scatter plot, you can also add a residual plot to the
graph. (see Make a Residual Plot 396 .)
Most of these features are found in the Graph menu, which appears between the Collection and
Window menus when a graph is selected.

Subsections
Add a Movable Line to a Graph 48
Plot a Line at a Given Value on a Graph 49

Show Measures of Spread in a Graph 51

Plot a Distribution Over a Histogram 52
Add Fitted Lines to a Graph 53
Plot a Function on a Graph 53
Show Squares 57

4.1.11.1 Add a Movable Line to a Graph

48
 How To’s

You can add an unfitted, movable line to any graph that has at least one numeric attribute.
1. Select the graph.
2. Choose Graph | Add Movable Line.

If the graph has numeric attributes on both axes, you get an oblique line, and its equation appears below
the plot. Dragging that line by its middle keeps the slope but changes the intercept (translates the line);
dragging by either end changes the slope (rotates the line). The cursor you get when you are over the line
changes to tell you which kind of drag you’re about to perform. (Watch the movie Movable Lines in
Scatter Plots to see how to move this line.)
If the graph has numeric attributes on only one axis, you get a line perpendicular to that axis, and the
value of that line appears below the plot area. Drag the line to move it, and the value updates dynamically.
You can add more movable lines by choosing Graph | Add Movable Line again.
 Remove a movable line by selecting it (click it or its equation) and choosing Graph | Remove
Movable Line.
See also
Show Squares 57

4.1.11.2 Plot a Line at a Given Value on a Graph

You can plot a value on a graph with a numeric axis.

1. Select the graph.

2. Choose Graph | Plot Value.
The formula editor appears.

49
Fathom 2 Help

3. Enter a number or formula for the value you want to plot.

4. Click OK or press Enter or Return to accept the formula and close the formula editor.

The formula result appears as a colored line and as a color-coded value at the bottom of the plot.
Note: If you leave the argument of a function blank, Fathom will use the attribute on the axis as the
function’s argument. You could, instead, use the name of another attribute in the formula.
You can plot as many values as you want.
If the graph is split, a line appears for each subgroup; the value reported below is for all the data in the
graph.

50
 How To’s

See also
Show Measures of Spread in a Graph 51

Add Fitted Lines to a Graph 53

4.1.11.3 Show Measures of Spread in a Graph

To show measures of spread in a graph (such as standard deviation), you don’t really want to simply plot
the standard deviation. Suppose, for example, that your data range from 100 to 200, with a standard
deviation of 30. The value wouldn’t appear on the graph, even if it were meaningful to see it there. What
you want to do is to plot, say, mean plus and minus 1 standard deviation. Here’s how:
1. Select the graph.
2. Choose Graph | Plot Value.

The formula editor appears.

3. For this example, enter
mean() + s()
4. Click OK or press Enter or Return to accept the formula and close the formula editor.
5. Choose Graph | Plot Value again.
6. Enter
mean( ) - s( )

7. Click OK or press Enter or Return to accept the formula and close the formula editor.
See also
Add Fitted Lines to a Graph 53

51
Fathom 2 Help

4.1.11.4 Plot a Distribution Over a Histogram

If you have a histogram and you want to see how well it approximates a given distribution, you can plot
a function directly on the graph over the histogram bars.
1. Select the graph.
2. Choose Graph | Scale | Density.
This changes the graph’s axis from a frequency scale to a density scale. (The total area of the bins is 1.)
3. Choose Graph | Plot Function.
4. Enter the formula for the distribution. (You can see what distributions are available and what
arguments they require by opening the Functions list in the formula editor. Instead of typing numeric
values for parameters, you can use functions for the data (such as mean) that get their values from the
data in the graph.)

To read about the available distributions, see Distribution Functions 423 .

You can also have arguments in the distribution’s function linked to sliders. See Plot a Function You
Can Vary Dynamically (Using a Slider) 55 .

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 How To’s

4.1.11.5 Add Fitted Lines to a Graph

You can plot two different kinds of fitted lines on a scatter plot: the least-squares line and the median-
median line (see What Is a Median-Median Line? 395 ).
1. Select the graph.
2. Choose Graph | Least-Squares Line or Graph | Median-Median Line.
The corresponding line appears on the graph, and its equation appears below the plot area. Choose the
command again to remove the line.
 You can force a least-squares line to go through the origin by choosing Graph | Lock
Intercept at Zero.
Note: The least-squares and median-median lines update dynamically as the data change. (Drag a data
point to see whether it influences the line.)
When you have a multiattribute scatter plot (more than one attribute on a given axis), you get a line and
equation for each.
See also
Show Squares 57
Make a Residual Plot 396
Trace on a Function or Fitted Line 56

Lock Intercept at Zero 397

Plot a Function on a Graph 53

4.1.11.6 Plot a Function on a Graph

You can plot functions on a scatter plot and on univariate numeric plots. For example, suppose you had
measured the radii and areas of circles. Here is how you would plot a fitted curve:

1. Select the graph.

2. Choose Graph | Plot Function.

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Fathom 2 Help

3. In the formula editor, enter the function.

In this example, you would type pi*radius^2. (Note how ^ made an exponent, and how pi was converted
to π.)
4. Click OK or press Enter or Return to accept the formula and close the formula editor.
Note: You can use any symbol for the independent variable when you specify a function to plot. Fathom
assumes you mean the predictor (the attribute on the horizontal axis). Using the actual attribute name
can be useful, however, because then you can copy and paste the formula (to an attribute, for example, to
make a predicted value), and it will work without modification.

If you aren’t sure exactly what to plot, you can use one or more sliders in the formula and change the
sliders to change the curve dynamically. See Plot a Function You Can Vary Dynamically (Using a Slider)
55 .

See also
Make a Residual Plot 396
Show Squares 57
Trace on a Function or Fitted Line 56
Remove a Function from a Graph 57
4.1.11.7 Plot Functions on a Function Plot

Although specifically designed for working with data, Fathom’s graph objects can also be used as
function plots. These plots are especially powerful when the functions are governed by one or more
sliders.
1. Make a new, empty graph by dragging one from the shelf or choosing Object | New | Graph.
2. From the graph’s pop-up menu, choose Function Plot.

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 How To’s

3. Choose Graph | Plot Function to show the formula editor, and enter the function you want to plot.

4. Click OK or press Enter or Return to accept the formula and close the formula editor.
By making one or more sliders and using their names in your functions, you make the functions dynamic.
Drag the slider and watch the function change. See Plot a Function You Can Vary Dynamically (Using a
Slider) 55 .
You can add as many functions (or values) as you want to a graph.
Dropping an attribute on a function plot will remove everything plotted on it.

4.1.11.8 Plot a Function You Can Vary Dynamically (Using a Slider)

Suppose you’re trying to fit a function to data in a scatter plot, but you aren’t sure exactly what value you
should use for some part of the function (coefficient or exponent, for example). You can make a slider
and use its name for that part of the function. When you change the slider’s value (by dragging or typing),
the function updates dynamically.

1. Make a slider by dragging one from the shelf or choosing Object | New | Slider.
2. Give the slider a meaningful name (such as denominator).
3. Select the graph.
4. Choose Graph | Plot Function.
This shows a formula editor.
5. Define the function you want plotted, and click OK or press Enter or Return to accept the formula
and close the formula editor.
If you are already editing a function when you decide to use a slider, you can put the slider’s (future) name
in the formula and make the slider after closing the formula editor. (Your graph will have a #Name Not

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Fathom 2 Help

Recognized# error that goes away once you’ve created and named a slider.)
See also
Show Squares 57
Make a Residual Plot 396
Trace on a Function or Fitted Line 56

4.1.11.9 Trace on a Function or Fitted Line

When you have functions or fitted lines plotted on a graph, you can force the cursor to stay on the line
and have it show its coordinates.

1. Move the cursor over the line or curve.

The cursor changes and its position on the line is shown with a red dot.

2. When this dot is visible, hold down the mouse button; the dot will trace the function and its
coordinates will appear in the plot area.

Because clicking on a movable line selects it for dragging, this feature is not available for movable lines.
Instead, you can plot a static line (using Plot Function) and trace that.

4.1.11.10 Edit a Plotted Function

To edit a function you have entered with the formula editor, double-click it where it appears at the
bottom of the graph. The formula editor appears; edit it there.
You can also choose Edit Formula from the context menu that you get by right-clicking (Win) Ctrl-
clicking (Mac) on the formula.

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 How To’s

4.1.11.11 Copy Functions from One Graph to Another

You can copy a function from one graph and paste it onto another.
1. Select the function you want to copy (click either the curve itself or its formula).
2. Choose Edit | Copy Formula.
3. Select the receiving graph and choose Graph | Plot Function.
4. Press Ctrl+V (Win) Option+V (Mac) and then Enter or Return to accept the formula and close the
formula editor.
 Alternatively, you could duplicate the graph with the function by selecting it and choosing
Object | Duplicate Graph.

4.1.11.12 Remove a Function from a Graph

 Select the formula by clicking it once, and choose Edit | Clear Formula.
4.1.11.13 Show Squares
When you have a function or line on a scatter plot, you can have Fathom visually show the squared
residuals (a great way to illustrate the meaning of the least-squares regression line).
 Select the graph and choose Graph | Show Squares.

Fathom constructs vertical segments from every point to the line and then makes those segments into
sides of squares. Fathom also displays the sum of the areas of those squares.

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Fathom 2 Help

Show Squares also works with the movable line in a univariate plot. This can be used to show that the
mean is a least-squares value for univariate data.
You can also use this feature in conjunction with a residual plot.

4.1.11.14 Make a Residual Plot

When you have a function plotted on a scatter plot, you can create a residual plot. You can do this with
plotted functions or lines. Residual plots help you improve and evaluate your mathematical model. In a
residual plot, each point’s vertical coordinate is set to its vertical distance from the function on the
original graph. So points a little above the curve in the original will be slightly positive, below the curve,
will be negative.
This feature is available when you have selected a scatter plot with one line or function. If you have more
than one thing plotted, you need to select the line or curve from which you want residuals plotted (click
the line or its equation to select it).
 Choose Graph | Make Residual Plot.

The residual plot is always about half the height of the main plot.
Note: The vertical scale on the residual plot may be very different from the scale in the original. Residual
plots can help you see features that are invisible on the original graph.
If you have a graph with more than one thing plotted on it, you can change the focus of the residual plot
by selecting a different equation or line.

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 How To’s

4.1.11.15 Plot Values or Functions with Units

When you want to plot a value on a graph with units, you must include the units for any numbers in the
formula. For example, if you were to try to plot the value 5 on this graph, no line would show because 5
doesn’t have units. But the value 5s will show just fine because it has the right units.

Fathom is slightly more forgiving with plotted functions than plotted values. For example, an attempt
to plot 0.1 Time on the graph at right shows the line even though the values have units of seconds instead
of meters. But the color of the plotted function is magenta, the color Fathom uses for invalid values, and

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Fathom 2 Help

the #Units incompatible# error appears to the right of the equation.

Instead, plot the function

4.1.12 Add Grid Lines to Graph

Grid lines help you to compare values in different parts of the plot.
To add grid lines to a graph,

1. Select the graph.

2. Double-click an axis or the plot area of the graph to show

the inspector; if necessary, go to the Properties panel by
selecting the appropriate tab.

3. Set the property showXGridlines or showYGridlines to true by

clicking in the Value column and choosing true from the
pop-up menu.

4.1.13 Add Error Bars to Scatter Plots

You can add error bars to scatter plots to capture the uncertainties often encountered in real-life data.

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 How To’s

1. Select the graph.

2. Double-click an axis or the plot area of the
graph to show the inspector.
3. Specify the length of the error bars by editing
the formulas for the properties
xErrorBarLength and yErrorBarLength.
You can either specify a numeric constant such as
3 or enter an expression in the formula editor.
You can assign error bar lengths per point by
editing the Value column, but typically error bars
are used to capture uncertainties in the entire
plot.

Note: Error bars are available only for scatter

plots.

4.1.14 Filter a Graph

You can filter a graph so it displays a subset of its data.

1. Select the graph.

2. Choose Object | Add Filter.
3. In the formula editor, enter an expression that will be either true or false for each case (a Boolean
expression). Press Enter or Return to accept the formula and close the formula editor.
For example, sex = "male" will filter out the females, leaving only males; age > 65 will filter out everyone
younger than 65. See Write a Filter 121 and Make Boolean Expressions 130 .
If you want the filter to apply to all objects, not just one graph, add the filter to the collection.

4.1.15 Sort Data in a Graph

Fathom can sort the bars or ribbon bands in a graph of categorical data from lowest to highest.

1. Select the graph.

2. Choose Graph | Sort Bars.

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Fathom 2 Help

If a category set is applied to the attribute, dragging or sorting categories will change the order of its
categories; all objects displaying the attribute will use this new sort order.
When you have a split numeric graph with a value plotted on it, you can sort the groups by that value.
1. Select the graph by clicking on it.
2. Choose Graph | Sort By Plotted Value.

If you have more than one value plotted on the graph, first select one by clicking on its expression below
the plot, then sort.
See also
Control Behavior of Categorical Attributes Using Category Sets 99

4.1.16 Work with Graph Backgrounds

Add a Background

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 How To’s

To add a picture as a background to a graph, you can use an

image in the clipboard and the Edit menu in Fathom.
1. Copy an image to the clipboard.
2. In Fathom, select the graph.
3. Choose Edit | Paste Background.
4. The image from the clipboard will be displayed as the
background, scaled to the plot rectangle in the graph.

Note: The image will not resize with the plot unless you lock
the background.

Lock a Background
To scale the background image with the graph, lock the background to the graph scales.
1. Select the graph.
2. Choose Graph | Lock Background to Graph Axes.
3. Scaling or zooming in the graph will now change the image with the data.

Delete a Background
To remove the background from a graph,
1. Select the graph.
2. Make sure that no cases are selected.
3. Choose Edit | Cut Background to remove the background and place it in the clipboard, or Edit |
Delete Background to remove the background altogether.

4.1.17 Change the Size of Data Points

You can control the size of data points for any graph that
shows data as dots (dot plots, box plots with outliers, normal
quantile plots, scatter plots, and breakdown plots).
1. Double-click an axis or the plot area of the graph to show
its inspector; if necessary, go to the Properties panel by
clicking its tab.
2. Change the value of the property pointSizeMultiplier (which
is 5 by default).

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Fathom 2 Help

The figures above show a graph with the default point size of 5, changed to 3, then to 7.
Point size is in pixels. You may need to experiment to get the look you want.

You can also control the size of data points using a formula that depends on other attribute values.
1. Go to the graph inspector's Cases panel.
2. Click in the formula column of the property pointSize.
3. Enter the formula that will determine the point size. This formula will use the base point size specified
in the property pointSizeMultiplier.

If you want to make everything in the document bigger (all fonts and other elements in all objects), for
giving a presentation projected onto a screen, for example, you should change the document preference
to use a larger font size in objects. See Preferences 377 .

4.1.18 Change Bar Charts to Reflect a Function Other Than Count

When you put a categorical attribute on a graph, you get a bar chart. By default, the height of each bar
reflects the number of cases in that category, and the formula count() appears below the plot area. By
editing this formula, you can make the bars reflect some other statistic.

1. Double-click the formula.

2. Enter the formula you want computed in the graph, and press Enter or Return to accept the formula
and close the formula editor.

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 How To’s

4.1.19 Format Values displayed in Graph Equations

You can now format the values displayed in the graph equations. The functionality is similar to that of
the Format Attribute command from the Table menu (see Change the Way Numbers Are Displayed in
a Case Table 75 )

4.2 Work with Case Tables

The case table shows your data in tabular format, with attribute names at the top of each column. In a
case table, you can see multiple cases at once; add or change data (see Add Cases in a Case Table 67 and
Add Attributes in a Case Table 68 ); work with units for attributes (see Manage Units in a Case Table 77
or Sort Data in a Case Table 74 ). A case table is also a source for dragging attributes to graphs and other
objects (though an inspector uses much less space).
Cells with computed values have a gray background. Cells with missing values have a yellow background.
When you have data to enter, the case table is definitely what you want.

Case table icon

Empty case table

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Fathom 2 Help

Case table with data

Subsections
Make a New Case Table 66
Add Attributes by Pasting from Somewhere Else 69
Add Attributes from Another Case Table Using Table Join 70

Work with Formulas in a Case Table 72

4.2.1 Make a New Case Table

If you have data to enter into Fathom, start by making an empty case table. If you have data and want to
see or manipulate them, you want to connect the table to the collection. To make an empty case table,
drag one from the object shelf at the top of the Fathom window, and drop it in your document.

To make a case table of data you already have, select the collection, then drag a case table from the shelf
and drop it in the document.

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 How To’s

If you forget to select the collection first, drop the collection’s name in the body of the case table.

See also
Add Attributes in a Case Table 68

Add Cases in a Case Table 67

Work with Graphs 33

4.2.2 Add Cases in a Case Table

There are three ways to add cases using a case table: By typing in the last row or by using the New Cases
command either to add cases to the end of the table or to insert cases before the selected case.
You don’t need to create cases before typing values into them; you can simply start typing in the table.
Each time you type a value in the last row of the table, Fathom adds that case to the collection.
1. Click in a cell in the last row of the case table.
2. Type the value and press Tab to move to the next cell or Enter to move down to the next case (row).

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Fathom 2 Help

This method won’t work if all your attributes are generated by formula, because you can’t edit calculated
values. In that instance, you need the New Cases command.
1. Select the case table (or its collection).
2. Choose Collection | New Cases.
You get a dialog box that will add one case by default.
3. If necessary, type the number of cases you want to add and click OK.To insert cases before the end of
the collection (for example, if you have time series data and you left out a case):
 Select a case in the case table, choose Collection | New Cases, specify how many cases to
add in the dialog box, and click OK.
Added cases are inserted before the selected case.

If you are about to paste data, you don’t need to create the cases first; Fathom creates them when you
paste. If you are about to import data, you don’t even need to make a case table or collection. Fathom
creates the collection when you import.
See also
Get Data into Fathom 80
Work with Formulas in a Case Table 72

Entering Values with Units 77

4.2.3 Add Attributes in a Case Table

You can add an attribute at the new attribute prompt or before a selected attribute.
To add an attribute at the new attribute prompt:
1. Click <new>. (If necessary, scroll to the far right of the table to see the prompt.)

2. Type the attribute name and press Enter or Return on your keyboard to accept the attribute name. If
you have more than one attribute to add, press Tab to move to the next column.
Note: Attribute names must begin with a letter and can contain only letters, numbers, and underscores (_).
See Tips for Naming Attributes 330 for more detail. If you type an invalid name, Fathom warns you of
your error and removes invalid characters. If you don’t want to keep the name Fathom gives you, double-
click the name to change it.
To add an attribute before the last attribute:
1. Select the attribute to the right of where you want to add the new attribute.

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 How To’s

2. Choose Table | New Attribute.

3. In the dialog box, type the name of the new attribute and click OK.

If you want to add attributes, but don’t have a case table of the collection, you can also Add an Attribute
to a Collection 91 using the collection’s inspector.
See also
Work with Formulas in a Case Table 72

4.2.4 Rename an Attribute in a Case Table

There are two methods for renaming attributes in a case table:
 Double-click the attribute’s name to edit it directly.
 Select the attribute and choose Table | Rename Attribute, edit the name, and click OK.
See Tips for Naming Attributes 330 to read Fathom’s requirements for valid attribute names.

4.2.5 Delete Attributes from a Case Table

If you have attributes that you don’t want, you can use a case table to delete them.
1. Select the attribute or attributes in a case table.
2. Choose Edit | Delete Attribute(s).
Deleting an attribute permanently gets rid of its data. If you don’t want to do this, you should hide the
attribute instead (see Hide/Show Attributes 75 ).
If the attribute you delete is used in a formula (for example a formula that defines another attribute’s
values), you will invalidate the formula and lose the computed values. If you have an attribute generated
by formula and you want to get rid of the attribute its formula is based on, first clear the formula before
deleting the attribute.

4.2.6 Add Attributes by Pasting from Somewhere Else

Suppose you have a collection of data, and you have another attribute that you want to add to the
Fathom collection. If the cases are in the same order as in your case table, you can paste one or more
attributes after the last attribute or insert them. (If they aren’t, you can try to Add Attributes from
Another Case Table Using Table Join 70 .)
To add attributes after the last attribute:
1. Copy the attribute(s). (If the attributes are in Fathom, select them and choose Edit | Copy Attributes
.)
2. Select the case table and choose Edit | Paste Attributes.

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Fathom 2 Help

If an attribute is selected in the case table, pasting attributes will insert them to the left of the selected
attribute.
If this method doesn’t work right for some reason, consider pasting all of your data in a spreadsheet or
word-processing program to get them set up in a Fathomable configuration, then pasting them into a new
Fathom collection or importing them (see Paste Data into a Collection 81 or Import Data from a Text
File 81 ).

4.2.7 Add Attributes from Another Case Table Using Table Join
Suppose you have two collections of data about your class, and you want to graph attributes from them
both on the same graph. If both collections have an attribute that uniquely identifies each student in the
class, you can easily bring the missing attributes from one collection into another. The cases don’t have
to be in the same order in the two collections. Fathom uses the "key" attributes to match cases properly.
This matching operation is called a table join.

1. Put both collections in the same document, each with its own case table. (Copy the collection from
one document, and paste it into the document you want to add to. Make case tables for both
collections; see Make a New Case Table 66 .)
2. Drag the name of the key attribute from the source collection, and drop it on the name of the key
attribute in the destination collection. (Below, student is dropped on name.)

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 How To’s

our class
nam e s ibs pe ts w o r k fave Clas s <ne w >
1 Sharon B. 1 no no PE
2 Anu 3 yes no Math
3 Noel 0 no no
4 Aneesa 2 no no Eng
5 Mario 2 yes no Eng
6 Aaron 3 yes no PE
7 Lerena 1 no yes Math
8 Elizabeth 1 yes no Eng
9 Sharon T. 0 yes yes Hist
10 Jasmine 4 no no Hist
Fathom adds any attributes in the source collection that are missing from the destination to the attributes
in the destination collection. The added attribute(s) have formulas using the Lookup function (see
lookupValueByKey 434 ). If you want to delete the source collection, you first need to clear the formulas
(otherwise, the data you’ve just brought over will be lost).
See also
Add Attributes by Pasting from Somewhere Else 69

4.2.8 Select Attributes in a Case Table

To perform certain operations, you need to select one or more attributes in a case table.
 Select one attribute by clicking its name.
 Select more than one attribute by pressing the Shift key while clicking each attribute’s name.
Because dragging attribute names has other meanings in Fathom, you can’t select attributes by dragging
across their names.
See also
Select Cases in a Case Table 72

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Fathom 2 Help

4.2.9 Select Cases in a Case Table

When you select a case, it is highlighted in all the graphs and tables in which it appears. This is useful
when you want to see how some cases lie in relation to others. Also, to delete cases from a collection, you
must first select them.
 Select a single case by clicking its row number.
 Select more than one case by dragging along the cases’ row numbers.
 Select contiguous cases by clicking the row number at one end of the desired section. Then
press Shift and click on the row number of the case at the other end of the series.
 To select cases that are not contiguous, press Ctrl (Win) z(Mac) and click each row number.
 Select all cases displayed in the table by selecting the case table and choosing Edit | Select All
Cases.
See also
Select Data in a Graph 37
Case Selection in Summary Tables 111

4.2.10 Work with Formulas in a Case Table

You can have Fathom compute values by formula. For example, you can use one of the Random
Functions to generate simulated data, or you can define an attribute based on computations performed
on other attributes. Although you can use the collection’s inspector to edit formulas, sometimes it’s
handier to use a case table instead.
If you want to see formulas in the case table, you Show/Hide a Case Table’s Formula Row 72 . You may
then have to Vertically Resize the Formula Row 73 . Or you can Define an Attribute by Formula When
the Formula Row Is Hidden 73 . You can also edit a formula by double-clicking a cell defined by formula
(computed cells have a gray background).
Warning: When you create a formula for an attribute, any values in the attribute are replaced with the
formula’s results. To avoid this, create a new attribute and give the formula to it.
See also
Define an Attribute by Formula Using the Collection’s Inspector 93

Work with Formulas 120

4.2.10.1 Show/Hide a Case Table’s Formula Row

You can have the case table display all of the formulas you have used to define attributes.
1. Select the case table.
2. Choose Table | Show Formulas.

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 How To’s

The formula row (labeled with an equals sign) now appears in the case table. The formulas defining
attributes appear; the formula cells for noncomputed attributes are shaded to indicate that they have no
formula.
1. Double-click the formula cell for an attribute to enter or edit its formula.
2. Choose Table | Hide Formulas to hide the formula row.
Can’t see your formula? If you know a formula is there, but you can’t see it, or can’t see all of it, resize the
formula row height, the attribute width, or both. See Adjust Column Width 74 and Vertically Resize the
Formula Row. 73
4.2.10.2 Define an Attribute by Formula When the Formula Row Is Hidden
You don’t need to show the formula row to enter or edit a formula in the case table.
1. Select the attribute whose formula you want to edit.
2. Choose Edit | Edit Formula to show the formula editor.
3. Enter or edit your formula and click OK or press Enter or Return to accept the formula and close the
editor.
To edit an attribute’s formula, double-click one of its cells. (Cells defined by formula have a gray
background.)
If entering the formula wiped out your data, immediately choose Undo Edit Formula.
See also
Work with the Formula Editor 122
Fathom Operators, Functions, and Units 413

4.2.10.3 Vertically Resize the Formula Row

If you cannot see your attributes’ formulas in the formula row’s default size for example, if the formula
includes division, vertically resize the formula row.

1. Move the cursor over the lower border of the formula row until it becomes the resize cursor.
2. Drag the border down and release.

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Fathom 2 Help

4.2.11 Adjust Column Width

A column in a case table may not be wide enough to show its attribute name or its data. Or you may
want to make columns narrower so that you can see more columns in a table at once. You can either drag
column borders or auto-fit column widths to fit their contents.
 To auto-fit an attribute’s width, either double-click its right border or select it and choose Table |
AutoFit Column Widths.
 To auto-fit more than one attribute, select them and choose Table | AutoFit Column Widths.
 To auto-fit all attributes in a case table, select the case table, but don’t select any attributes, and choose
Table | AutoFit Column Widths.

To resize column widths by dragging:

1. Move the cursor over the boundary between two attribute names until you get the column resize
cursor. (The cursor must be in the attribute name row.)
2. Drag to resize.

See also
Select Attributes in a Case Table 71

Autofit Column Widths 387

4.2.12 Sort Data in a Case Table

You can change the order of cases in a collection by sorting one or more attributes (one at a time) in a
case table.
1. Select the attribute you want to sort by.
2. Choose Table | Sort Ascending (or Sort Descending).
Tip: Suppose you want to sort both by grade level and by name so that all the 11th graders (sorted by
name) come before all the 12th graders (sorted by name). First sort by name, then by grade. The sort by
grade won’t disturb the sort by name. The biggest sort is the one to do last.

4.2.13 Rearrange Attributes in a Case Table

You can rearrange attributes, for example, to put related attributes next to each other. Rearranging
attributes in either the case table or the collection’s inspector has the same results.

 Drag the attribute’s name to the border between the attributes where you want to move it.

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 How To’s

See also
Select Attributes in a Case Table 71

4.2.14 Hide/Show Attributes

You may want to make screen space by hiding attributes. Hiding attributes removes them from view in
the case table in which they are hidden but does not delete them or their values. You can bring them back
into view by Showing them.

1. Select the attributes you want to hide. (To select more than one, hold down the Shift key and click.)
2. Choose Table | Hide Attribute.
To show previously hidden attributes:
1. Select the case table.
2. Choose Table | Show Hidden Attributes.
See also
Select Attributes in a Case Table 71
Delete Attributes from a Case Table 69

4.2.15 Change the Way Numbers Are Displayed in a Case Table

You can control the way numbers are displayed in case tables, determining the number of decimal places
shown or formatting numbers in scientific or engineering notation.

1. Select the attribute whose number format you want to change by clicking on its name in a case table.
2. Choose Table | Number Format.

3. Choose the option that you want and click OK.

Dynamic

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Fathom 2 Help

The default numeric format, Dynamic, is a good general-purpose format. It displays up to six significant
digits with a decimal point, unless the number is too big or too small, in which case it displays scientific
notation with six significant digits. It doesn’t display trailing zeroes after the decimal point.

Fixed Decimal
All numbers will have the same number of digits after the decimal point, the number specified in the
Decimal Places field.

Scientific Notation
A number expressed in scientific notation has one digit to the left of the decimal point, as many digits as
are specified in the Significant Digits field, and an exponent that specifies by what power of 10 to
multiply.

Engineering Notation
In engineering notation, the number of digits to the left of the decimal point is either one, two, or three,
adjusted so that the power of 10 will always be a multiple of 3.
This table gives some examples, all with six digits specified in the Number Format dialog box.

Date and Time Formatting

DateTime values can be formatted to honor different date and time formats. There are 3 drop down
menus that let you format the date and the time separately and determine in what order they are
displayed.
The table below gives some examples of date time formats.

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 How To’s

4.2.16 Manage Units in a Case Table

Fathom recognizes units (such as centimeters or seconds) as part of case values. When an attribute has a
unit assigned to it, that unit is reported in graphs, tables, and statistical objects. Units appear in results of
computations.
Fathom can also Convert Values to a Compatible Unit 79 (for example, if one group in the class
measured in inches, while the rest used centimeters, Fathom will convert the inch values to centimeters).
Fathom will accept units you make up. For example, if you have used your pen to measure your desk, you
could create a unit called pens. Fathom will not automatically convert invented units, but you can create
new attributes and do conversions via formula (see Work with Formulas in a Case Table 72 ).
For units to work, the Fathom folder must contain a folder called Helpers, and that folder must contain
a file named units.xml. (The installation process configures all this for you by default.)
Watch a movie showing some of this functionality: Working with Units.
Subsections
Entering Values with Units 77
Apply a Unit Using the Units Row 78
Convert Values to a Compatible Unit 79
Changing an Attribute Unit Without Converting (Correcting Mistakes) 79

See also
Manage Units in the Collection’s Inspector 92

Units 435

4.2.16.1 Entering Values with Units

When entering values, simply enter the number and unit or abbreviation (see Units 435 for a
comprehensive list of built-in units and recognized abbreviations). If you add the unit to the first case in
an attribute, Fathom will assume all values in the attribute share that unit, so you needn’t keep typing it.
When Fathom recognizes a unit, it substitutes its preferred form (such as cm for centimeter) and puts a

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space between the numeric part of the value and the unit. (You can type that space or not, but Fathom
will add it if it isn’t there.)
If some values are in a different, but compatible, unit, Fathom will automatically convert them to the
attribute’s unit. As soon as a value with a unit that differs from the default is accepted (when you leave
the cell), Fathom converts the value to the value of the default unit.
Values that have a unit incompatible with the unit assigned to the attribute are colored magenta to set
them off as invalid. These values will be ignored by other Fathom objects, such as graphs and statistical
objects.
To use a unit that isn’t built-in, you need to enter it into the units row of a case table or the units field in
an inspector (see Manage Units in the Collection’s Inspector 92 ). (This feature is handy if you have
measured things in invented units. For example, suppose the class decides to have a student named Edna
measure car lengths using her arm span as the unit; you can create a unit called ednas.)
You can change an attribute’s default unit or assign or remove a unit in the case table’s units row, which
you can show by choosing Table | Show Units. (You can also do these things in a collection inspector’s
Details pane.)
See also
Manage Units in the Collection’s Inspector 92

4.2.16.2 Apply a Unit Using the Units Row

Suppose you have data in Fathom that should have units. You can use the units row in the case table to
apply a unit to an attribute without having to add it to each value. (If you don’t have a case table, you can
also Manage Units in the Collection’s Inspector 92 .)

1. If the units row is not already showing, show it by choosing Table | Show Units (the case table must
be selected to enable the Table menu).
2. Type the unit’s name, or a recognized abbreviation, in the unit cell for the attribute to which you want
to assign the unit.
3. Press Enter or Return.
The long form of the unit appears in the unit cell, and each value has the short form of the unit appended
to it.
If you apply a unit Fathom doesn’t recognize, Fathom responds with a dialog box asking whether or not
you want to use your unit. You can invent new units, but Fathom will not automatically convert them (do
conversions by defining a formula for a new attribute).
For a list of built-in units and recognized abbreviations, see Units 435 . Watch a movie about Working with
Units.

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 How To’s

4.2.16.3 Convert Values to a Compatible Unit

You can use the units row to convert values from one unit to another compatible unit. (If you don’t have
a case table, you can also Manage Units in the Collection’s Inspector 92 .)
1. If the units row isn’t showing, choose Table | Show Units.
2. Select the unit you want to change by clicking the unit cell.
3. Type the new unit.
4. Press Enter or Return.
Fathom will convert the values into the new units.
See also
Changing an Attribute Unit Without Converting (Correcting Mistakes) 79

4.2.16.4 Changing an Attribute Unit Without Converting (Correcting Mistakes)

Suppose you realize that the units assigned to a certain attribute are completely wrong. The numbers are
right, but the units need to be changed without the numbers changing. Perhaps someone got confused, as
shown at right, and used seconds as an angle measure. Or perhaps someone thought all the values were
inches, when, in fact, they were centimeters.
1. Delete the unit from the units row and press Return or Enter.
Notice that the units of the values have gone away but the numbers have stayed the same.
2. Type in the desired units and press Return or Enter.
See also
Manage Units in the Collection’s Inspector 92

4.3 Work with Collections

The collection is the object that holds your data (see Where Are the Data? 328 and Collections 334 ). You
can create an empty collection by dragging one from the object shelf. Often, collections are automatically
created for you, for example, when you name the first attribute in an empty case table or when you
import data. See Get Data into Fathom 80 for details about importing and pasting data into Fathom. To
type data, use a case table; see Enter Data from Scratch 25 for more details.
Collections are iconified when first created. Open a collection by enlarging it. By default, each case is

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represented by a gold ball (see Change the Appearance of Cases in a Collection 106 ).

This section of Fathom Help addresses how to do things with the collection. Many tasks in this section
(such as Add an Attribute to a Collection 91 , Define an Attribute by Formula Using the Collection’s
Inspector 93 , Copy and Paste an Attribute’s Formula 95 , Clear a Formula for an Attribute 95 , Rename
an Attribute in a Collection’s Inspector 95 , Delete an Attribute 96 , or Manage Units in the Collection’s
Inspector 92 ) could also be done in a case table.
Many of these tasks are done using the collection’s inspector (such as Control Behavior of Categorical
Attributes Using Category Sets 99 , or Define a Measure 105 ). See Show a Collection’s Inspector 90 .
 To show a collection’s inspector, double-click it, or select it and choose Object | Inspect
Collection.
Other Subsections
Add Cases to a Collection 91
Generate Random Values 94
Delete Cases 96
Restrict the Cases You See by Filtering Data 96
Force a Numeric Attribute to Be Treated Categorically 98
Force a Categorical Attribute to Be Treated as Numeric 98
Merge Two Collections 104
Prevent Data from Being Changed in Graphs 104
Restructure Data—Stack Attributes 105
Export Data to Other Programs 106

See also
Derived Collections 340
Collection Menu 380
Inspector Panels 353

4.3.1 Get Data into Fathom

There are many ways to get data into Fathom collections, depending on what data you want and what
form it is in. You can copy and Paste Data into a Collection 81 or Import Data from a Text File 81 or
Import Data from the Internet 88 . To import data from other programs, such as spreadsheets or
databases, you must first export the data to a tab-delimited text file. Fathom also provides access to U.S.

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 How To’s

census data from the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS) Web site at the University of
Minnesota; see Import U.S. Census Microdata from IPUMS 30 .
To type data, use a case table (see Enter Data from Scratch 25 for detailed instructions).
You can also Generate Random Values 94 . See Random Functions 421 for the list of random functions.
Have Fathom Randomly Generate Data 27 is an introductory tutorial on coin flipping. Also see
Simulation Examples 163 .

4.3.1.1 Paste Data into a Collection

Fathom allows you to paste cases you’ve copied from somewhere else into a collection. For this to work,
your data need to be arranged correctly: columns represent attributes (or variables); each row is a case (or
record). It’s best if the first row consists of valid attribute names, which begin with a letter or underscore,
and include nothing but letters, underscores, and numbers (no spaces or other characters, such as percent
signs). If the data you want aren’t at all as described, pasting might not work; try exporting and importing
instead.
1. Open the file with your data in its current program.
2. Copy the data (including the attribute names).
3. Switch to Fathom.
In Fathom, a data set is stored in a collection, so you need to make a collection to hold the copied data.

4. Create an empty collection by dragging one from the shelf.

5. With the collection selected, choose Edit | Paste Cases.
You might want to look at the data in a case table to make sure all is well.
You might need to rename the attributes (double-click to edit or see Rename an Attribute in a Case Table
69 ).

If this method of getting data doesn’t work, maybe you could Import Data from a Text File 81 instead,
or consider pasting your data into a word processor or spreadsheet where you can prepare the collection
to be copied. If the data is on a Web page, you could Import Data from the Internet 88 by dropping the
URL from your browser into Fathom.
See also
Where Are the Data? 328

4.3.1.2 Import Data from a Text File

Fathom imports tab-delimited text files. If the first row of the file has alphanumeric characters, Fathom
will treat it as the attribute names. Otherwise, Fathom will name attributes attr1, attr2, and so on and

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make the first row the first case.

1. Export the data from the program as a tab-delimited text file, including the attribute names (if
possible). (see the program’s documentation if you need help with this; most programs that work with
data have a tab-delimited text file export option.)
2. Switch to Fathom.
3. Choose File | Import | Import From File.
4. Select the file you want to import and click Open.
5. Check that the import worked as expected by making a case table (with the collection selected, drag a
case table from the shelf).
If your data imports but the first case is used as the attribute names, you can fix it in Fathom. (Double-
click an attribute name to edit it. After fixing the attribute names, delete the first case.) To fix the data
before importing, open the text file in a word processing or spreadsheet program and add a line at the top
with the attribute names. Then import this edited file.
If the import didn’t work well enough (that is, if it would be too much work to make it right), consider
working with the data in a spreadsheet or text-editing program to get it into “Fathomable” shape.
Spreadsheets, for example, often have a command that turns “Cases as Columns” into “Cases as Rows.”
See also
Make a New Case Table 66
Paste Data into a Collection 81
Import Data from the Internet 88

Where Are the Data? 328

Import URL Panel 358

4.3.1.3 Import U.S. Census Microdata from IPUMS

You can directly import samples of U.S. census microdata (data about individual people) from the
Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS) Web site at the University of Minnesota. This is a rich
source of interesting data, which Fathom makes easy to access and explore. There are dozens of attributes
available, and the site includes data from censuses as far back as 1850. A movie illustrates this process:
Importing Census Microdata.
For Canadian census microdata, see Canadian Census Files 307 , a folder of sample documents.

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 How To’s

1. In a new, empty Fathom document, choose File | Import | U.S. Census Data.
Fathom creates an empty collection and opens its inspector to the Microdata panel.
Fathom provides default selections for you. You can download the request at this point or expand the
headings to specify sample size, places and years to sample from (Choosing Cases), and more information
about each person (Attributes). You can also decide to import samples of households, rather than of
individual people. (see the Subsections below for more detail.)
2. Click Download Data in the lower-right corner of the inspector.
Fathom sends a request to the IPUMS Web site and returns the requested data. When the download is
complete, the status area changes to reflect the number of cases imported, and the collection icon image
changes to a box full of gold balls.
The categorical attributes (see Numeric vs. Categorical Attributes 330 ) and Census_Year have category
sets assigned to them automatically. (see Control Behavior of Categorical Attributes Using Category Sets
99 .)

Subsections
Change Number of Cases Imported from IPUMS 84

Import More Attributes from IPUMS 84

Import Households from IPUMS 86

Import Specific Geographical Areas from IPUMS 87

Import Historical Data from IPUMS 87

See also
Work with Graphs 33

Make a New Case Table 66

Attributes with Category Sets 332

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Microdata Panel 358

Import U.S. Census Data 371
4.3.1.3.1 Change Number of Cases Imported from IPUMS

By default, you get a sample of 500 cases. You can change your sample size to be between 1 and 10,000
cases.

1. In the Microdata panel of the inspector, expand the Choosing Cases list.
2. Select Sample Size.
3. Edit the Maximum Sample Size. (You can’t import more than 10,000 cases at a time.)
Some samples (such as those from small states) may not have as many cases as you’ve specified. This field
doesn’t determine the number of cases; rather, it sets a limit.

See also
Import More Attributes from IPUMS 84
Import Households from IPUMS 86
Import Specific Geographical Areas from IPUMS 87

Import Historical Data from IPUMS 87

Make a New Case Table 66
Attributes with Category Sets 332
Microdata Panel 358
Import U.S. Census Data 371
4.3.1.3.2 Import More Attributes from IPUMS

Fathom offers a few dozen of the attributes available through IPUMS. The attributes fall into three
categories: Year and Location, Person, and Household.

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 How To’s

Person attributes, such as age and total personal income, apply to individual people. Household
attributes, such as number of bedrooms or monthly rent, apply to entire households. Each case has the
household information repeated. If you want to analyze household information (such as proportion of
households that are farms), you should import household records, not people records.

Within the Person and Household lists, attributes have been grouped further.
1. Select an item in the list on the left to show the attributes available in that category.
2. Click an attribute to select it for import.
The attribute is added to the request (as can be seen in the list of currently requested attributes).
Not all attributes are available for all years. (The Census Bureau didn’t always ask all of the questions it
does now. Names are available only for data from 1920 or earlier.) You can see what years an attribute is
available for by pointing at it with the cursor and reading Fathom’s status area in the lower left of the
Fathom window.

See also
Change Number of Cases Imported from IPUMS 84

Import Households from IPUMS 86

Import Specific Geographical Areas from IPUMS 87

Import Historical Data from IPUMS 87

Attributes with Category Sets 332
Microdata Panel 358
Import U.S. Census Data 371

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4.3.1.3.3 Import Households from IPUMS

By default, the Microdata panel is set to request samples of individual people. You can instead import
samples of households. When importing households, the attributes that apply to individuals (such as age
and marital status) don’t import.
To change your data request to Households:
1. If necessary, open the Choosing Cases list.
2. Click People/Households to bring up the pane with these choices.
3. Click Households Only.
4. Open the Attributes list then the Household list to choose household attributes.
Household attributes are grouped into three sections: Basic (owned or rented), Economic (rent and
mortgage), and Dwelling (number of bedrooms and age of residence).

See also
Change Number of Cases Imported from IPUMS 84

Import More Attributes from IPUMS 84

Import Specific Geographical Areas from IPUMS 87

Import Historical Data from IPUMS 87

Attributes with Category Sets 332
Microdata Panel 358
Import U.S. Census Data 371

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4.3.1.3.4 Import Specific Geographical Areas from IPUMS

The default IPUMS request samples people or households from all 50 states and Washington, D.C. You
can narrow the geography by choosing specific states or metropolitan areas. Don’t choose a combination
of states and metro areas (for example, Anchorage and Alaska) or the import won’t work.
1. If necessary, open the Choosing Cases list.
2. Select either States or Metropolitan Areas to show the list of available states or cities.
3. Check the desired places.
The request now contains the checked items.

Tip: If you select several states in the Choosing Cases section of the Microdata panel, you’ll want the
attribute State, so you can tell which case came from which state.
When the data are downloaded, the people or households will all have been sampled from the requested
area(s).
Metropolitan area samples are not available for 1960.
See also
Change Number of Cases Imported from IPUMS 84

Import More Attributes from IPUMS 84

Import Households from IPUMS 86
Import Historical Data from IPUMS 87
Attributes with Category Sets 332
Microdata Panel 358
Import U.S. Census Data 371
4.3.1.3.5 Import Historical Data from IPUMS

The IPUMS collection includes samples from 1850 to 2000. The year 1890 is missing; unfortunately, the
records were destroyed by fire. 1930 is also missing.

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1. If necessary, open the Choosing Cases list.

2. Select Years.
3. Click a year to select (or deselect) it.
Checked years will be included in the request and listed in the request information in the bottom pane of
the Microdata panel.
Do not deselect all years. You must have at least one year chosen for the import to work.
The further back in time you go, the fewer attributes are available, because the Census Bureau asked
fewer questions in the past. To see whether a particular attribute is available for the years you’re interested
in, point your mouse at the attribute, and read its information in Fathom’s status bar (in the lower left of
the Fathom window).

See also
Change Number of Cases Imported from IPUMS 84

Import More Attributes from IPUMS 84

Import Households from IPUMS 86
Import Specific Geographical Areas from IPUMS 87

Work with Graphs 33

Make a New Case Table 66
Attributes with Category Sets 332
Microdata Panel 358
Import U.S. Census Data 371

4.3.1.4 Import Data from the Internet

Fathom can import data from the Internet if the data are configured correctly. The cases need to be in
rows, and the attributes (or variables) need to be in columns. It’s best if the first row consists of attribute
names. The page can contain other text, such as information about its source or descriptions of its
attributes. Fathom imports this information automatically and stores it in the collection’s Comments
panel.

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 How To’s

Fathom cannot import data in PDF format or in the form of images. The page you import needs to be
the one that has the data on it.
 Drag the URL icon from your browser into an open Fathom document. Fathom imports the
data and makes a new collection. (There is a movie illustrating this: Internet Import by
Dragging the URL.)
Or…
1. Copy the URL from the address field in your browser.
2. Choose File | Import | Import From URL. A dialog box appears.
3. Type or paste the URL of the data you want into the box and click OK. Fathom imports the data and
makes a new collection.
After importing, look at the data in a case table to see whether it came in properly. Often you have to do
a little fixing before the collection is right.
 Select the collection and drag a case table from the shelf into your document.
You might also want to check the collection’s comments. If Fathom did not put important information
into the comments, you may want to copy and paste comments separately. (Comments can go in the
Comments panel of the collection’s inspector, see Comments Panel 356 .)
Not all Web pages are in a format Fathom can decipher. You could paste your data in a word processing
or spreadsheet program to clean it up, then copy and paste it into Fathom.
You can find links to some “Fathomable” Web pages by following the Links to Data link on the Fathom
Resource Center, or go there directly by clicking here: Links to Data.
See also
Make a New Case Table 66
Paste Data into a Collection 81
Import Data from a Text File 81
Import U.S. Census Microdata from IPUMS 30

Where Are the Data? 328

Import 370
Import URL Panel 358

4.3.2 Rename a Collection

The names automatically given to new collections (Collection 1, Collection 2, etc.) aren’t descriptive.
Because a collection’s name appears on all objects connected to it (such as graphs and sample
collections), it’s a good idea to give your collections meaningful names. There are two ways to accomplish
this (both work not only on the collection itself, but also on any object connected to the collection).

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 Double-click the collection name, type the new name into the dialog box, and click OK.

Or …
 Select a collection, graph, or case table and choose Collection | Rename Collection.

4.3.3 Show a Collection’s Inspector

There is often more than one way to accomplish a given task. For example, to add attributes to graphs
and other objects, you need to drop attribute names on them (see Work with Graphs 33 and Work with
Summary Tables 108 ). If you can see the attribute names you want, you can drag from where you see them
(such as another graph or a case table). If not, use the collection’s inspector. Similarly, you can add or
rearrange attributes, or work with formulas or units in either an inspector or a case table. (see Add an
Attribute to a Collection 91 , Manage Units in the Collection’s Inspector 92 , or Define an Attribute by
Formula Using the Collection’s Inspector 93 .)
Then there are things you can do only in an inspector, such as defining measures or working with
category sets (see Define a Measure 105 and Control Behavior of Categorical Attributes Using Category
Sets 99 ).
 To show a collection’s inspector, double-click the collection.
Or…
 Select the collection or one or more cases and choose Object | Inspect [Collection/Case/
Cases].

 Click a tab along the top of the inspector to go to another panel. (The attribute names are in
the Cases panel.)

The collection’s inspector, on the Cases panel

See also
Inspectors 336
Inspect [Object] 378
Inspector Panels 353

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4.3.4 Add an Attribute to a Collection

To add an attribute to the end of the collection, you can use either an inspector (on the Cases panel)
or a case table. To add an attribute anywhere else, you need a case table.
1. Show the collection’s inspector by double-clicking the collection; if necessary, go to the Cases panel
(the leftmost panel).
2. Click <new>, type a name, and press Enter or Return.

 To define the attribute by formula, double-click the Formula cell.

See also
Add Attributes in a Case Table 68
Delete an Attribute in an Inspector 96

4.3.5 Add Cases to a Collection

When you type, paste, or import data, Fathom automatically creates cases (you don’t need to do anything
in advance). When you’re working with simulated data only, you need to explicitly add cases to the
collection.

1. Select the collection.

2. Choose Collection | New Cases.
3. Type the number of cases to add (the default number is 1) and click OK.
See also

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Add Cases in a Case Table 67

Delete Cases 96

4.3.6 Manage Units in the Collection’s Inspector

You don’t need a case table to apply, change, or remove units from attributes. The Details pane of the
Cases panel of a collection’s inspector includes a Units field.

1. In the Cases panel of the collection’s inspector, if Details aren’t showing, click Show Details.
A new pane appears, below the attribute names.
2. Select an attribute to show the Units field for that attribute.
3. Edit the unit for the selected attribute in the Units field.
In the illustration, typing cm in the Units field applies centimeters to length.
 To convert an attribute’s values, select the current unit and replace it with the unit you want to
convert to.
 To change a unit without converting its values (usually done to correct a mistake), first delete
the current unit and press Enter or Return to clear the unit, then type the new unit. If you
don’t clear the mistaken unit first, Fathom will try to convert.
See also
Manage Units in a Case Table 77

Units 435
Attributes with Units 331

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4.3.7 Define an Attribute by Formula Using the Collection’s Inspector

There are many reasons to create attributes defined by formula. Maybe you are basing an attribute on
other attributes (such as multiplying height times width to compute areas), generating random values, or
recoding data.
1. In the Cases panel of the collection’s inspector, double-click the attribute’s formula cell to show the
formula editor.
2. Enter the formula telling Fathom how to compute the attribute’s values and press Enter or Return to
accept the formula and close the formula editor.

Warning: Defining a formula for an attribute that already has values will replace those values with the
formula’s results. To compute values based on an attribute, add a new attribute and define it by formula.
See also
Work with Formulas in a Case Table 65
Work with Formulas 120
Fathom Operators, Functions, and Units 413

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4.3.8 Generate Random Values

Fathom has many built-in functions for generating random values. You can read about them in Random
Functions 421 , or in the help pane of the formula editor (open the list of functions, then the list of
random functions; click on a specific function and information about it appears in the bottom of the
formula editor).
1. Create an attribute in the Cases panel of the collection’s inspector.
2. Double-click the attribute’s formula cell to show the formula editor.

3. Enter a random number function and whatever arguments it requires (if any), and press Enter or
Return to accept the formula and close the formula editor.

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 How To’s

If no value appears, you probably need to add one or more cases to the collection.
4. Choose Collection | New Cases, specify the number of cases, and click OK.
Tip: You can use functions and existing attributes as arguments in formulas. For example, if you want
random numbers from a distribution with a mean and standard deviation of some attribute already in the
collection, you can use mean(attributeName) and StdDev(attributeName)as arguments in the randomNormal
function.
For more examples of randomly generated data, see Have Fathom Randomly Generate Data 27 ,
Probability of a Pair 163 , Make a Coin-Flip Simulation 166 , and Simulate Brownian Motion 168 .

4.3.9 Clear a Formula for an Attribute

If you delete a formula that defines an attribute, Fathom leaves the computed values in place but treats
them as noncomputed (as though you had typed them in). Randomly generated values will no longer
rerandomize. You can change the values by dragging.

1. In the Cases panel of the collection’s inspector, select the attribute whose formula you want to clear.
2. Choose Edit | Clear Formula.

4.3.10 Copy and Paste an Attribute’s Formula

You can paste a formula from one attribute into another.
1. In the Cases panel of an inspector or in a case table, select the attribute whose formula you want to
copy.
2. Choose Edit | Copy Formula.
3. Select the destination attribute and choose Edit | Paste Formula.
Warning: If you paste a formula into an attribute that already has values, you replace those values with the
formula’s results. You probably want to paste into an empty attribute.

4.3.11 Rename an Attribute in a Collection’s Inspector

 In the Cases panel of the collection’s inspector, double-click the attribute name, edit it, and press
Enter or Return to accept the new name.

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4.3.12 Delete Cases

Deleting cases removes them from the collection. If you want to move the cases to another collection,
cut them so you can paste them elsewhere. If you want to look at a subset of the collection’s data without
getting rid of the cases, you should add a filter. See Restrict the Cases You See by Filtering Data 96 .

1. Select the cases you want to delete (in a graph, case table, or open collection).
2. Choose Edit | Delete Cases.

4.3.13 Delete an Attribute in an Inspector

Since the inspector is a separate window, you can’t use it in conjunction with menu commands, the way
you can with Fathom objects. You need to use the context menu.
 In the Cases panel of the inspector, right-click (Win) Ctrl+click (Mac) the attribute you want to delete
and choose Delete Attribute.

See also
Delete Attributes from a Case Table 69

4.3.14 Restrict the Cases You See by Filtering Data

At times, you want to see only a subset of the cases in a collection. For example, if you are exploring
incomes, you might want to filter out the children and retired people. In Fathom, a filter serves this
purpose. A filter is an expression that results in true or false for each case, a Boolean expression. See
Make Boolean Expressions 130 . Cases for which the value of the expression is true pass through the filter
and are visible in graphs and other objects. Cases for which the value is false do not; they appear grayed
out in an open collection and are not shown in other objects.
If you want the filter to apply to one object only, add the filter to that object; if you want it to apply to all
objects, add the filter to the collection.

See also
Add a Filter 97

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Delete Cases 96

4.3.14.1 Add a Filter

When you want to see only a subset of your collection’s data, you can add a filter to the collection or any
object connected with it. A filter applied to the collection filters every object connected to it (graphs,
tables, statistical objects); a filter applied to any other object filters only that object.
1. Select the object you want to filter and choose Object | Add Filter.
2. Enter the expression for the filter in the formula editor and click OK.
Appropriate expressions include:
sex = "female"
(age ≥ 21) and (age ≤ 65)
(color = "red") or (color = "green")
The formula for the filter appears on the bottom of the filtered object.
A filtered collection still shows all its cases, but the captions of the filtered-out cases are gray instead of
black. A graph or case table attached to a filtered collection will show only the cases that pass through the
filter.
Two graphs attached to the same collection can have different filters. This can be useful when you want
to compare the results of a display or analysis under two different conditions.
 Edit the formula for a filter by double-clicking it.
See also
Restrict the Cases You See by Filtering Data 96

Delete Cases 96

4.3.14.2 Remove a Filter

Removing a filter doesn’t destroy it; Fathom remembers the expression for the filter. This allows you to
toggle between the filtered and unfiltered states by repeatedly removing and adding the filter, using the
keyboard shortcut Ctrl+F (Win) z+F (Mac).

 Select a filtered object and choose Object | Remove Filter.

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 Edit the formula for a filter by double-clicking the formula’s expression.

See also
Restrict the Cases You See by Filtering Data 96

Add a Filter 97
Delete Cases 96

4.3.15 Force a Numeric Attribute to Be Treated Categorically

Sometimes an attribute’s values are numeric but you want to treat each distinct numeric value as a
category, for example, to make a bar chart of die tosses.

 Hold down Shift as you drop the attribute onto the Fathom object (graph, summary table, or statistical
object). You can start the drag normally and press Shift just before the drop.

If you want the attribute to always be treated as categorical, generate a category set from it (see
Attributes with Category Sets 332 ).
1. In the Cases panel of the collection inspector, click Show Details.
2. Select the attribute and choose Generate From Values from the Set pop-up menu.
Fathom generates a category set from the attribute’s values. Even if all values are numeric, if you apply a
category set to an attribute, it will always be treated as categorical when dropped on Fathom objects.
In this example, the class was divided into groups to conduct an experiment; to get a dot plot of distance
split by group (rather than a scatter plot), group needs to be interpreted as categorical.
See also
Force a Categorical Attribute to Be Treated as Numeric 98
Control Behavior of Categorical Attributes Using Category Sets 99

4.3.16 Force a Categorical Attribute to Be Treated as Numeric

Attributes that have at least one non-numeric character are treated as categorical by Fathom. When
graphed, they produce bar charts, rather than dot plots. Often this is undesirable, as when imported data
represent missing values with asterisks. You want Fathom to ignore those values completely when
dropping the attribute onto graphs, summary tables, or statistical objects.

 Hold down Ctrl (Win) Option (Mac) key as you drop the attribute onto the object.
Warning: This method has disadvantages: You have to do it each time you drop the attribute, and, more
seriously, values that have both numeric and non-numeric values will be ignored completely. For example,

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 How To’s

many attributes have a “top end” value, such as 7+ representing women who have had seven or more
children. Leaving these values out of your analysis distorts your results. Instead, you should make an
attribute that strips out the non-numeric characters.
 Add a new attribute and give it the formula StringToNumber(mixedAttribute).
The new attribute will have only the numeric values stripped of any non-numeric characters. You could
clear the formula at this point. You should document (in the collection’s Comments or a text object) that
the “top end” value represents “that value and above.”
See also
stringToNumber 433

Add Comments to a Collection 212

Work with Text in Text Objects 213

4.3.17 Control Behavior of Categorical Attributes Using Category Sets

Category sets are an optional feature you can apply to attributes (see Attributes with Category Sets 332 ).
Use them to force Fathom to display categories in an order you determine, rather than alphabetically
(such as “low,” “medium,” “high”); to display categories not represented in your collection (no one
picked “musicals” as their favorite movie type in a survey); to treat a numeric attribute as categorical (so
that Census_Year in U.S. microdata splits dot plots); and to help with data clean-up by flagging invalid
values (because values not in the set appear in pink in case tables).
There are two places where you can create and manage category sets: a collection’s Cases panel and its
Categories panel (see Categories Panel 357 ). You can create a category set in the Categories panel; you
can either create or apply a set in the Cases panel.
Subsections
Create a New Category Set and Apply It to an Attribute 99
Create a Category Set from Existing Values 100
Reorder Categories in a Category Set 101
Force Nonexistent Values to Appear in Display Objects 101
Permanently Force a Numeric Attribute to Be Categorical 102
Remove a Category Set from an Attribute 103
Delete a Category Set 103

4.3.17.1 Create a New Category Set and Apply It to an Attribute

The easiest way to create a category set that applies to an attribute is to Create a Category Set from
Existing Values 100 . But often you want to create the category set first and then apply it to one or more
attributes.

1. Show the collection inspector by double-clicking the collection or by selecting the collection or a case
table and choosing Object | Inspect Collection.
2. Click Categories to go to that panel.
3. Click <new> and name the category set. (Press Enter or Return to create more than one.)

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Fathom 2 Help

4. Click in the Categories cell for a set, and type the categories, in the order you want them to appear in
graphs and such, separated by commas.
This creates the sets; now they need to be applied to attributes.
5. Go to the inspector’s Cases panel.
6. Click Show Details. (If the button says Hide Details, then details are already showing; the button
toggles between the two states.)
7. Select one or more attributes (Shift+click), and choose a set name from the Set pop-up menu.
Here, the set indicating level of interest is applied to four attributes.

4.3.17.2 Create a Category Set from Existing Values

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 How To’s

If you have an attribute that’s already populated with values and you want to generate a category set from
them, you can do this in the collection inspector’s Cases panel.

1. In the Cases panel of the collection inspector, click Show Details.

A new pane appears below the attributes.
2. Select an attribute.
3. From the Set pop-up menu, choose Generate From Values.
A new category set is generated, using the values of the selected attribute; you can edit it in the
Categories panel. This works for numeric data as well and is the easiest way to get Fathom to treat a
numeric attribute as categorical.
If you don’t like the order in which the categories appear in graphs and summary tables, you can Reorder
Categories in a Category Set 101 by dragging categories in a bar chart, or by editing the category set in the
Categories panel of the inspector.
See also
Reorder Categories in a Category Set 101
Remove a Category Set from an Attribute 103
Delete a Category Set 103

4.3.17.3 Reorder Categories in a Category Set

If you have generated your category set from the values of the attribute, the categories may be in an
undesirable order. You can edit the set in the Categories panel of the inspector, but there’s also an easier
way.

1. Graph the attribute.

2. Drag the categories into the desired order.
The category set will reflect the new order, and the categories will appear in that order unless you change
them.

4.3.17.4 Force Nonexistent Values to Appear in Display Objects

Sometimes a collection doesn’t have any cases that have a given value. For example, a few rolls of a die
might not have each face represented. This may not matter, but sometimes it does, as when you want to
determine the die’s fairness. By default, Fathom shows only existing values, but this behavior can be
changed using a category set (see Attributes with Category Sets 332 ).

1. Show the collection inspector by selecting the collection or a case table and choosing Object |
Inspect Collection.
2. Click the Categories tab to go to that panel.
3. Click <new>, type a name for the category set, and press Enter or Return.

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4. Click in the Categories cell for that set, and type the categories, in the order you want them to appear
in graphs and such, separated by commas.
5. Go to the Cases panel.
6. Click Show Details. (If the button says Hide Details, then details are already showing; the button
toggles between the two states.)
7. Select the attribute to which you want to apply the category set, and choose the name of the set from
the Set pop-up menu. (You can apply a set to more than one attribute at a time.)
The attribute now has the category set applied to it. When the attribute is dropped on an object, all the
categories will appear (whether or not any cases have them), in the order determined in the category set
definition you created. Values that do not match those categories (if there are any) will be colored pink in
case tables and inspectors and will appear under an <invalid> category in other objects.
See also
Reorder Categories in a Category Set 101
Remove a Category Set from an Attribute 103
Delete a Category Set 103

4.3.17.5 Permanently Force a Numeric Attribute to Be Categorical

If you’ve imported any census microdata, you may have noticed that Census_Year is always treated as a
categorical attribute. You can make any numeric attribute act the same way by assigning a category set to
it (see Attributes with Category Sets 332 ).

1. In the Cases panel of the collection’s inspector, click Show Details.

2. Select an attribute and choose Generate From Values from the Set pop-up menu.
If you don’t like the order in which the categories appear in graphs and summary tables, you can Reorder
Categories in a Category Set 101 by dragging categories in a bar chart, or by editing the category set in the

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 How To’s

Categories panel of the inspector.

4.3.17.6 Remove a Category Set from an Attribute

If an attribute has a category set assigned to it and you don’t like the way it affects the attribute, you can
remove the assignment.
1. Show the collection inspector, and go to the Cases panel. (Select either the collection or a case table
for it, and choose Object | Inspect Collection; if necessary, click the Cases tab).
2. Click Show Details.
3. Select the attribute whose category set you want to remove, and choose None from the Set pop-up
menu.
The set has been removed, and the attribute will revert to its default behavior. The category set still exists
and can be applied to other attributes.
See also
Control Behavior of Categorical Attributes Using Category Sets 99

Delete a Category Set 103

4.3.17.7 Delete a Category Set

To get rid of a category set entirely (as opposed to removing it from an attribute):

1. Go to the Categories panel of the collection’s inspector.

2. Right-click (Win) Ctrl+click (Mac) the name of a category set and choose Delete Set.
See also
Remove a Category Set from an Attribute 103

4.3.18 Copy a Collection

You can copy and paste entire collections. This is most useful when getting ready to perform a table
join (see Add Attributes from Another Case Table Using Table Join 70 ). You can copy a collection from
one Fathom document and paste it into another Fathom document that has the data you want to
combine it with.

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1. Select the collection.

2. Choose Edit | Copy Collection.
3. In the document you want the collection to be pasted, click in a blank space to deselect all objects and
choose Edit | Paste Collection.
 If you want a copy of a collection in the same document, it’s easier to select the collection and
choose Object | Duplicate Collection.

4.3.19 Merge Two Collections

There are two situations in which you want to make one collection out of two: The collections have the
same attributes but different cases (two students collected the same kind of data from different people or
experiments), or the collections have the same cases but different attributes (each case is a state or
province, and you want all the attributes from both collections brought together).
The second situation breaks down further, depending on whether the cases are in the same order in both
collections. When cases are in the same order (planets from Mercury to Pluto), you can copy and paste
the attributes from one collection to another. When they aren’t in the same order, or you aren’t sure, you
can use the Table Join feature using case tables. For this last situation, you first need both collections to
be in the same document (copy a collection in one document, and paste into the other). See Add
Attributes from Another Case Table Using Table Join 70 .
See also
Copy Cases from One Collection to Another 104

4.3.19.1 Copy Cases from One Collection to Another

To bring cases from one collection into another collection, you can copy and paste entire cases. (You can
also copy and paste an entire collection into another collection, see Copy a Collection 103 .)

1. Select cases in a collection or case table.

2. Choose Edit | Copy Cases. (If necessary, go to the destination document using the Windows menu.)
3. Select the destination collection or its case table (but don’t select any cases) and choose Edit | Paste
Cases.
See also
Merge Two Collections 104

4.3.20 Prevent Data from Being Changed in Graphs

Although changing data by dragging cases in graphs can be educational, sometimes you want to prevent
the data from being changed.
 Select the collection or an object connected to it (such as a table or graph that shows that collection’s
data) and choose Collection | Prevent Changing Values In Graphs.
Now you cannot drag the data in graphs, but you can change values by editing them in an inspector or
case table. Values generated by a random function will still rerandomize.
 To remove this restriction, select an object connected to the collection and choose Collection
| Enable Changing Values In Graphs.

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4.3.21 Define a Measure

When you’re looking at data, there are usually some numbers you would like to compute that apply to the
collection as a whole -- the sum of the salaries, the median of the weights, the ratio of the second year’s
yield to the first year’s, or the correlation coefficient. These numbers are all statistics, or measures. You
define measures in the collection’s inspector by giving new measures a name and (usually) a formula. In
formulas that apply to that collection, you can refer to measures by name.
The most common reason for defining measures is to collect measures from repeated sampling or
rerandomization.
1. Double-click the collection to show its inspector.
2. Go to the Measures panel.
3. Click <new> and type a name for the measure.
4. Enter a value for the measure or double-click the measure’s Formula cell and enter a formula that
defines how the measure is calculated.

If you have defined a measure to build a sampling distribution, you can collect measures by dropping a
measure’s name on an empty collection. Each measure becomes an attribute in the measures collection.
See also
Collect Measures 383
Measures 333
Create Simulations 156
Work with the Formula Editor 122

4.3.22 Restructure Data-Stack Attributes

Fathom expects that cases will be in rows and attributes will be in columns, but that isn’t always the
format in which people collect data. One common (and natural) format is to make a column for each
group and record the values of some attribute under the column header. The example below shows
heights for boys and girls recorded, in no particular order, in two columns.

The problem is that Fathom treats each row as a case, but, in fact, the two numbers in each row are not
logically part of the same case. It would be better to work with a collection in which each case represents
one person.

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Fathom 2 Help

 Select the collection and choose Collection | Stack Attributes.

This creates a new collection called, in this case, Stacked heights, in which the values for all the columns
of attributes are stacked on top of each other and a new attribute, called Group, is created with values
corresponding to the names of the original columns. You will probably want to rename the attributes.
See also
Stack Panel 363

4.3.23 Export Data to Other Programs

To move data from Fathom to another program, sometimes you can simply copy and paste it from a case
table. This doesn’t always work, however. When it doesn’t, you need to export the data from Fathom and
import it in the other program.

1. Select the collection and choose File | Export File.

2. Name the file and choose where to save it.
Fathom creates a tab-delimited text file with the names of the attributes in the first line. Comments and
measures won’t be exported.

4.3.24 Change the Appearance of Cases in a Collection

You can control the appearance of cases: the icons that represent them, their width and height, their
positions, and the captions that appear under them. These controls are found in the inspector’s Display
panel.

1. Double-click a collection to bring up its inspector, and go to the Display panel.

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 How To’s

The Display panel for the Planets collection (see Display Panel 356 )
 x and y control the horizontal and vertical placement of the center of the case icon (with (0, 0)
being the upper left).
 image controls the appearance of the case icon (a gold ball by default).
 width and height control the icon’s size.
 caption controls what text, if any, appears under each case in the open collection, as well as
what appears in the status bar of the Fathom window when you point at a data point in a
graph.
Although you can type values directly for each case, you usually want them governed by formula.

Planets Rerandomize

MERCURY VENUS EARTH MARS PLUTO

URANUS NEPTUNE
SATURN
JUPITER

Numeric attributes are in pixels. In the inspector above, notice that width and height are set to the radii of
each planet and that the x and y attributes, in turn, depend on them.
 The modulo function is often handy for the x attribute when you want cases ordered in rows
and columns. By using sliders in these formulas, you can have cases move around in the open
collection when the slider’s value is changed or when the slider is animated. See Work with
Dynamic Parameters (Sliders) 113 .

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Fathom 2 Help

 You don’t need to change values or formulas manually for x and y; you can simply drag case
icons around in the open collection to change their values.
 You can use the switch function for image to vary images; in this example, it is done using
caseIndex, but more often, it will be done using cases’ data. (For example, a switch on an
attribute for die rolls can make dice appear with the face that reflects the value of the roll, or
an if-statement can give you a nickel’s heads or tails.)
 Fathom has dozens of built-in icons that can be accessed by formula in the formula editor’s
functions list under Icon Names. The sample document FathomIconList.ftm shows them all.
 You can copy an image from somewhere else, select a case in an open collection, and choose
Edit | Paste As Case Icon to give cases any image you want.

 To have cases appear without captions, use the formula " " (empty quotation marks).
 The concat function allows you to use more than one attribute and other text as captions. For
example, in a collection with two attributes, Name and Pet, you could write a formula that
produces captions such as “Lauren has a parakeet” using this formula:
concat(Name, " has a ", Pet)

 You can have Fathom create a caption formula that concatenates many attributes by selecting
the attributes in a case table and choosing Table | Use As Caption.
 The Sample Documents folder includes many files that use the open collection to display
data.

4.4 Work with Summary Tables

Although graphs are fun, sometimes you just want to see numbers. That’s what the summary table is for.
To have Fathom compute summary statistics from a collection, make a summary table, and drop
attributes on it. By adding or editing formulas, you can compute anything you want.
You can also use an empty summary table as a calculator. If it is connected to a collection, the collection’s
attributes and measures will be available in the formula editor. (see Use a Summary Table Without
Attributes 112 .)
You can create a collection from a summary table, where each formula is an attribute (see Create a
Collection from the Cells of a Summary Table 161 ).
Subsections
Make a New Summary Table 108
Add or Remove a Summary Table’s Attributes 110
Add or Remove a Summary Table’s Formulas 111
Case Selection in Summary Tables 111
Use a Summary Table Without Attributes 112
Sort Categories in a Summary Table 112

4.4.1 Make a New Summary Table

As with looking at data in graphs, to look at summary statistics, you first make an empty summary table,
then add attributes by dropping them on a highlighted spot.

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 How To’s

1. Make an empty summary table by dragging one from the shelf or choosing Object | New | Summary
Table.
2. Drop one or more attributes either to the right of or below the prompt. (If necessary, Show a
Collection’s Inspector 90 by double-clicking the collection.)

no data
Drop an attribute here

When you drag an attribute over a summary table, arrows appear around the prompt. You can drop the
attribute on the prompt (one of the arrows will highlight, indicating where the attribute will be put), or on
the column header to the right of the prompt, or on the row header below the prompt (these areas
highlight when an attribute is held over them).

Students Students
BackpackWt
10.75 af ter 51
Group
S1 = mean   before 79
Column Summary 130
S1 = count  

By default, dropping a numeric attribute on one dimension gives you the mean; dropping a categorical
attribute gives you counts for each category; dropping numeric attributes on both dimensions gives you
correlation; and putting numeric attributes on one dimension and categorical on the other gives both
means and counts.

Students
BackpackWt
51
af ter
10.284314
Group
79
before
11.050633
Column Summary 130
10.75
S1 = count  
S2 = mean  

 You can edit a formula by double-clicking it to show a formula editor.

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Fathom 2 Help

 You can add a new formula (and show the formula editor) by choosing Summary | Add
Formula (see Add or Remove a Summary Table’s Formulas 111 ).

 You can add a bunch of formulas at once by choosing Summary | Add Basic Statistics or
Add Five-Number Summary (see Add Basic Statistics 402 or Add Five-Number Summary 402
).
See also
Add or Remove a Summary Table’s Attributes 110
Use a Summary Table Without Attributes 112
Sort Categories in a Summary Table 112

4.4.2 Add or Remove a Summary Table’s Attributes

When a summary table already has attributes, there are four distinct places where you can drag additional
attributes, shown in the illustration below.
Dropping on this arrow
adds an attribute to the Dropping on an existing
columns. attribute replaces that
attribute.
Dropping on this
arrow adds an
attribute to the rows.

Dropping on an
existing attribute
replaces that
attribute.

You cannot have both categorical attributes and numeric attributes along the same dimension (row or
column) of the table. Dropping a categorical attribute onto rows (or columns) when there are numeric
attributes present removes the numeric attributes, replacing them with the categorical attribute. Similarly,
dropping a numeric attribute onto rows (or columns) where there are categorical attributes present
replaces the categorical attributes with the numeric attribute.
 To get correlation, drop a numeric attribute on one dimension when there are numeric
attributes on the other dimension.
 To remove an attribute from a summary table, select it and choose Summary | Remove
Attribute.

 To replace an attribute, drop it on top of an existing attribute.

See also
Add or Remove a Summary Table’s Formulas 111
Use a Summary Table Without Attributes 112

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 How To’s

4.4.3 Add or Remove a Summary Table’s Formulas

A summary table can have any number of formulas. The results of each formula computation are placed
in corresponding rows of each of the cells, (that is, S1 is the first value in each cell, S2 the second, etc.).

1. To add a formula to a summary table, select it and choose Summary | Add Formula.
2. Enter a function (or a more complicated formula) in the resulting formula editor and click OK.
You can add mean, count, standard deviation, standard error, and number of missing values all at once by
choosing Summary | Add Basic Statistics or add minimum, first quartile, median, third quartile, and
maximum by choosing Summary | Add Five-Number Summary.

Students Students
BackpackWt BackpackWt
10.75 2
130 8.5
4.2537034 10.5
0.37307446 13
0 24
S1 = mean   S1 = min  
S2 = count   S2 = Q1  
S3 = stdDev   S3 = median  
S4 = stdError   S4 = Q3  
S5 = count  missing    S5 = max  

 Select a formula to highlight its results.

 To remove a formula, select it and choose Edit | Clear Formula.
 To edit a formula (in a formula editor), double-click it.
See also
Work with the Formula Editor 122

4.4.4 Case Selection in Summary Tables

If you select a cell in a summary table, all of the cases it represents become selected in other objects.
Conversely, if all the cases represented by a cell are selected, the cell appears selected in the summary
table.

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Fathom 2 Help

All of the people who were married at the time of the 2000 U.S. census are selected.
See also
Select Data in a Graph 37
Select Cases in a Case Table 72

4.4.5 Use a Summary Table Without Attributes

An empty summary table, unconnected to a collection, can be used as a calculator.
 Select an empty summary table and choose Summary | Add Formula, enter an expression in
the formula editor, and click OK.

no data
Drop an attribute here
31.006277
S1 =  

If a summary table is connected to a collection, it will recognize attribute names in formulas you add to it.
 To connect a collection to a summary table, drop its name on one of the summary table’s drop
spots.

Students

130
S1 = count  

See also
Work with the Formula Editor 122

4.4.6 Sort Categories in a Summary Table

You can sort rows or columns in a summary table by cell values. The simplest case is where you have only
one categorical attribute and one formula.
 Select the summary table and choose Summary | Sort Categories By Formula Value.
When you have more than one categorical attribute or more than one formula (or both), you first have to
select what you want sorted, by clicking it. (If you have a complicated table, you can select an attribute,
then select a formula, and then sort.)

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 How To’s

Boston
Sex
Row
Male Female Summary
4 6 10
N/A
8100 4300 4300
75 85 160
ow nHom e Rents
23000 10276 16407.5
147 168 315
Ow ns or buying
23000 10400 16500
Column Summary 226 259 485
22700 10060 16000
S1 = count  
S2 = median  TotalIncome 

See also
Sort Data in a Graph 61
Sort Data in a Case Table 74

4.4.7 Format Values in a Summary Table

You can now format the values displayed in a summary table. The functionality is similar to that of the
Format Attribute command from the Table menu (see Change the Way Numbers Are Displayed in a
Case Table 75 )

4.5 Work with Dynamic Parameters (Sliders)

A slider is a named value, or a parameter, that you can use in any formula in your document. A change
you make to the slider is immediately reflected by all the parts of your document that depend on that
slider. (see Sliders 339 .)

You might use a slider named proportion in a formula for an attribute named Votes so that changing the
slider value would change the proportion of randomly generated “yes” votes in the collection of voters.
Or you might use a slider named Coefficient in a function you plot on a graph. See Plot a Function You
Can Vary Dynamically (Using a Slider) 55 .
1. Create a slider by dragging one from the shelf or choosing Object | New | Slider.
By default, sliders are named V1, V2, V3, and so on. It’s best to give your sliders meaningful names that
reflect their role in your document. The name is selected when the slider is first created, so you can

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Fathom 2 Help

change the names by typing the new name as soon as you create it .
2. Type a name for the slider. (Valid slider names follow the same rules as attribute names. See Tips for
Naming Attributes 330 .)
3. Use the slider’s name in the formula that you want to make dynamic. (If you don’t want to type the
slider’s name, you can find slider names in the formula editor’s list under Global Values.) See Work
with the Formula Editor 122 .
4. Change the slider’s value by dragging the thumb above the axis, clicking the slider’s animation button,
or editing the existing value by typing. See Animate a Slider 115 , Change a Slider’s Animation Speed 115
, and Restrict the Values a Slider Can Take 116 .
Although you usually first make and name a slider, if you have a formula editor open and you decide you
want to use a slider rather than a static value, you can type a reasonable name, and make the slider after
you’ve accepted the formula. At first you’ll get a #Name Not Recognized# error, but when you make and
rename the slider (assuming you give it the same name as you used in the formula), Fathom will recognize
it and use its value for the formula’s result.
To see examples of advanced slider functionality, look at Slider Examples.ftm

Subsections
Change a Slider’s Scale 114
Limit the Space Used by Sliders 116
Define a Slider by Formula 117
Create and Use Sliders Whose Values Have Units 117
Use a Slider to Compute Things Based on a Collection 118
Make a Slider Do a Random Walk 119
Make a Non-numeric Slider and Use It in a Filter 119

4.5.1 Change a Slider’s Scale

The numeric scale for a slider behaves just like a numeric axis of a graph. See Change Axes by Dragging
40 .

 When the cursor is over the axis, you can drag to rescale or translate.
Or…

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 How To’s

 Double-click the axis to open the slider’s inspector, and change the values for the appropriate
properties. See Slider Properties Panel 365 .
Or…
 Edit the slider’s value; for example, giving a new slider (with default scale) a value of 1000
makes the bounds go from a bit below zero to a bit over 1000.

4.5.2 Animate a Slider

Click the green animation button on the slider The button changes to .

If the slider’s value is not defined by a formula, the slider thumb will move back and forth between the
ends of the slider axis, and the value corresponding to the slider will change accordingly. Any formula
containing the slider’s name will be recalculated, and all views of it will update.

To stop the animation, click the button. You can also stop all animations by pressing the Esc key on
your keyboard. (Sometimes you have to press Esc twice.)
While an animation is taking place, you can go ahead and do other things in Fathom (but the response
might be a bit slow).

See also
Change a Slider’s Animation Speed 115
Restrict the Values a Slider Can Take 116

4.5.3 Change a Slider’s Animation Speed

The slider inspector has a property for setting a maximum animation speed. (see Animate a Slider 115 .)

1. Double-click the slider’s axis to open its inspector.

2. The second property is Max_updates_per_second; type a value in the Value cell.
The slider whose inspector is shown here will increase or decrease by 1 every half second. (see Restrict
the Values a Slider Can Take 116 .)
This property sets a maximum number of updates per second for the slider’s animation. Whether the
slider can actually update that frequently depends on the document’s size and complexity and the
computer’s speed.
If the slider’s value is determined by formula, then you cannot change the animation speed: The slider
gives a new value only when you click the animation button.

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Fathom 2 Help

See the sample document Slider Examples.ftm for advanced slider functionality.
See also
Slider Properties Panel 365

4.5.4 Restrict the Values a Slider Can Take

Suppose you want a slider that only takes on integer values (for example); you can restrict a slider’s value
in its inspector.
1. Double-click the slider’s axis to open its inspector.
2. Type a numeric value in the Restrict_to_multiples_of cell. To restrict to integers, you would type 1.
Until you remove this value, the slider will only take on values that are a multiple of the property value,
whether you change it by typing, dragging, animating, or adding a formula. (see Animate a Slider 115 and
Change a Slider’s Animation Speed 115 .)
Tip: Let’s say your slider scale goes from 0 to 10. Set the Restrict_to_multiples_of property to a small
number, such as 0.001. Now animate the slider. In the inspector, you’ll see the slider value changing at
full speed, but the slider thumb will hardly be moving because the value has to change by many multiples
of 0.001 before the slider gets to move a pixel.
See the sample document Slider Examples.ftm for uses of the new slider functionality.
See also
Slider Properties Panel 365

4.5.5 Limit the Space Used by Sliders

Sometimes you will want to have a large number of sliders, and you don’t plan to be changing values by
dragging. If you keep all the slider scales, the sliders will take up a lot of space in your document.
You can make a slider just large enough to contain the animation button, the name, and the value by
dragging the lower-right corner of the slider toward the upper-left corner.

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4.5.6 Define a Slider by Formula

Why would you want to have a slider with a formula?
 You need to know the square root of 5. Use a slider as a “scratch” calculator.
 You want to calculate a value from a collection and allow other collections to use it.
 You want theparameter to a model or simulation to be chosen randomly from a certain distribution.
 You are creating a simulation in which you need a parameter to evolve recursively over time.
To define a slider by formula:

1. With the slider selected, choose Edit | Edit Formula to show a formula editor.
2. Enter a formula. Here’s a fun one: randomInteger(1,6).
3. Close the formula editor and press the animation button on the slider.
The value of the slider will update each time you click the animation button. Notice that the slider’s
thumb has changed shape and is no longer draggable. Notice also that the value of the slider is gray to
remind you that it is computed.
You can edit a computed slider’s formula. Editing a slider value wipes out its formula; the text becomes
blue and the draggable thumb returns.
See the sample document Slider Examples.ftm for uses of the new slider functionality.
See also
Slider Properties Panel 365
Work with the Formula Editor 122

4.5.7 Create and Use Sliders Whose Values Have Units

Slider values can have units, just the same way that attribute values can. See Attributes with Units 331 .
You can type a slider value with units, as shown above. Once the slider value has units, it will keep those
units while it animates.

A slider can also acquire units through its formula. The formula above will choose a random speed in

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miles per hour every time it recalculates.

4.5.8 Use a Slider to Compute Things Based on a Collection

There are times when you want measures computed for a collection to be accessible throughout the
document. For example, suppose you have measured the weights of a bunch of butterfly cocoons, and
you want the mean and standard deviation of those weights to be used to generate simulated weights
from a normal distribution. You can use sliders to calculate the values you need and then refer to those
sliders in any formula in the document.
Here’s how:
1. Drag the name of the collection from the collection to the slider and release.
The slider will acquire a thick black border indicating that you can drop there.
2. Choose Edit | Edit Formula.
3. Enter a formula that refers to an attribute in the collection, such as mean(weight).
4. Edit the slider name to reflect its use.

Now you can refer to this slider in other situations. For example, in a dot plot of simulated cocoon
weights, you could plot values to compare the actual mean cocoon weight with the mean of the simulated
weights.

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4.5.9 Make a Slider Do a Random Walk

Suppose, just for fun, you want a slider value to bounce around in a random walk.
1. Make a slider and name it place.
2. Give the slider this formula: place + RandomPick(-1, 1).
3. In the slider’s inspector, set the value of the Max_updates_per_second property to some positive value.
4. Press the slider’s animation button and watch the fun.
Note: Were you surprised that you didn’t get the dreaded #Circular Reference# error with this slider
formula? Slider formulas are allowed to refer to themselves!
See also
Slider Properties Panel 365
Random Functions 421

4.5.10 Make a Non-numeric Slider and Use It in a Filter

Sliders are not required to have numeric values. You can give them string values, too. When you do, the
slider’s thumb disappears, and pressing the animation button doesn’t do anything.
Here is a bar chart of people from Ohio showing the metropolitan area from which they come. The slider
below the graph is used in a filter for the graph to limit cases to a single state. It is easy to change the
state by typing a new value for the slider.

See also
Write a Filter 121

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4.5.11 Use a Slider to Create Experiments

There are times when you want to collect values from a slider along with other values from sensors or
keypresses.. For example, suppose you have a slider that generates speeds of automobiles as a random
function, and you want to collect those values in a collection. You can use sliders to generate the values
you need and then collect them in an experiment collection.
Here’s how:
1. Drag the plug from the slider to the collection and release.
The collection will change to an experiment collection and its' inspector will open to the experiment
panel.
2. Set up the collection parameters.(see Set Up an Experiment 154 )

See Also
Collect Values from a Meter 153

4.6 Work with Formulas

Formulas are used throughout Fathom for a variety of purposes. You can use formulas to:

 define attributes (see Enter a Formula for an Attribute 121 ).

 filter cases in collections, tables, graphs, estimates, and tests (see Write a Filter 121 ).
 plot values and functions on graphs (see Plot a Line at a Given Value on a Graph 49 and Plot a
Function on a Graph 53 ).
 determine what information appears in a summary table.
 determine where cases appear in collections and how they look and are captioned (see Change the
Appearance of Cases in a Collection 106 ).
 define measures (see Define a Measure 105 ).
 compute the value of slider (see Define a Slider by Formula 117 ).
 control when sampling or measures collections stop.
Any time you create or edit a formula, you use the same formula editor interface (see Anatomy of the
Formula Editor 125 ).
See also

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 How To’s

Write a Filter 121

Enter a Formula for an Attribute 121
Work with the Formula Editor 122

4.6.1 Write a Filter

The basic idea is to add the filter to an object that has cases in it. When you first add a filter, the formula
editor appears.
Some objects have places for filters, which are the white areas at the bottom, inside the border.
Note: Adding a filter to a collection will apply the filter to all objects connected to that collection (such as
tables and graphs); if you want to filter just one object, add the filter to that object. (see Filter a Graph 61
.)
1. Make the object active by clicking in it. You should see its border.
2. Choose Add Filter from the Object menu. The formula editor appears.
3. Enter the formula. Be sure to enclose any strings in quotes, as shown here:

4. Close the formula editor. The object will now show only cases where the filter is true.
 Edit a filter by double-clicking it.
 To remove the filter, choose Object | Remove Filter or edit the filter and erase it.
Filters are always Boolean expressions; see Make Boolean Expressions 130 .
For complicated filters, you may need Boolean operators (and, or, and not); see Operators 414 .
See also
Work with the Formula Editor 122
Make a Non-numeric Slider and Use It in a Filter 119

4.6.2 Enter a Formula for an Attribute

Briefly, click on an attribute name in a case table and choose Edit | Edit Formula to open the formula
editor. Enter the formula for the attribute there.
To calculate the values of an attribute from the values of other attributes, write a formula telling Fathom
how to do the calculation.

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For example, if your student data has height expressed as two attributes, feet and inches, you might write a
formula for heightInInches, which would be 12 * feet + inches. If you had time and distance, you might make
speed.
You write the formula in the formula editor. A formula is not a complete equation; it is an expression for
computing the value of an attribute. We’ll use the example in which we define speed to be distance/time.

1. Make a new attribute to hold your calculated values (see Add Attributes in a Case Table 68 ).
2. In a case table for the collection, click the attribute name and choose Edit | Edit Formula. The
formula editor appears.
Alternatively, you can bring up the context menu (see Context (Right-Click) Menus 413 ) for the attribute
(as shown here) and choose Edit Formula. Or double-click in the formula box for the attribute. These
two methods work just as well in the collection inspector (see Cases Panel 354 ).

3. Enter the formula. Type just the right side; no equals signs. Use the asterisk (“*”) for multiplication
and the slash (“/”) for division. For our example, type distance/time. There’s a lot you can do with this
editor. For more, see Work with the Formula Editor 122 .
4. Click OK to close the formula editor. You should see the new values in the table column. (If you click
Apply , you can see the results in the table or inspector, but the formula editor stays open.)
Some attributes may require formulas with conditional functions such as if-statements. See Express a
Condition with an If-Statement 130 and Recode with a Switch Statement 131 .
Note: You can use the same context menu that gives you Edit Formula to use Cut, Copy, Paste, and
Clear with formulas. These commands are perfect for removing formulas from attributes (while
preserving their values) and for giving the same formula to many attributes.
Other uses of formulas:
Plot a Function on a Graph 53

Writing formulas for statistics (see Define a Measure 105 ) in a collection, or computing things in summary
tables, (see Add or Remove a Summary Table’s Formulas 111 ).
Writing filters. See Write a Filter 121 .

4.6.3 Work with the Formula Editor

Formulas are used throughout Fathom for a variety of purposes. Any time you create or edit a formula,
you use the same formula editor interface. You can use formulas to do the following:

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 How To’s

Use a formula to … Example

Determine the values of a Define an attribute, PopulationDensity, and give it the formula Population/
new attribute. Area or one of the Random Functions.

Enter the formula sex = "M" to look at only the males in a collection of
Define a filter.
people. (see Write a Filter 121 .)

To summarize student heights, enter the formulas mean(height), median(

Summarize data. height), and (max(height)+min(height))/2. See Add or Remove a Summary
Table’s Formulas 111 or Define a Measure 105 .

To compare tomato plants grown in sunny locations with those grown in

Define a statistic. shady locations, enter this formula: (mean(height, loc = "sunny")–mean(
height, loc = "shady").

Suppose you wanted to throw dice until there were 2 sixes. You would use
Control a simulation. an “until” command in the Collect Measures panel of a measures
collection inspector with the formula count(face=6)=2.

To make a slider that will choose a random integer between 1 and 100
Compute a slider value. each time its animation button is pressed, give it the formula randomInteger
(1, 100).

With formulas, you don’t simply choose from a list of statistics or filters or simple computations. You
can compute practically anything you want, as long as you know how to express it.
See Fathom Operators, Functions, and Units 413 for a complete list of the functions available in Fathom.
Subsections
Open the Formula Editor 123
Color-Coding in Formulas 127
Use the Keypad 128
Use the Attribute and Function List 128
Make Exponents 129
Express a Condition with an If-Statement 130
Recode with a Switch Statement 131
Move the Cursor and Select a Portion of an Expression 129
Frequently Asked Questions About Formulas 135

4.6.3.1 Open the Formula Editor

Basically, if you can see a formula, double-click it to edit it. If you can see the place a formula should be,
double-click that or bring up a context menu for an object, and choose a command that requires a
formula.

To write or edit a formula

Do this to get the formula editor …
for a(n) …

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Fathom 2 Help

Click the attribute name in a case table or Cases panel of an inspector

and choose Edit | Edit Formula.
In a case table, choose Table | Show Formulas to display the
formula row under the attribute names. Then double-click the cell
Attribute (Define an Attribute under the name of the attribute whose formula you wish to edit.
by Formula When the Formula
In the Cases panel of an inspector, double-click the formula cell for
Row Is Hidden 73 , Define an
an attribute.
Attribute by Formula Using
the Collection’s Inspector 93 ) Bring up the Context (Right-Click) Menus for the attribute as it is
displayed in a case table or inspector and choose Edit Formula.
In a case table for an attribute whose values are already computed with
a formula (they show with a gray background), double-click any of the
values.

Filter for an object (Restrict Select the object and choose Object | Add Filter.
the Cases You See by Filtering If there is already a filter showing underneath the object, double-click
Data 96 ) it.

In the Measures panel of a collection’s inspector, double-click the

Measure (Define a Measure 105 Formula cell of a measure.
) Bring up the Context (Right-Click) Menus for the measure as it is
displayed in an inspector and choose Edit Formula.

Plotted function (Plot a
Function on a Graph 53 ) or a
plotted value (Plot a Line at a
Given Value on a Graph 49 )
Select a graph that has two numeric axes and choose Graph | Plot
Function.
Most graphs that have at least one numeric axis can take a plotted
value. Select the graph and choose Graph | Plot Value.
For an existing plotted value or function, double-click its formula.

With the slider selected, choose Edit | Edit Formula.

Slider (Define a Slider by
Formula 117 ) In the Properties panel for a slider, double-click the Formula cell in
the first row.

Value in a statistical object (

Use Sliders to Vary Summary Click in the value whose formula you would like to create or edit.
Information in a Statistical Choose Edit | Edit Formula.
Object 173 )

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4.6.3.2 Anatomy of the Formula Editor

A formula in Fathom (except for a filter) is simply the right side of your equation
or function. The left side is already entered for you in the formula prompt area.
What to enter
So if you want speed = distance/time, open the formula for speed and enter distance/
time, as shown.

You can enter your formula on the keyboard if you wish; what you type goes
The keyboard
right into the formula pane. See Keyboard Shortcuts 441 for details.

The title bar describes what you are writing a formula for; in this case, the
Title bar
attribute speed. Drag the bar to move the editor around in the document.

You enter your formula here. You can enter it by typing, clicking on the keypad,
Formula pane
and/or double-clicking items in the attribute and function list.

Formula prompt This is where Fathom writes the left side of the equation.

Choose from this pop-up menu to make the formula font bigger or smaller.
Font size pop-up
Your choice will be remembered as a preference.

Adjust this bar up or down to give yourself less or more room in the formula
Resize formula bar
pane.

Click these buttons to enter numbers and commonly used operators. Hold down
Keypad
the Ctrl (Win) Option (Mac) key to see some additional keypad choices.

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This pane lists the attributes and measures available to you as well as the many
functions Fathom recognizes. Expand the lists to see the choices. To enter a
function or attribute, double-click it. To learn what a function does, select it
Function and (single-click) and look in the help pane below.
attribute pane Here is information on Fathom’s built-in functions: Fathom Operators,
Functions, and Units 413 .
Here is information on Fathom’s Special Values 434 .

The Cancel button closes the formula editor without applying any changes since
the editor was opened or since the Apply button was pressed. Apply makes the
Buttons
current expression in the formula pane take effect. The OK button applies the
formula and closes the formula editor window.

Resize help bar Drag this up or down to make the help pane bigger or smaller.

Displays help text for currently selected heading or function in the function and
Help pane
attribute pane.

Resize the formula editor to suit your need to have a larger or smaller formula
pane, function and attribute pane, or help pane. On Windows, you can resize by
Resize window
dragging the edges or corners of the window. On Mac, drag the lower-right
corner of the window.

4.6.3.3 Use the Keyboard in the Formula Editor

You can always type a formula in the editor. Most “traditional” keyboard shortcuts for math work.
Selection is important.

To get … Type …

Ctrl+Shift+R (Win) Option+Shift+R (Mac), then area

pi

width^2

P, then Ctrl+< (Win) Option+< (Mac), then 0.5

x+1, then

,
, then /2; alternatively, use parentheses: (x+1)/2
x^2, then

, then +1
 Use * for multiply, / for divide, and ^ for exponentiation.
 Most familiar functions work using the most common abbreviation: sin, random, floor, ln, log,

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 How To’s

asin, exp, sgn, to name a few. Functions require parentheses around their arguments, as in sin
(x).

 Use to get the cursor out of an exponent, root, or the denominator of a fraction.
 Did π not appear when it should have? When you type pi and then immediately type another
letter or a number, Fathom doesn’t know that you mean pi to be its own word. After typing pi,
press one of the arrow keys or the space bar (or * if you want to multiply). After the π appears,
you can type anything you want, and the π will remain π.
 Entering one vertical bar “|” makes a pair of absolute-value bars.
 The double-quote key makes a pair of quotes.
 The open parenthesis “(” makes a pair of parentheses.

 When you type if( you get a complete (though empty) if-statement, with three parts for you to
fill in. Type the condition (for example, income > 100000), then press Tab to move to the
results (result-if-true goes on the top, result-if-false on the bottom). If you want the results to
be words (also known as strings), you must surround them with quotation marks.
 When you have more than two results, instead of nesting if-statements, you can use the switch
function. This is useful for recoding attributes. It takes an optional expression inside
parentheses and then evaluates each of any number of true/false expressions to determine
which value to return. To add an alternative, press Insert (Win) or Option+Return (Mac) on
your keyboard.
 To insert something in the beginning, don’t click to place your cursor; instead, arrow to the
beginning before adding to the existing formula.

4.6.3.4 Color-Coding in Formulas

As you put things into a formula, some of them change color to let you know that Fathom has
recognized it as special.

Thing Color Example

Attribute names Maroon

Measure names Purple

Function names Blue

Global values (slider

Brown (randomBinomial is a function. n and
names)
probability are slider names.)

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Fathom 2 Help

Constants Red
(true and false are constants.)

Units Green
(m and s are the units meters and seconds.)

Icon names Tan

4.6.3.5 Use the Keypad

Click on the number and symbol buttons in the keypad to enter them into a formula. Everything that can
be entered from the keypad can also be entered by typing from your computer’s keyboard. When you
hold down Ctrl (Win) Option (Mac), you can see alternative buttons, such as ≥.

4.6.3.6 Use the Attribute and Function List

You can enter parts of your expression by double-clicking items in the attribute and function list. This is
handy if you have long attribute names or if you can’t remember exactly how to spell a particular
function, such as stdError for standard error.

 To see a list of choices in a given category, click the open/close control next to the category. In this
example, the user is about to open the Attributes list.

 To enter an item from the list into the formula, double-click it.
 To close a list, click the open/close control.
 To see an explanation of an item, click it once to select it. You can then read the help for that
item in the help pane at the bottom of the editor. This is especially handy if you can’t
remember the exact syntax for using a function.

4.6.3.7 Adjust the Formula Editor Panes

When you want to see more of various portions of the formula editor, for example, when you have a tall
formula or you want to see more of the formula list, you can drag the borders of the formula and help
panes. (You cannot make the middle portion too small to see the keypad.)

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4.6.3.8 Move the Cursor and Select a Portion of an Expression

Moving and positioning the cursor in the formula editor can be tricky. Here are some tips for getting
what you want to happen:
 In general, you can click the mouse where you want to position the cursor; but when that fails, try the
right and left arrow keys either on the formula editor keypad or on your keyboard.
 If you are inside a parenthetical expression, typing a right parenthesis will move the cursor to the right
and outside of that expression.
 If you are inside a quoted expression (a string), typing a double quote will move the cursor to the right
and outside the quoted expression.
 Pressing Tab will select the next selectable chunk of the entire expression. This is particularly helpful
when you have if- or switch statements and you want to get to the next section.
 The up arrow keys on the keypad and the keyboard will select the next largest chunk of the expression,
starting from the current selection. (Example: Pressing the up arrow enough times will select the entire
expression.)
 The down arrow keys on the keypad and the computer keyboard will select the next smallest chunk of
the expression. (But this is less useful than the up arrow, because it is hard to predict which smaller
expression will be selected.)

4.6.3.8.1 The Effect of Selection

Selection can play an important role in creating formulas. When an expression is selected, pressing certain
keys causes them to operate on the entire selection. For example, if a + b, without parentheses, is selected
and you press * (for multiplication), you get (a + b)*.
In each of the following examples, the user types /4.

4.6.3.9 Make Exponents



 Click the ^ key on the keypad.

Or…
 Type ^ (Shift+6) on your computer keyboard. Notice that the blinking caret moves up to
where the exponent will appear and is smaller than it was. To exit the exponent, press the right
arrow on either the keypad or your keyboard.

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4.6.3.10 Make Boolean Expressions

We’re talking about “true” and “false” here and how to combine them. For example, if you’re looking at
census data and you want to find women over 60 who are either married or divorced, then this expression
will filter out all the other people in the census file:
The comparison operators =, <, and > can be found on the formula editor’s keypad. You can also find
≤, ≥, ≠ by holding down Ctrl (Win) Option (Mac).
 Express the not of an expression (the negative of an expression) by positioning the cursor in
front of the expression and clicking the not key on the formula editor keypad.
 You can use and and or to string logical expressions together.
 When in doubt about which expressions are evaluated first, use parentheses to force the
evaluation order you want.
 “True” and “false” are allowed values for attributes, so you can write a formula for an attribute
that returns a Boolean value.
From the keyboard:
 For and, make sure the preceding expression has parentheses around it and type the word
"and".
 For and, type &. This has the same effect as the keypad button.
 For or, make sure the preceding expression has parentheses around it and type the word or.
 For or, type Ctrl+Shift+O (Win) Option+Shift+O (Mac) (that’s the letter “O” as in “Oscar”).
 For not, type ~. (~ is the tilde key, usually in the top left of your keyboard.)

4.6.3.11 Express a Condition with an If-Statement

Many times you would like the value of an attribute or filter to depend on whether something is or is not
true. That’s when you use an if-statement. Such a statement has three parts: the condition, the value when
the condition is true, and the value when the condition is false.

To create an if-statement,
 Type if( Fathom fills in the other parenthesis, the brace, and a question mark for each of the
values to be filled in;

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 How To’s

Or …
 Open the Function list to the Conditional category and double-click if.
 Enter the condition then use Tab to move to the next field (the “if true” result on top, “if
false” on the bottom).

You can create nested if-statements by using if-statements as values for if-statements. Usually, this is
more efficiently done using the switch function (see Recode with a Switch Statement 131 ).

4.6.3.12 Compute a Running Sum

Suppose you have a collection of daily sales receipts stored in an attribute named Receipts and you want
to keep a running total.
1. Define a new attribute called RunningTotal.
2. Give it the formula prev(RunningTotal)+ Receipts
This works because the prev function for the first case returns 0, unless you specify otherwise. If you
wanted the running total to reflect last month’s receipts, you would include that number. For example, if
you wanted the initial value to be 1000, you would use this formula:
prev(RunningTotal,1000)+ Receipts

4.6.3.13 Recode with a Switch Statement

Switch statements are incredibly helpful for recoding data. Unlike if-statements, switch statements can
deal with more than two possibilities.
There are three parts to a switch statement: the value to switch on, the test values, and the result values.

Enter a switch statement

 Type switch( Fathom will fill in the closing parenthesis and a brace.
 To add a test value, position the caret in an existing test or result value. Press the Insert key
(or Ctrl+Enter (Win) Option+Return (Mac)).
 To delete a test, position the caret in the test value and press the up arrow until the entire test
value is selected. Then press Delete twice. If the test is empty, the up arrow will not work. Just
position your caret in the empty test and press Backspace or Delete.

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Usually you will write switch statements similar to the preceding one. Your value to switch on will be the
name of an attribute, the test values will be values that the attribute takes on, and the result values will
amount to a recoding of the original attribute. Fathom returns the result value whose test value matches
the value being switched on.
A switch statement’s tests are not limited to equality. In this statement, for example, Fathom first
compares the value of N with 0 and returns “zero” if N does equal 0. If not, it tests to see whether N is
less than 5 and returns “low” if it is. If not, it goes on to compare N with 10 and returns “medium” if N
is less than 10. If no test has succeeded thus far, it returns “high.”
Here are some things to keep in mind when writing switch statements.

 If you do not explicitly specify a comparison operator, Fathom will test for equality.
 Fathom returns the first result value whose test returns true. The fact that later tests might also
return true has no effect on the result.
 A switch value can itself be an expression, not just the name of an attribute, for example,
circum
diameter . The result of evaluating the expression is used in the test.
 Result values may be any expression (including if- or switch statements).
 The switch value is substituted for any question marks or missing arguments to functions that
appear in the test expression.

4.6.3.14 Recode Numeric Values to Categories

Much data come with categories coded numerically rather than as words. But when you’re doing data
analysis with Fathom, you want the categories to be words you can read, not numbers you have to keep
translating.

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 How To’s

Recoding is done with the switch function, which is a conditional function that acts like a complicated
if-statement.
The collection here has two numerically coded attributes: sex: 1 = "Female", 2 = "Male"; education: 1 =
"High School", 2 = "College No Degree", 3 = "College Degree", 4 = "Graduate Work"
1. Add two attributes: sexDecode and edu.
2. Double-click the formula cell for sexDecode to show the editor.
3. Enter this formula:

Tab to move in the switch function. To insert the second option, press Insert, or Ctrl+Enter (Win)
Option+Enter (Mac).
You should include the “Other” value in the formula so that wrongly entered data and missing values
don’t get coded as male.
4. Similarly, give edu this formula:

Here are the results, shown in a case table:

People
s e x e ducation s e xDe code e du <ne w >
1 1 3 female college degree
2 2 2 male some college
3 1 1 female high school
4 1 4 female graduate w ork
5 1 4 female graduate w ork
6 2 3 male college degree
7 1 3 female college degree
8 2 4 male graduate w ork
9 2 1 male high school
10 2 3 male college degree
11 1 4 female graduate w ork
12 1 2 female some college
13 2 2 male some college

You could now clear the recoding formulas and even delete the original attributes.

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4.6.3.15 Recode Ranges of Numeric Values to Categories

You can use the switch statement to recode ranges of numeric values to categories.
Suppose you have heights in inches and you want to group them as short, medium, and tall.
1. Define a new attribute called heightGroup.
2. Give it this
formula:

Tips for entering this formula:

 You do not type the ? characters; Fathom enters them for you when you type the < or >
characters.
 To enter ≥, press Ctrl (Win) Option (Mac) and click the ≥ button on the formula editor
keypad.
 Tab to move to the next field.
 To get a new line in the switch statement, press Insert or Ctrl+Enter (Win) Option+Enter
(Mac).
 If you get too many lines in your switch statement, you can get rid of them using Delete or
Backspace until there is nothing left in the line.
You should include the “missing” line of the switch statement in case there are values that aren’t
numbers. You could code this to an empty string, that is, nothing in between a pair of quotation marks,
and that would allow Fathom to treat the missing values as truly missing.

4.6.3.16 Use Units in Formulas

When you use a formula to compute the values of an attribute, Fathom does the “unit algebra” for you
automatically. Here are some examples.
Compute speed from distance and time: Suppose you have an
attribute distance whose units are meters, and another attribute time
whose units are seconds. You can create an attribute named speed and
compute it as distance divided by time, and Fathom will compute the
units for you as m/s.

By default, Fathom will use the units that appear in the original
attributes in the result. But you can change this by typing a new,
compatible unit in the units row. For example, you could change m/s
to mph.

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Formulas with Units in Them: Sometimes you need to put units

directly in a formula. There’s no problem with that. The example at
right chooses a random volume in cubic centimeters and then displays
it in fluid ounces because the units row has been set to fluid ounces.

One thing to be careful about is naming attributes with unit names. For example, if you name an
attribute seconds, Fathom is going to prefer the attribute over the unit in formulas. This can be confusing!
So, the best idea is to keep units to the units row and out of the attribute name.
See also
Attributes with Units 331
Manage Units in a Case Table 77
Create and Use Sliders Whose Values Have Units 117
Manage Units in the Collection’s Inspector 92

4.6.4 Frequently Asked Questions About Formulas

Question Answer

I see things I want to use in the list. How do Double-click something from the list to get it into the
I get them into the formula? formula.

To copy, select what you want to copy and press Ctrl+C

How do I copy and paste in the formula
(Win) z+C (Mac). To paste, position the cursor and
editor?
press Ctrl+V (Win) z+V (Mac).

I’m having trouble editing a number. I can’t With the cursor on either the left or right side of the
click in the middle of it. What do I do? number, use the arrow keys to move inside the number.

Hold down Ctrl (Win) Option (Mac) and press the ≠

How do I get the “not equals” sign?
button that shows up on the keypad.

Pressing the comma doesn’t work to get to You don’t have a correct function. Make sure the
the second parameter of a function. Why function name is colored blue, which means Fathom
not? recognizes it.

Do I have to be careful about uppercase and Except for units, no. For example, stddev works as well
lowercase? as stdDev.

Are string comparisons case sensitive? No. "New York"="new york" returns true.

Why is it when I type mhz for megaHertz, Units are case sensitive. The abbreviation for megaHertz
Fathom doesn’t recognize it? is MHz with a capital M and capital H.

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First of all, Fathom uses a small dot as a multiplication

symbol, and you might just be missing it. Second,
Sometimes the multiplication symbol doesn’t
Fathom doesn’t show a multiplication symbol between a
appear. Why is that?
number and a letter. It can’t hurt to type *, but you
might not see it.

I’m not sure about Fathom’s order of Fathom obeys the normal rules of algebra. But, when in
evaluation. How does it work? doubt, use parentheses.

4.7 Work with Surveys

(Please Note: Fathom Surveys is an extension to Fathom 2. You need to subscribe to Fathom Surveys
at Key Online and have Fathom 2.03 (or newer) installed.

With Fathom’s Survey extension, you can use Fathom to create and upload a data-gathering form to the
web, and download the results into a Fathom collection for analysis. Here are some examples of
classroom use.
In a science class, each group enters the
data for each pendulum measurement it
makes.

A first-year algebra class is working on a

data analysis unit and gathers some data
about its class members so that it can
look at different ways of displaying data.

In a history class, the teacher asks

students to enter their ideas about what
started the Civil War. The responses are
then displayed on the computer projector
for discussion.

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Subsections
Limitations and Cautions 137

Use Fathom Surveys 137

Manage User Accounts 146

4.7.1 Limitations and Cautions

 Information is transferred without encryption. This means that computer hackers can break into the
system, and you should not use Fathom Surveys for gathering or storing highly sensitive information.
 There is no built-in mechanism to ensure that each respondent takes a survey only once. You can
require each respondent to provide an ID and check for duplicates, but Fathom Surveys cannot assist
in this process (for example, by telling a respondent that the ID they entered has already been used).
This limitation, combined with lack of encryption, means that Fathom Surveys does not provide a
secure system for conducting elections.
 Surveys you produce are always one web page, no matter how long, so you can’t control the order in
which respondents answer the questions. Also, there is no facility to change the questions that appear
based on answers or to ensure that respondents answer each question.

 Fathom Surveys drastically streamlines the process of gathering, analyzing, and disseminating
information. When it is used to gather personal information, there is real potential for harm. (see the
Ethics of Classroom Surveys online tutorial that comes with Fathom Surveys.) The Fathom Surveys
License contains additional cautionary information.

formation is transferred without encryption. This

means that computer hackers can break into the
system, and you should not use Fathom
Surveys for gathering or storing highly sensitive
information.
4.7.2 Use Fathom Surveys
This section describes everything you need to know about how to do the things you want to do with
surveys.
Subsections

Create a Survey 138

Upload a Survey to the Website 140

Get a Survey Filled Out 143

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Approve Surveys Created by a Student 143

View and Download the Results 144

Duplicate a Survey 145

Delete a Survey 145

Sort Surveys 145

Search Surveys 146

Install Fathom Surveys on Additional Computers 146

4.7.2.1 Create a Survey

To create a survey in Fathom:
1. Make a new collection by dragging one from the shelf. (You can also turn an existing collection into a
survey.) Rename the collection by double-clicking its name, typing a new one, and clicking OK. The
collection name will be the name of the survey.
You should give your survey a name that indicates what it’s about. Each survey you create needs a unique
name. Select the collection, and choose Collection | Create Survey. The collection’s inspector opens to
the Survey panel.

1. Define the attributes that will hold the data you want to collect (each attribute will correspond to one
question on the survey).
2. Type the wording of each question in that attribute’s Question field. If you don’t type a question, the
attribute name will appear in the survey.
Tips

 Resize the inspector by dragging its edge. By default, questions appear on one line in the
inspector; to resize a row drag the boundary below the attribute name.

 By default, survey questions have free-response answers. To give respondents specific answer
choices, see Add Multiple-Choice Answers 139 .
1. Type any instructions or introduction to your survey in the Instructions pane. When the survey is
complete, click Upload Survey. (You’ll be asked for your username and password. See Upload a

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Survey to the Website 140 for more details.)

2. Save this Fathom document! You will need it to make any changes to the survey or to the results
stored on the Fathom Surveys website.

4.7.2.1.1 Create Survey Instructions

To add instructions or an introduction to a survey:

1. Go to the Survey panel of the collection’s inspector.

2. Type the instructions into the Instructions pane.
3. In the Survey panel of the inspector, click Upload Survey. (Changes won’t appear on the website until
you have uploaded the latest version of your survey.)
4. Save your Fathom document.
Note: You can also add your comments to the collection. These do not appear online.
See also

Upload a Survey to the Website 140

Make Changes to a Survey Form 140

Add Multiple-Choice Answers 139

4.7.2.1.2 Add Multiple-Choice Answers

By default, respondents are provided with a text field into which they can type their responses. It’s often
desirable to instead give them a pop-up menu of choices (called a category set in Fathom). Here’s how:
Click in the Format field for the attribute and choose Define New Category Set from the pop-up menu.

Type the options in the order you want them to appear, with commas between items.

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3. Click OK.
Once you have defined a category set, it appears in the Format pop-up menu, allowing you to apply it to
more than one attribute. (For example, you can have a category set with the options no response, I
love it, I like it, I don’t care, I don’t like it, I hate it, which you can use for several questions.)

See also

Upload a Survey to the Website 140

Make Changes to a Survey Form 140

4.7.2.2 Upload a Survey to the Website

When the survey is complete, you are ready to upload it to the Fathom Surveys website. In the Survey
panel of the inspector, click Upload Survey. Enter your username and password and click OK. (If you
don’t have a username and password, see your subscription administrator.)
You should check the survey online before having people fill it out. If you want to make a change, make
it in the Fathom document and upload the survey again. See Make Changes to a Survey Form 140 for
more detail. (To view the changes, you will probably have to refresh or reload the survey’s web page.)

 Click the View Survey link in the inspector to open your web browser to the page with the
survey form. Right-click (Win) Ctrl-click (Mac) the link to copy it.

To have respondents take your survey, see Publish a Survey 141 .

 Save and keep this Fathom document!

See also

Make Changes to a Survey Form 140

Get a Survey Filled Out 143

4.7.2.2.1 Make Changes to a Survey Form

To make changes to a survey form (such as adding instructions or pop-up menu answers),

1. Make changes to the Fathom document you used to create the survey (see Create a Survey 138 , Add
Multiple-Choice Answers 139 for more detail).

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Among the things you can do are: add or delete questions, change the wording of questions, change
the title of the survey, and change the answer format for one or more of the questions.
2. In the collection’s Survey panel, click Upload Survey. (If you have closed the document since you last
uploaded it, you will need to give your username and password again.)
3. Remember to save your changes.
See also

Get a Survey Filled Out 143

4.7.2.2.2 Publish a Survey (Allow Students to Take Survey)

A newly created survey cannot be seen or taken by students until it is published by the instructor. This
gives the instructor necessary control over access to a survey. For example, a teacher might not want
students in a class to see a survey until class begins. Or, a student who can upload won’t be able to have
respondents begin taking a survey until the teacher, as instructor, has approved and published it.
Instructors can determine in their preferences whether surveys they create are immediately published by
default or left unpublished (see Update User Information 150 to learn how to change this preference).
Surveys created by students always must be approved by instructors before they are published (see
Approve Surveys Created by a Student 143 for more information).
To publish a survey:
1. Go to the Fathom Surveys website.
2. Navigate to the list of surveys and click the Edit Properties icon for the survey you wish to publish.
3. On the Properties page click the check box next to Publish Survey.

Click the Apply Changes button.

Students will now be able to see and take this survey.

See also

Publish Survey Results 142

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4.7.2.2.3 Publish Survey Results (Allow Students to See Survey Results)

Do you want students to be able to see the results of a survey? If so, you need to publish those results.
But if the responses to a survey are not meant to be shared, as would be true of a pop quiz or a student
project, then the instructor must make sure the results are not published. Instructors can determine in
their preferences whether surveys they create have their results published or not (see Update User
Information 150 to learn how to change this preference).
To publish the results of a survey:
1. Go to the Fathom Surveys website.
2. Navigate to the list of surveys and click the Edit Properties icon for the survey you wish to publish.

3. On the Properties page click the check box next to Publish Results. Click the Apply Changes button.
Students will now be able to see the results of this survey and download these results to Fathom.
See also

Publish a Survey 141

4.7.2.2.4 Upload an Existing Fathom Document as a Survey

Suppose you have a collection of data in Fathom, and you want respondents to add to that data using a
web form.
1. Select the collection and choose Collection | Create Survey. Go
to the Survey panel of the collection’s inspector and check Replace
Data On Site

1. Click Upload Survey.

The collection is now a survey on the website. Its Results page has the cases that were in the collection
when you uploaded it. Subsequent form submissions will add more cases to those results. If you
accidentally deleted a survey from the Fathom Surveys website, you could bring it back this way.
See also
Get a Survey Filled Out 143
4.7.2.2.5 Customize a Survey

If you want a customized survey form, you will need to host the survey on your own (or school’s)
website. (The survey results will still be kept on the Fathom Surveys website.) You will be editing the
HTML code, so you need a program that will let you do that. Unlike surveys hosted on the Fathom

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Surveys website, after submitting your form, respondents will not see an empty form ready for another
submission, but will see either the successful submission page or the unsuccessful submission page. You
will need to create those pages.

1. Create the survey in Fathom and upload it to the Fathom Surveys website.
2. Log in to your account. Locate the survey and click the html source button.
This gives you a window with a text box containing the HTML for your survey. All of the text is selected.
3. Copy the contents of the text box, and paste it into a text or HTML editor.
4. Locate this text: “hidden name” = “success forward” value = “ ”. Between that last pair of quotes, type the
URL for the successful submission page.
5. Similarly, locate this text: “error forward” value = “ ”. Between that pair of empty quotes, type the URL for
the unsuccessful submission page.
6. Edit the code for the page to create the look you want.
Warning! Do not edit the name and password fields or any of the name = question number fields, or
the data collection won’t work.
7. Upload the edited HTML to your own website. Note on Microsoft’s FrontPage: Use of FrontPage for
editing your survey is not recommended. If you must do so, paste the HTML into FrontPage using
the Paste Special: Paste as HTML command. All of the built-in formatting will be gone (for example,
questions and answer fields are run together, rather than each question having its own line).

4.7.2.3 Get a Survey Filled Out

To fill out a survey, respondents will need the username and password for a student account (see Add
Student Users 148 if you haven’t defined an account for your respondents).

 Give the URL for the Take Survey page to respondents. Make sure they know their username and
password. You can copy the URL from your browser or you can right-click (Win) Ctrl-click (Mac) the
View Survey link on the Survey panel in the Fathom document.

Respondents following the URL will be asked to log in before they are sent the Take Survey page.
Different people can all be filling out and submitting data from different computers at the same time; it
will all become part of the same set of results. If students are sharing computers or entering multiple
experimental results, they can simply fill out the form over and over, clicking Submit for each person or
set of results.
See also
View and Download the Results 144

4.7.2.4 Approve Surveys Created by a Student

A student who wants to create his or her own survey is given a student account with the ability to upload
surveys (see Allow a student to Upload Surveys 149 ). When a student with this ability uploads a survey,
the survey will appear in the instructor’s list of surveys as an unpublished survey, and only the instructor
and the student who created the survey will be able to view it. The instructor should review the survey to
ensure that it’s appropriate. Then, to approve it and make it available for other students to fill out, the
instructor must publish it as he or she would one of his or her own surveys (see Publish a Survey 141 for

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instructions on how to do this). The purpose of this step is to make sure that a responsible adult reviews
the survey before it is made available online.

4.7.2.5 View and Download the Results

There are two ways of getting the results into Fathom, depending on whether or not you have the
Fathom document that created the survey.

 If you have the survey-creation file open, click Download Results in the Survey panel of the collection’s
inspector. The collection fills with all data collected on the website. You can make graphs, summary
tables, or other objects from this data, just as you would with any Fathom collection.
 If you don’t have the survey-creation file, go to the list of surveys on the Fathom Surveys website, click
the View Results link, and then drag the URL and drop it into an empty Fathom document.

4.7.2.5.1 Replace Survey Data on the Website

Suppose the data you get from a survey is messy and needs to be cleaned up before it can be analyzed.
You can clean up the data in the survey file’s collection, and replace what is stored on the Fathom
Surveys website with the cleaned up version of the data.

1. Clean up the data.

2. In the inspector’s Survey panel, check Replace Data On Site.
3. Upload the survey.
Now the Results page on the server has the cleaned up data, which others can import into their own
Fathom documents for analysis.

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4.7.2.5.2 Delete Survey Results

You can leave a survey intact, but remove the results (to re-use a survey form with another group, for
example).

1. In Fathom, select the survey collection and choose Edit | Select All Cases.
2. Choose Edit | Cut Cases. (You can then paste them into another collection, if you want.)
3. In the Survey panel of the collection’s inspector, check Replace Data On Site and upload the survey.
The survey form will remain intact, but the results will be cleared.

If you want to get rid of the survey, see Delete a Survey 145 .

4.7.2.6 Duplicate a Survey

Suppose you want to give a survey you’ve created to a second group, but with minor changes to it.
Instead of re-creating the whole thing from scratch, you can copy your survey and paste it as a new
survey. Select the collection and choose Edit | Copy Collection.

1. Click in a blank place in the document or make a new Fathom document if you want the surveys in
separate documents.
2. Choose Edit | Paste Collection. Rename the collection by double-clicking its name and typing a new
name.
3. If the original collection had cases in it, you should delete them in the new collection by choosing Edit |
Select All Cases, then choosing Edit | Delete Cases.

The new collection retains all the survey information of the old collection, but it has not yet been stored
on the Fathom Surveys website. You can change it however you wish.

4.7.2.7 Delete a Survey

If you want to keep the results of the survey, make sure you have saved them (for example, in a Fathom
document).

1. Log in to the Fathom Surveys website (using an instructor username and password).
2. Locate the unwanted survey and click the delete survey icon.
If you want to keep the survey but get rid of the results, see Delete Survey Results 145 .

4.7.2.8 Sort Surveys

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Fathom 2 Help

You can sort surveys in your list on the Fathom Surveys website. To do so, click on a column name. Click
on the column name a second time to sort by that column in the opposite order. For example, clicking
twice on Survey Published will sort the surveys so that all the published surveys are at the top.

4.7.2.9 Search Surveys

On the Surveys page you will find two search fields - Title and Instructions - into which you can type
some text you wish to find. When you press the Search button, just the surveys that contain that text
either in the title or the instructions will be displayed. Note that the survey questions and responses
cannot be searched.

4.7.2.10 Install Fathom Surveys on Additional Computers

First, note that you don’t need anything but a web browser and Internet access to fill out a survey that has
been created and uploaded by Fathom to Fathom Surveys. Second, you can download survey results into
Fathom and analyze the responses on any computer that has Fathom installed.
But, if you want to use a certain computer to upload a survey from Fathom to Fathom Surveys, you must
install Fathom Surveys. Here’s how:
1. Download the appropriate Mac or Windows installer from Key Online.
2. You can download the installer onto each individual machine, or you can download it once and put
the installer in a place accessible to each machine (e.g., on a network server).
3. Double-click the installer and follow the on-screen directions.
Two additional benefits result from this installation:

 This help system for Fathom Surveys will be installed, including the movies.

 You will be sure that users will be running Fathom version 2.03 or later, which means that when
students download survey results, they will get a Survey panel that includes the questions that
belong to the survey.

4.7.3 Manage User Accounts

To use the Fathom Surveys website, your school and each user needs a username and password. Each
user, when created, is assigned a user role: administrator, instructor or student. An administrator was
chosen for your school when your school registered to use this product. Administrator users can define,
edit or delete instructor accounts for your school.
Instructors can view information for themselves, their administrator, and their students. They can add, edit,
or delete student accounts, and manage their own and their students' surveys.
Students can take and view their instructor’s surveys. If their instructor allows it, students can also upload
surveys, but are not published (available for being filled in) until approved by the instructor.

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Subsections
Explanation of User Roles 147
Log in to Your Fathom Surveys Account 148
Add Instructor Users 148
Add Student Users 148
Allow a Student to Upload Surveys 149
Update User Information 150
Change Administrators 151

4.7.3.1 Explanation of User Roles

A Fathom Surveys account for an organization has three kinds of users—an organization administrator,
instructors, and students. The table below explains who they typically are and what they can and cannot
do.

Role Who Can Cannot Notes

Administrator Teacher, Authorize new instructors; Upload surveys, Receives an email from
administrator see all instructors. add students, Key Online with
, or computer publish surveys information needed to
technician or survey results get started. Initiates
authorization of new
Teachers using Key
Online.

Instructor Teacher or Upload surveys, fill out Add/delete Receives email from
(less often) surveys, publish surveys and instructors, view Administrator with
administrator survey results, delete or modify information needed to
surveys, add/delete anything get started.
students, update student belonging to
information and own user other instructors
information

Student Student or Fill out published surveys, Publish survey Typically one student
Anyone see and download published or survey account is used by many
without survey results. May be results, modify students to take
Fathom granted ability to upload anything on the surveys.
access surveys from Fathom. website.

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4.7.3.2 Log In to Your Fathom Surveys Account

There are several ways: a subscription administrator or instructor can always log in to the Key Online
website and choose the Fathom Surveys tab.
 Anyone with an account can log in directly at Fathom Surveys. Uploading a newly created survey from
Fathom causes the appearance of the View Survey link in the Survey panel. Clicking on this link takes
you to the Fathom Surveys login page and then to the survey itself.
 A common method for getting respondents to the survey you want them to fill out is either to email
them the link to the survey or to post the link to the survey on a web site. When the respondent clicks
the link, they are asked to provide a username and password before being taken to the survey itself. A
student who has misplaced the link to the survey s/he wants to fill out can navigate to the survey by
starting at the Key Math website.

4.7.3.3 Add Instructor Users

When your school registered for Fathom Surveys, an Administrator account was created. An
authorization code was emailed to your designated school Administrator. The administrator allows
instructors to create their own accounts by emailing them this authorization code.
To create your instructor account:
1. Follow the URL to the Key Online website.
2. Follow the Key Online registration process.
An email will be sent to the instructor with instructions on how to activate the Key Online account.
Once you activate the account, you can register for Fathom Surveys by following directions on the
Key Online website.

To access your instructor account, go to Key Online and click the My Account tab or follow the View
Survey link in an uploaded survey.

4.7.3.4 Add Student Users

Instructors can create surveys and they create students who are given permission to take these surveys.
Typically, an instructor will create a single “generic” student, or a single student per class. Anyone who
logs on to Fathom Surveys as this student can take the surveys created by the instructor.

To create student accounts (for example, one student user for each class you teach), you must have an
instructor account.

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 How To’s

1. Log in to the Fathom Surveys website using

your instructor username and password.

2. Follow the Student link.

3. Click Add a Student Account. You must

enter the student’s username and password.
It is not necessary to provide an
organization, first name, last name, or email
address. Note that by default you should
not allow students to upload surveys.

Keep track of passwords you assign to students. You cannot retrieve a password from Fathom Surveys if
you forget it, but you can always assign a new password.
See also

Allow a Student to Upload Surveys 149

Update User Information 150

4.7.3.5 Allow a Student to Upload Surveys

An instructor can give a student the ability to upload surveys from Fathom. You want to allow this for
students who need to create their own surveys, such as a student who is doing a project that requires
administering a survey.

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Fathom 2 Help

1. Navigate to the student’s user information.

2. Check the Yes box under Can upload surveys?.
Surveys uploaded by a student are not immediately published. To help make sure that such surveys are
properly reviewed, only the instructor can publish them. Students doing a project need to upload a survey
and then ask their teacher to approve the survey and publish it.
After the survey is published, any student account created by the instructor can take the survey.
See also
Add Student Users 148
Publish a Survey 141

4.7.3.6 Update User Information

Instructors can update information for themselves and for student accounts they have created.

Follow the Students link after logging in. Click on the edit
properties icon for the desired user. Change the information for the
given user and click Apply Changes. (Note that if you don’t wish to
change the user’s password, you should leave the two password fields
empty.)

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4.7.3.7 Change Administrators

To change Administrators, please contact Key Curriculum Press at keyonline.administrator@keypress.
com.

4.8 Create Experiments

In Fathom, an experiment is a collection to which meters or sliders can be attached for the purpose of
collecting data, typically from an external source such as a temperature sensor, microphone, or voltmeter.
External probes are represented in Fathom by meters. For example, you can create a meter associated
with a temperature sensor immersed in a pot of water in order to collect the temperature of the water.
Experiments can also collect data from sliders, keypresses, or values you type into the collection.
Experiments automatically provide the time each case was collected. You can analyze the data collected in
an experiment just as you analyze the data contained in any other collection.

There are many different ways to use experiments in the classroom. Here are some examples:

Light: Capture a waveform. Use a light sensor to analyze the differences in intensities in light from an
LCD monitor, fluorescent lighting, a candle, and sunlight.

Temperature: Compare the cooling rates of different liquids such as oil, water, and soda. Compare
changes in temperature relative to changes in density. Compare the heating and cooling curves for
different liquids.

Velocity and Acceleration: Roll different objects through photogates on ramps. Compare differences in
acceleration relative to mass, height of ramp, inclination of ramp, and distance rolled.

Events and Timers: Record the number of cars passing a house next to a school. Compare the
distributions of arrivals just before and after school and during the day.

Subsections
Work with Meters 151
Connect Sensors 153
Set Up an Experiment 154

4.8.1 Work with Meters

A meter gives you an onscreen view of a data-generating device, such as a temperature sensor or a
photogate. In a meter, you can see the current value being returned by the device and specify the type of
values that you want collected and how and when this meter will generate a spark. You can use meters as
attributes in collections by dragging the plug in the meter to a collection (see Collect Values from a Meter
153 ).

Subsections

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Fathom 2 Help

Make a New Meter 152

Collect Values from a Meter 153

See also
Set Up an Experiment 154

4.8.1.1 Make a New Meter

There are several ways to make a new meter.

 If there are no sensors plugged in, click on the meter icon in the shelf. A pop-up menu appears. Select
a meter from the list and drop it into your document.

 If there is a sensor plugged in, click on the meter icon in the shelf. An object will appear for the
connected sensor; drop it into your document.
 Go to the Object | New menu and choose the type of meter you want. If a sensor for this meter is
plugged into the computer, the meter name will appear above the line (see Connect Sensors) 153 . Drop
it into your document.

 If Fathom is running when you plug in a sensor, a new meter for it will be automatically created in the
active document. If there is already a meter of the correct type in the document, then the sensor will be
assigned to that meter instead (see Connect Sensors) 153 .

Connecting Photogates
If you have a photogate connected but the meter name does not appear above the line or you do not get
the automatic meter appearance, then your photogate is a non-auto-id photogate. In this case, you need
to select the photogate meter from the list under the line in the menu. Fathom also assumes that the first
photogate meter corresponds to a photogate in Channel 1. If you have only one non-auto-id photogate

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then make sure it is attached to Channel 1.

To rename a meter, double-click the name and type a new one.

To change meter properties, double-click anywhere in the meter to show the meter's inspector.
To collect data from the meter, you need to connect the meter to a collection (see Collect Values from a
Meter 153 ).

4.8.1.2 Collect Values from a Meter

A meter shows the current value of a sensor collecting data. To collect data from the sensor, you need to
attach the meter to a collection.
1. Select the meter.
2. A plug will become visible in the upper-right corner of the meter.
3. Drag this plug to a collection.
4. The collection changes to an experiment and the collection's inspector opens at the Experiment panel.

Collect from Photogates

The photogate meter shows whether the gate is blocked or clear. The values collected when a photogate
meter is attached to an experiment are the Time of the observation, the MidTime, and the GateTime. The
MidTime is the middle of the duration for which each of the photogates was blocked. It is possible to get
the different times associated with a photogate by manipulating these three times.
See also
Set Up Experiment 154
Use a Slider to Create Experiments 120

4.8.2 Connect Sensors

Vernier provides three basic ways to connect a sensor to the computer.

Go! Devices: The sensor cable plugs directly into a USB port on
the computer.

Go! Link: The sensor plugs into a Go! Link interface that plugs
into a USB port on the computer.

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LabPro: The sensor plugs into a LabPro interface. The LabPro is

powered either by batteries or by being plugged into a wall socket.
A USB cable from the LabPro plugs into a USB port on the
computer.

Connect Photogates
If you are connecting only one photogate then make sure that it is attached to Channel 1. There is no way
to specify or change the channel that a sensor is associated with. For all auto-id sensors, the channel is
automatically detected and moving the sensor will reassign the channel. Photogates are largely non-auto-
id sensors and do not communicate channel information to the computer.

4.8.3 Set Up an Experiment

In Fathom, there are several ways to set up an experiment. Dragging a meter or slider to a collection will
create an experiment, as will selecting a collection and choosing the Create Experiment menu item.
Dragging a meter or slider to an existing experiment will add it to the experiment. To configure the
experiment parameters, use the Experiment panel in the inspector.

Experiments can also be set up without the sensors physically present; for example, by the instructor at
home to facilitate data collection in the classroom, or as homework in preparation for a lab period.
 To collect data at regular timed intervals, click Collect By Time. You can specify how many cases you
want to collect, at what rate, and for what duration. If you specify any two of these then Fathom
calculates the third quantity, for example, 100 cases per second for 3000 cases, or 100 cases per second
for 30 seconds. If you collect by timed intervals, time is automatically an attribute of the experiment.
If you are trying to collect data at a very fast rate (faster than 100 cases/second) from a LabPro sensor,
for example, 10,000 cases/second from a microphone, then data collection proceeds in batch mode. This
means that no cases will be visible in the experiment collection until the experiment is over. The meters
will update during this duration and the experiment progress bar will indicate that the experiment is in
progress. The LabPro buffers the data in batch mode, so there is a limit on the total number of cases

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collected. The LabPro buffer can only store 12,287 points, and this is divided by the number of attached
sensors to give the limit on number of cases. For instance, if you have three sensors attached, the LabPro
will store about 4000 cases.
If you are collecting faster than 10,000 cases/second (especially with triggering) then collection proceeds
in a Fast Mode. This mode may have some channel limitations. If you experience problems, make sure
your sensor is attached to channel 1 of the LabPro.
 To collect data based on keyboard events, click Collect By Keypress. If you collect by keypress,
Fathom always collects the value of the key pressed.
 To collect data from a photogate, create a photogate meter and attach it to the collection. An
experiment inspector will appear. A photogate does not have to be present to create the experiment.
(see Collect from Photogates 153 ).

 Click Turn Experiment On to begin collecting. You can defer the start of the collecting based on
some external condition (see Triggering 155 below).

Triggering: To trigger the start of an experiment based on external

conditions, check the Trigger checkbox. This will open up a panel that
allows you to specify when to begin collecting data. You can trigger
collection when a meter value falls or rises through a threshold.
Subsections
Add Attributes to an Experiment 155

4.8.3.1 Add Attributes to an Experiment

You can add attributes that are not collected from meters to an experiment. These attributes can have
values entered by hand or defined by formulas. You can do this while the experiment is on.
To add attributes to an experiment
1. Select the experiment. Double-click to show the inspector. Go to the Cases panel.
2. Click the word <new> after the last attribute. Type in the name of the attribute.

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3. Double-click in the Formula column if you want to define the attribute by formula.

See also
Add Attributes in a Case Table 68

4.9 Create Simulations

Fathom’s idea of a simulation is that there is some random process (usually either a collection with
randomly generated values or a sample collection). One or more results are calculated as measures. By
allowing the random process to run multiple times, you can collect a bunch of results (that is, collect
measures). You can display the results with the hope of characterizing the random process. A schematic
of this is shown here.

There are many ways to build simulations in Fathom, but they all follow this basic pattern. Below is a
simple coin-flipping simulation in which the results are the number of heads when three coins are flipped.

Subsections
Sampling Simulations 157
Collect Measures and Other Results 159
Use Scrambling to Test for Independence 162
Simulation Examples 163

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See also
Random Functions 421
Collect Measures 383

4.9.1 Sampling Simulations

A sample collection selects cases from its source collection. You can use it to sample with or without
replacement, and you can control how many cases it gets at each sample.

Regular Sampling
One reason to sample is that you have a big collection and you only want to look at a little of it. So you
choose some cases at random and use them as a stand-in for the whole population.

Simulation
Another reason to sample, especially while you’re learning, is to do simulation. You can learn about the
mathematical properties of sampling by repeatedly sampling from a population to see what the samples
would have told you if you had seen each of them alone. You might use this, for example, to study
confidence intervals.
You can also use sampling to simulate common (and less-common) probability events. For example, to
make a coin-flipper, make a collection with two cases, heads and tails. Then sample from it with
replacement.

Bootstrap
Suppose you have N cases in your collection.
If you set up the sample collection to make a new collection by drawing N cases from the original
collection with replacement, this is called a bootstrap. This technique draws as many items as were in the
original collection, but because it’s with replacement, the exact distribution may not be the same. Some
cases will have been chosen twice; others not at all.
You often use a bootstrap to establish a confidence interval for a summary statistic (the median, say).

See also
Take a Sample 157
Collect Measures and Other Results 159
Generate a Sampling Distribution 164
4.9.1.1 Take a Sample
Sampling in Fathom means to choose some number of cases randomly from a collection and put them
into a new collection. The original collection is not changed. The sample collection is a kind of derived
collection. There are two ways to sample cases from a collection: Drag and drop or use a menu
command.

Drag and Drop

1. Make a new collection, for example, by dragging one off the shelf.

2. Drag the name of the source collection into the new collection.
The new collection becomes a sample collection.

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Using a Menu
1. Select the collection.
2. Choose Collection | Sample Cases.
A sample collection is created and filled.
You can control the sampling process in the Sample panel of its inspector (see Sample Panel).
If you Define a Measure, you can collect measures to build a sampling distribution of your measure(s)
(see Collect Measures and Other Results 159 ).
See also
Change the Number of Cases Sampled 158
Collect Another Sample 158

4.9.1.2 Change the Number of Cases Sampled

You can change the number of cases in your next sample.

1. Show the sample collection’s inspector (either by double-clicking it or by selecting it and choosing
Object | Inspect Collection).
2. Go to the Sample panel. If you can’t see the Sample panel? You probably selected the original, or
source, collection. Double-click the sample collection (the box of blue balls).
3. Replace the number 10 with the number of cases you want to have in your sample.
4. Click Sample More Cases and the sample will be collected again with the specified number of cases.

4.9.1.3 Collect Another Sample

There are several ways to collect another sample.

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 Resize the sample collection so that you can see its cases. You will also see a button in the top
right corner labeled Sample More Cases. Click this button to collect a new sample.
 With the sample collection selected, press Ctrl+Y (Win) z+Y (Mac), which is the shortcut for
collecting another sample.
 Select the sample collection, and choose Collection | Sample More Cases.
 Open the sample collection’s inspector, go to the Sample panel, and click the Sample More
Cases button.
See also
Sample Panel 359

4.9.2 Collect Measures and Other Results

When you have a random process (for example, a sample collection or a collection whose values are
randomly generated), you can make Fathom automatically store results of each run. You do this by
collecting measures from that collection.
To collect measures, you first have to define at least one measure in the source collection (in the
Measures panel of its inspector; see Define a Measure 159 ), then choose Collection | Collect Measures
. See the Subsections of this topic for more detail.
Subsections
Make a Measures Collection 160
Collect More Measures 160
Create a Collection from the Cells of a Summary Table 161
Collect Results from Statistical Objects 161

4.9.2.1 Define a Measure

1. Show a collection’s inspector by double-clicking it.

2. Go to the Measures panel.
3. Click <new>, and type a name for the measure.
4. Give the measure a formula that computes what you wish to record for each run of the simulation.
 Dropping the measure onto an empty collection will collect measures (the collection
rerandomizes or resamples five times and the values of the measures are stored in this second
collection).
See also
Make a Measures Collection 160

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4.9.2.2 Make a Measures Collection

A measures collection is a derived collection (see Derived Collections 340 ) whose attributes correspond to
measures in its source and whose cases correspond to individual runs of the simulation. To make a
measures collection:

Drag-and-Drop Method
1. Make a new, empty collection, for example, by dragging one off the shelf.
2. Drop a measure’s name onto this new collection. (Drag it from the source collection inspector’s
Measures panel.)

Menu Method
1. Select the collection from which you want to collect measures.
2. Choose Collection | Collect Measures.
The measures collection appears, and five sets of measures (the default) are collected. The name of the
measures collection tells you what it is derived from. You can use a measures collection in all the ways
you would any other collection: make case tables, graphs, and summary tables from it; assign new
attributes computed from the collected measures; and so on.
 Control this process in the Collect Measures panel of the measures collection’s inspector
(see Collect Measures Panel 360 ).
See also
Collect More Measures 160
Simulation Examples 163

4.9.2.3 Collect More Measures

There are several ways to collect more measures.

 Resize the measures collection until you see the Collect More Measures button. Click this
button to collect another set of measures.
 With the measures collection selected, press Ctrl+Y (Win) z+Y (Mac).
 Select the measures collection and choose Collection | Collect More Measures.
 Open the measures collection’s inspector, go to the Collect Measures panel, and click
Collect More Measures.
See also
Collect Measures Panel 360

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4.9.2.4 Create a Collection from the Cells of a Summary Table

At times, it is useful to convert the values computed in a summary table into a new collection.
The tables below show one such situation. Census microdata for 5000 people has been tabulated so that
we have the counts of people in each state. But how many states are represented, and what is the
distribution of counts? To answer these, and other questions for which we wish to treat the states as
cases, we create a new collection in which each cell of the summary table is one case and each formula is
an attribute.

To create a collection from the cells of a summary table:

 With the summary table selected, choose Summary | Create Collection From Cells.
The contents of the cells collection automatically update when the source collection changes. For
example, if you import a fresh sample of 5000 people into the microdata collection, the cells collection
would immediately reflect the new counts. It is even possible to collect measures from the cells collection.
See also
Create Collection From Cells 404

4.9.2.5 Collect Results from Statistical Objects

When a statistical object, such as a test, is analyzing a collection whose values are generated randomly, it
becomes useful to collect the results from the test for repeated rerandomizations. This allows you to
build distributions from such things as linear-regression slopes, t-statistics, p-values, and so on. This dot
plot shows the results of collecting 100 p-values under conditions in which the null hypothesis is true.
You can also use sliders in statistical objects and then collect measures for different slider values.
1. Select the statistical object. (It should be one whose results are going to change either manually or
automatically.)
2. Choose Test | Collect Results as Measures.
You will get a new collection with five cases (the default number) whose attributes correspond to

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statistical results computed by the object.

To have Fathom collect another set of measures whenever the statistical object changes (by
rerandomizing its collection or changing a slider),
1. Check Re-collect when source changes in the Collect Measures panel.
2. Change the number of measures to collect to 1.
See also
Use Sliders to Vary Summary Information in a Statistical Object 173
Collect Results As Measures (interval estimate object) 406
Collect Results As Measures (hypothesis test object) 408
Collect Results As Measures (linear model object) 411

4.9.3 Use Scrambling to Test for Independence

Suppose you have two attributes that you think might be related to each other. You do an experiment,
and, sure enough, there does appear to be a relationship. But you have to acknowledge that it could be
just chance that has produced the result. Is the relationship real or spurious? One way to investigate this
question is to use a technique called scrambling. First, you define some measure, call it relatedness, that
quantifies the strength of the relationship between the two attributes. Then you scramble the values of
one of the attributes, thereby breaking any relationship that does exist. You record the resulting value of
the relatedness statistic. By repeating the scrambling and recording process, you see how the relatedness
statistic varies when the relationship is guaranteed to be broken. Comparing the value of the relatedness
statistic from the original data with the distribution of the relatedness statistic under pure chance variation
allows you to estimate the probability that relatedness as extreme as the original value would have been
produced purely by chance.
What scrambling does is very simple. It takes all the values of an attribute of your choice and rearranges
them randomly. The other attributes are left untouched. Whatever relationship you observe between the
scrambled attribute and other attributes after scrambling has to be due to chance.
See also
Make a Scrambled Collection 162

4.9.3.1 Make a Scrambled Collection

1. Select the collection whose attribute values you would like to scramble. (It doesn’t make much sense
to do this unless there are at least two attributes in the collection. Usually, there is a measure whose
sampling distribution you are interested in.)

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2. Choose Collection | Scramble Attribute Values. By comparing the case tables for the collections,
it’s clear that the first of the attributes has had its values scrambled. The inspector for the scrambled
collection has a Scramble panel (see Scramble Panel 363 ) with which you can choose which attribute
is the one that is scrambled.
See also
Test for a Difference in Medians Between Two Groups 170

4.9.4 Simulation Examples

A very good way to learn about constructing simulations with Fathom is to work through some examples.
Here are five:
Probability of a Pair 163
Generate a Sampling Distribution 164
Make a Coin-Flip Simulation 166
Simulate Brownian Motion 168
Test for a Difference in Medians Between Two Groups 170
See also
Have Fathom Randomly Generate Data 27

4.9.4.1 Probability of a Pair

A deck of cards is made of spades only. The cards are shuffled, and the first card is drawn. The value is
written down, the card put back in the deck, and the deck shuffled again. A second card is drawn. What is
the probability that the two cards were the same? Theoretically, the probability is 1/13, because it doesn’t
matter what card is drawn first and the probability is 1/13 that the second card will match the first. Let’s
see how to construct a simulation of the situation.

We’ll start with a collection of just two cases, one for each drawn card. (A sampling simulation would be
more faithful to the scenario but slightly more complicated to construct.)
1. Make a collection with two cases and an attribute cardValue with the formula randomInteger(1,13)
Now we need a measure that detects when the two cards are equal. We’ll use this opportunity to
introduce the extremely useful uniqueValues function.
2. In the Measures panel of the collection’s inspector, make a measure named IsAPair and give it the
formula uniqueValues(cardValue)=1

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Convince yourself that this measure does the right thing by rerandomizing a bunch of times (Collection |
Rerandomize). You could, of course, record the results of rerandomization by hand, but the beauty of
using a computer is that you can automate the process. In Fathom, that’s done by collecting measures.
3. Make an empty collection and drag the IsAPair measure from the inspector onto the empty collection.
You should see five gold balls fly from the collection to the newly named Measures from Two Cards
collection. This measures collection now has five cases with a single attribute named IsAPair whose values
are “true” or “false.”
4. Make a bar chart of IsAPair from the measures collection.
We want Fathom to collect many more measures so that we can get a reasonable estimate of the
probability of a pair.
5. Show the measures collection’s inspector, and go to the Collect Measures panel.

6. Change the 5 to 95 for the number of measures, and click Collect More Measures.
As the measures are collected, you’ll see the bar chart respond. How does the observed probability in this
simulation compare with the theoretical value?
See also
Generate a Sampling Distribution 164
Make a Coin-Flip Simulation 166
Test for a Difference in Medians Between Two Groups 170

4.9.4.2 Generate a Sampling Distribution

The concept of a sampling distribution is important in statistics. The idea is that you have defined some
statistic for a random sample. Now you sample again and again, keeping the sample size the same and
keeping track of this statistic for each sample. The values of the statistic vary, of course, and fall into a
distribution. A histogram of these values represents the sampling distribution of the statistic. (More

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precisely, the histogram approximates the sampling distribution, which is the distribution you would
obtain from all possible samples.)

Some statistics, especially those commonly used in statistical practice, are known to have sampling
distributions that can be approximated, under certain conditions, by a normal or other probability
distribution. For many statistics, however, the only way to come up with the sampling distribution is to
use a computer to actually carry out the repeated sampling procedure.
In this example, we create the sampling distribution of the median age of people from a certain collection
of individuals from the 2000 census. We consider the collection of 500 ages to be the population. The
distribution of ages in the population is shown here. We’ll draw simple random samples of 10 ages and
compute the median age for each sample.
1. Start with a collection. (You don’t have to start with census microdata, but if you want to, the
instructions are here Import U.S. Census Microdata from IPUMS 30 .)
2. With the population collection selected, choose Collection | Sample Cases.
This creates a new collection with 10 cases chosen randomly with replacement. If you want to change the
number of cases per sample, change the sampling controls in the Sample panel of the sample collection’s
inspector.

3. Double-click the sample collection to show its inspector, then choose the Measures tab.
4. Define a new measure, as shown, that computes the median age of the people in the sample. (You can
define as many measures as you want.)

5. With the sample collection selected, choose Collection | Collect Measures.

You now have a measures collection containing five cases, each of which has one value for the median
age of people in a sample. (If you defined more than one measure, each measure becomes an attribute in
the measures collection.)
6. Double-click the measures collection to show its inspector.
7. If necessary, go to the Collect Measures panel.

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8. Change the number of measures collected from the default of 5 to 95.

9. Click Collect More Measures.

The collection you get contains 100 values of the median age.
You can graph the data in a measures collection, just as you do with any collection. (Go to the Cases
panel, and drop the attribute on a graph.)
The histogram is an approximation of the sampling distribution for the statistic.

4.9.4.3 Make a Coin-Flip Simulation

The section Have Fathom Randomly Generate Data 27 showed how to flip a coin using a function for
choosing at random. Here we’ll flip coins by sampling.
Suppose we are interested in the question “On the average, how many times will we have to flip a coin
before we get three heads in a row?”
1. Make a collection with one attribute, Face, and two cases, “H” and “T.”
2. Name this collection Coin. It represents the coin and its two faces.

3. With the Coin collection selected, choose Collection | Sample Cases.

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4. Show the inspector for the sample collection, and go to the Sample panel.
5. Configure the Sample panel as shown. (Double-click the formula area to create an Until formula.)
The Until condition tells Fathom to keep sampling until the three most recent values for the attribute Face
are all “H.”
6. Go to the Measures panel.
7. Create a new measure named NumberOfFlips.
8. Double-click the Formula cell for NumberOfFlips, and give it the formula count().

The formula count(), when you don’t specify count of what, gives the number of cases in the collection, in
this case, the number of flips it took to get three heads in a row.
9. With the sample collection selected, choose Collection | Collect Measures.
You should see a new collection named Measures from Sample of Coin. Fathom collects five measures
immediately.

10. Double-click the measures collection to show its inspector.

11. If necessary, go to the Collect Measures panel.

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12. Change the 5 to 95.

The panel should look similar to the one shown.
13. Click Collect More Measures.
You can graph this data as you normally would.
The plotted mean is the average number of flips, or “wait time,” it took to get three heads in a row.

4.9.4.4 Simulate Brownian Motion

Suppose we have a molecule bouncing around randomly, and we want to know how far from some
starting location it ends up after a certain number of bounces. A simulation can tell us.
We’re going to assume that the molecule lives in a two-dimensional space and that on any given bounce it
goes between -1 and +1 in the x-direction and between -1 and +1 in the y-direction measured in some
units, such as micrometers. We’ll simulate 100 bounces and see how far the molecule gets.
1. Make a case table and choose Table | Show Formulas.

2. Make two attributes, xPos and yPos.

3. Give the xPos attribute the formula prev(xPos) + random(–1, 1) and the yPos attribute the formula prev
(yPos) + random(–1, 1). (To show the formula editor, double-click a formula cell.)

Because we didn’t give the prev function an initial value, the molecule will start at point (0, 0). It hasn’t
gone anywhere yet; there are no steps or cases.
4. With the case table selected, choose Collection | New Cases.
5. Specify that you want 100 new cases and click OK.

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6. Name the collection Molecule, because its cases represent the position of the molecule over 100 time
intervals.
Your case table should look similar to the one shown above.
7. Make a line scatter plot, as shown.
This graph represents the motion of the molecule. Each time you choose Rerandomize from the
Collection menu, you see a new possible path. If you adjust the axes to go roughly from -10 to 10 in
both dimensions, you’ll usually be able to see the whole “walk” after each rerandomization (if you leave
the axes at their default, you have to keep rescaling the axes to see each random walk).
8. Show the inspector for the Molecule collection.
9. In the Measures panel, define a new measure called distance.
We want this measure to compute how far the molecule is from the origin in the last case.
10. Double-click the Formula cell for the distance measure, and give it the following formula:

By squaring each final position, then taking the square root of their sum, we get the distance from the
origin, regardless of the direction.

11. With the Molecule collection selected, choose Collection | Collect Measures.
The molecule collection rerandomizes five times and a new collection, Measures from Molecule, appears.
It contains the final distance from the origin for each walk.
12. Double-click it to show its inspector.
13. Set the inspector’s Collect Measures panel to collect 100 measures, and click Collect More Measures
.
Here is a dot plot showing 100 sets of 100 steps each. How do you think the result would differ if,
instead of 100 steps, we allowed 1000?

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4.9.4.5 Test for a Difference in Medians Between Two Groups

OrbEx
pape r distance < ne w>
1 towel 17.7 in
2 towel 9.6 in
3 towel 15.9 in
4 towel 19.5 in
5 towel 11.4 in
6 towel 9.6 in
7 towel 20.7 in
8 copier 11.4 in
9 copier 24 in
10 copier 24 in
11 copier 16.2 in
12 copier 16.8 in
13 copier 23.4 in
14 copier 19.5 in

Here we work through a simulation in which scrambling helps us decide whether or not an observed
relationship between two attributes is significant.
Suppose we have conducted an experiment in which we drop crumpled-up paper from a certain height
above a target. After each drop, we measure the distance of the paper from the target. There are two
kinds of paper, copier paper and paper towels, and we are interested in whether there is a difference in
the distances they land from the target.
The data are shown here. To work through this example, create this collection (or use a similar collection
of your own data).
We’ll use the difference between the two medians, 3.6 in., as our measure of difference. How likely is this
value to occur by chance?
1. Define a measure in the OrbEx collection as shown below.

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The formula for diffMedians is:

2. With the OrbEx collection selected, choose Collection | Scramble Attribute Values.
A new collection, Scrambled OrbEx, is created.
3. Graph distance split by paper for the scrambled collection.
In the scrambled collection’s inspector, notice that the diffMedians measure is defined and that it computes
the difference of medians for the two groups.
4. Look at the Scramble panel in the scrambled collection’s inspector. See Scramble Panel 363

You could have used the pop-up menu to scramble distance instead of paper. (Would it make a difference?)
5. With the scrambled collection selected, choose Collection | Collect Measures.

The results of 100 scramblings are shown. Of the 100 scramblings, 11 have a difference of medians
greater than those in the original collection; thus we cannot rule out chance with much confidence.

4.10 Work with Statistical Objects

Fathom has three statistical inference objects: interval estimate, hypothesis test, and linear model.
1. To use a statistical object, drag one from the shelf or choose Object | New [object].
2. Choose the specific type of object from the pop-up menu in the object’s upper-right corner.
All options for these objects accept attribute drops from a collection.
All types of estimate, as well as most tests, can also accept summary data by allowing you to edit the
default information (the bold, blue text fields).
Here’s the list of inferential procedures Fathom includes:

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 Interval Estimate: Estimate Mean, Difference of Means, Estimate Proportion, and Difference of
Proportions
 Hypothesis Test: Test Mean, Compare Means, Analysis of Variance, Test Proportion, Compare
Proportions, Goodness of Fit, Test for Independence, Test Slope, and Test Correlation
 Linear Model: Simple Regression and Multiple Regression
In addition to inputting summary data, you can link fields of these objects to sliders, to see how changes
in such things as confidence level or standard deviation affect results. Furthermore, you can collect
measures from these objects and graph the relationships.
How do you remember which object you want? If you want to compute a confidence interval for
something, that’s an estimate. If you want to test the statistical significance of a hypothesis, that’s a test. If
you want to do simple or multiple linear regression, use a model.
For more detail on working with these objects, see the appropriate topic within this section.
See also
Use Raw Data in Statistical Inference Objects 172
Enter Summary Statistics in Statistical Inference Objects 172
Estimate Parameters and Compute Confidence Intervals 174
Test Hypotheses 183
Build a Linear Model 202

4.10.1 Use Raw Data in Statistical Inference Objects

When you have raw data, all of the statistical objects work in a very similar way.
1. Create the object by dragging it from the shelf or by choosing Object | New | [object].
2. Choose the appropriate type from the object’s pop-up menu in its upper-right corner.
3. Drop the attribute(s) into the top portion of the object.
Fathom uses the attribute values to compute summary statistics and to perform inferential procedures.
You can change things such as confidence level or sidedness of a test by changing the appropriate values.

4.10.2 Enter Summary Statistics in Statistical Inference Objects

All estimates and most tests can produce results from summary statistics. The blue fields are editable. For
most fields, simply select the text in the field by double-clicking, type the value, and press Enter or
Return.
Some fields have a pop-up menu from which you can choose, say, a direction for a one-sided test or a
category of interest from a proportions test or estimate.
You can tell which kind of field each is by holding your cursor over a nugget. If the cursor is the text edit
i-beam, double-click to select it; if the cursor turns white and acquires a little black triangle to the right,
the field is a pop-up menu.
Once you’ve edited the first field, you can press Tab to move to the next field. (Shift+Tab moves you
back one field.)

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4.10.3 Shorten the Output in Statistical Inference Objects

By default, Fathom’s output is in verbose mode, which explains the meaning of the results in (relatively)
plain English. The verbose text will help you keep grounded with what the test or estimate is really saying.
Fathom also provides more standard statistical output.
1. Select the statistical object whose output you want to change.
2. Choose Test | Verbose (to uncheck it and turn it off).
Fathom changes the output to its terse form.
To change back to verbose, choose Test | Verbose again. Below is an example of the two forms of the
output; verbose is on the left, terse on the right.

4.10.4 Use Sliders to Vary Summary Information in a Statistical Object

You can use statistical inference objects to explore what-if’s, such as, “What happens to the p-value when
the standard deviation changes?” or “How does sample size affect the width of a confidence interval?”
To do so, you use a formula that refers to a slider for a field in a statistical object.

1. Create a slider by dragging one from the shelf or choosing Object | New | Slider.

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2. Give the slider a meaningful name.

3. Double-click the field in the test or estimate that you want governed by a slider (shown at right for the
standard deviation).
4. Choose Edit | Edit Formula.
5. Enter the slider’s name, either by typing it or by double-clicking it from the Global Values section of
the formula editor’s Functions list.
6. Close the formula editor by pressing Enter or Return or clicking OK.
Notice that the computed value is now gray, indicating it is driven by a formula.
Now, when you drag the slider’s thumb or animate it, the statistical object recomputes its results. You can
collect these results in a measures collection and graph multiple results to explore relationships.

4.10.5 Estimate Parameters and Compute Confidence Intervals

Imagine you’re working with a random sample from some population, such as a sample of voters, a
sample of patients with high blood pressure, or a sample of elementary schools in a state. You measure
something about the sample, for example, the proportion planning to vote for a certain candidate, the
mean blood pressure, or the difference in proportion of students passing a test in two groups. The thing
you measure is an estimate of what is true for the population, in other words, a population parameter.
But the single number is not very useful. Much more useful is the range of values in which you think the
population parameter lies and how confident you are about that range.
Fathom’s interval estimate objects are designed to compute both the estimate and its confidence
interval.
Attribute types Estimate types

Estimate the Population Mean from Raw Data 175 .

One numeric attribute (e.g., height)
Confidence interval is from the one-sample t procedure.

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Estimate Difference of Means from Raw Data 176 .

Estimates the difference of means between the two
Two numeric attributes (e.g., age and income)
attributes and gives the confidence interval for this
difference.

Estimate the Population Proportion from Raw Data 178

One categorical attribute (e.g., sex: "M" or
. Confidence interval is exact binomial up to a point,
"F")
then a normal approximation.

Estimate Difference of Means from Raw Data 176 .

One categorical attribute with two categories Estimates the difference of means for the numeric
(e.g., sex: "M" or "F") and one numeric attribute between the two groups given by the
attribute (e.g., height) categorical attribute and gives the confidence interval
for this difference.

Two categorical attributes, one describing a

group (e.g. sex: "M" or "F") and the other
providing a characteristic of that group (e.g., Estimate Difference of Proportions from Raw Data 179 .
Race: "white" or "nonwhite") Estimates confidence interval for the difference of
proportions having a specified category for each
Two categorical attributes, each one attribute. Uses a normal approximation.
describing a group (e.g., PovertyY1: "Y" or
"N" and PovertyY2: "Y" or "N")

4.10.5.1 Estimate the Population Mean from Raw Data

Use this estimate if you have a sample of numeric data for which you want an estimate of and confidence
interval for the mean.
1. Create a new estimate by dragging one from the shelf or choosing Object | New | Interval Estimate.
2. From the pop-up menu in the estimate’s upper-right corner, choose Estimate Mean.
3. Drop the attribute of interest into the prompt in the top section of the estimate, where it says
Attribute (numeric): <unassigned>.
Fathom uses the attribute’s name and values to fill in the estimate at the default confidence level of 95%.

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 Change the confidence level by double-clicking the 95, typing a new value, and pressing
Return.
See also
Use Sliders to Vary Summary Information in a Statistical Object 173
Shorten the Output in Statistical Inference Objects 173

4.10.5.2 Estimate the Population Mean from Summary Statistics

For numeric data, you need only three numbers, count, mean, and standard deviation, to compute a
confidence interval for a mean. If you have these three numbers, you can type them directly into the
estimate mean object.

1. Create a new estimate by dragging one from the shelf or choosing Object | New | Interval Estimate.
2. From the pop-up menu in the estimate’s upper-right corner, choose Estimate Mean.
3. Double-click the bold, blue field AttributeName in the body of the estimate, and type a reasonable
name.
4. Press Tab to move to the next field and continue inputting appropriate values.
As you enter values, the text changes throughout the estimate object.
This estimate shows a computation of the confidence interval for a sample of 9 scores with a mean of
120 and a standard deviation of 15. Notice that because the estimate is in verbose mode, it describes in
detail the meaning of a confidence interval.
See also
Use Sliders to Vary Summary Information in a Statistical Object 173
Shorten the Output in Statistical Inference Objects 173

4.10.5.3 Estimate Difference of Means from Raw Data

1. Create a new estimate by dragging one from the shelf or choosing Object | New | Interval Estimate.
2. From the pop-up menu in the estimate’s upper-right corner, choose Difference of Means. You have
two groups and something you’ve measured. You want to know the confidence interval for the
difference of means of the two groups. We’ll use an example to illustrate this. Suppose we are doing
an experiment with plants and fertilizer. Some of the plants get the fertilizer and some don’t.

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There are two ways to use this estimate, depending on how the data are structured.
The preferred way of structuring data is shown below. Each case is a plant, and the attribute Group tells
whether or not the plant got fertilizer. To assign attributes to the estimate object, the Group attribute,
being categorical, goes to the second line of the attribute pane, and the Height attribute goes to the first
line. This is all shown below. (Notice that the estimate is in terse mode.)

The less preferred way of structuring data is to use one attribute for the values of one group and a
second attribute for the values of the other group. Notice that this means that a single case in the
collection doesn’t really make any sense. The case represents a pair of plants, but there isn’t any good
reason for a particular pair to be assigned to the same case. You can drag either attribute to either line in
the estimate object; the difference will be the first attribute minus the second.

By default, Fathom calculates the difference in means using unpooled variances. Click on the phrase

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“unpooled variances” for a pop-up menu that allows you to switch between unpooled variances and
pooled variance. Use pooled variance when you have reason to believe that the standard deviation of the
values is the same for both groups. Unpooled variances use weaker assumptions and produce somewhat
larger intervals than does pooled variance.
You can change the confidence level by double-clicking it and typing a different value or by assigning it a
formula.

4.10.5.4 Estimate Difference of Means from Summary Statistics

You don’t need the raw data to estimate the difference of means. As you can see from the example at
right, you only need to fill in the count, mean, and standard deviation for each of the groups.

Notice here that we’ve used units of Hg*mm for the means and standard deviations. The measurements
are presumably blood pressure in millimeters of mercury.
See also
Enter Summary Statistics in Statistical Inference Objects 172
Use Sliders to Vary Summary Information in a Statistical Object 173

4.10.5.5 Estimate the Population Proportion from Raw Data

If you have a collection of cases that have a categorical attribute and you want to estimate a proportion
and confidence interval for a categorical value of that attribute, estimate proportion is for you. Say, for
example, you’ve sampled voters in your neighborhood by asking them three questions about an upcoming
election. For each question, you want an estimate of the population proportion that answered “yes.”
1. Create an estimate by dragging one from the shelf or by choosing Object | New | Interval Estimate.

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2. From the pop-up menu in the estimate’s upper-right corner, choose Estimate Proportion.
3. Drop the attribute of interest into the prompt in the top section of the estimate, where it says
Attribute (categorical): <unassigned>.
You can change the category whose proportion is being estimated by clicking on the category name and
choosing from the resulting pop-up menu.

4.10.5.6 Estimate the Population Proportion from Summary Data

It is common to have only the “tally” of responses to a question and to want to use this sample result to
estimate the proportion for the population. You can do that with the estimate proportion object.
1. Create an estimate by dragging one from the shelf or by choosing Object | New | Interval Estimate.
2. From the pop-up menu in the estimate’s upper-right corner, choose Estimate Proportion.
3. Type in the numbers and names of the category and attribute.
See also
Use Sliders to Vary Summary Information in a Statistical Object 173
Shorten the Output in Statistical Inference Objects 173

4.10.5.7 Estimate Difference of Proportions from Raw Data

If you have raw categorical data for which you want to estimate a difference of proportion and
confidence interval for that difference, you can use Fathom’s estimate object to calculate them.

Exactly how you do this depends on which of two basic ways your data are structured. First, consider the
preferred data structure. Let’s take a concrete example in which you have a list of 42 employees that
includes their sex and job classification (salaried or hourly). You wish to estimate any difference in

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proportion of males between the two job classifications.

The portion of data shown at right shows that each case represents an employee with Classification and Sex
as attributes.
1. Create an estimate by dragging one from the shelf or by choosing Object | New | Interval Estimate.
2. From the pop-up menu in the estimate’s upper-right corner, choose Difference of Proportions.
Look carefully at the top pane of the estimate. Notice, as shown below, that one attribute slot is labeled
“categorical” and the other is labeled “categorical or grouping.”

It makes a difference which attribute you assign to each slot. The attribute whose proportions you are
comparing (Sex in this example) goes in the first slot. The attribute that defines the groups (Classification in
this example) goes in the second slot.
3. Drag the two collection attributes to their slots in the estimate object.
The estimate object, in its verbose and terse forms, is shown here.

Terse form, obtained by choosing Estimate |

Verbose to remove the checkmark next to
Verbose

Verbose form of the estimate

By default, the estimate was for females rather than males. You can change that by clicking on the word
“female” and choosing male from the pop-up menu.

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Notice that the range of the estimate includes zero, indicating that you would not be justified in
concluding that something other than chance is involved in creating the difference in proportions.
The default confidence level of 95% can be changed by typing or by assigning a formula to use a slider.
See Use Sliders to Vary Summary Information in a Statistical Object 173
Now we’ll consider the less preferred data structure, in which one set of attribute values records the sex
of the salaried employees and another attribute records the sex of the hourly employees. This structure is
less preferred because a case in this collection doesn’t have any meaning; it’s just an arbitrary pairing of
one salaried and one hourly employee.

A portion of the data is shown at right. The blank cells for cases 23 through 26 in the salaried column
make clear that there are different numbers of employees in each group.
In this situation, it doesn’t make any difference which attribute you drop in which slot of the estimate
object.
Once you have dropped the two attributes, the text of the estimate object will fill in with something
nonsensical, similar to what is shown at right. The problem, of course, is that Fathom is assuming that
the attributes conform to the preferred structure.

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To fix things, click your mouse on the first part of the phrase and choose the single-word option, in this
case Salaried.
The result of this change, shown at right, is that Fathom treats each attribute as a group and compares the
proportion in one with the proportion in the other.
You can change the category being used for comparison by clicking on the chosen category, in this case
“female”.
You can change the confidence level by typing in a new value or by giving it a formula.

4.10.5.8 Estimate Difference of Proportions from Summary Statistics

Sometimes you don’t have the raw data from which you wish to estimate a difference of proportions.
Let’s take a concrete example in which you know the counts for sex and job classification (salaried or
hourly) of 42 employees and you wish to estimate any difference in proportion of males between the two
job classifications. The summary data are as follows:

Salaried, female: 10
Salaried, male: 12
Hourly, female: 17
Hourly, male: 13
1. Create a new estimate by dragging one from the shelf or by choosing Object | New | Interval
Estimate.

2. From the pop-up menu in the estimate’s upper-right corner, choose Difference of Proportions.

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3. Double-click the bold, blue field FirstAttribute in the body of the estimate, and type a reasonable
name, such as Salaried.
4. Press Tab to move to the next field, and continue inputting appropriate values.
As you enter values, the text changes throughout the object. The result for this example is shown here.
You can change the confidence level by double-clicking it and typing a different value.
Note that the estimate of the difference of proportions goes from –0.16 to 0.38 at the 95% confidence
level. Because this confidence interval includes zero, we are not justified in saying that the difference of
proportions is greater than zero.

4.10.6 Test Hypotheses

You’re working with a collection that can be treated as a random sample from some population. For
example, it could be a sample of students from a school, data from an experiment about animal learning,
or a sample of census data from a state. You have a hypothesis you wish to test, such as test scores for
students in the school have risen above some threshold, animal learning works better with rewards than it
does with punishments, or median incomes for young workers measured in constant dollars has increased
in the last ten years. These hypotheses are about the population, but your data are for a sample.

The statistical inference process can help you decide whether the measurements in the sample can be
explained by chance variation as opposed to your hypothesis.
Attribute types Test types

One numeric attribute (e.g., height) Test Mean from Raw Data ( 184 t 184 -Test) 184

Two numeric attributes (e.g., income90 and Compare Means from Raw Data (Two-Sample t-
income00) Test) 186
Test Correlation 202

One categorical attribute (e.g., FavoredCandidate Goodness of Fit (Chi-Square) Test from Raw Data
with values “cand1”, “cand2”, and “cand3”) 195

Test Proportion Against a Value from Raw Data

190

Two categorical attributes (e.g., sex and Test for Independence from Raw Data (Chi-Square
maritalStatus) test) 199
Compare Proportions from Raw Data (Z Test) 191

One numeric and one categorical attribute (e.g., Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) 188
income and sex)
Compare Means from Raw Data (Two-Sample t-
Test) 186 (if the categorical attribute has exactly two
values)
Note: To do a paired t-test, create a new attribute containing the difference between the two elements, and
perform a hypothesis test to see if the mean difference is zero (see Define an Attribute by Formula Using

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the Collection’s Inspector 93 ).

Fathom ships with four sample documents that show how to perform non-parametric tests (see Non-
parametric Tests 322 ).

4.10.6.1 Using Hypothesis Test Objects

1. Create an empty hypothesis test by dragging one from the shelf or by choosing Object | New |
Hypothesis Test.
2. Choose the type of test you want from the test’s pop-up menu.
3. Drop attributes on the prompt to have Fathom compute results. In a test, blue text is editable; use it
to control the test (e.g., to change the hypothesized mean; we changed it to 38). Some blue text brings
up a pop-up menu, as shown here (we’re making this a one-tailed test).
If you do not drag attributes to the test, you can still do most tests based on summary statistics. Select the
test from the pop-up menu, then enter the attribute names, sample size, and so on, in the test. (Some
tests, such as ANOVA, require original data, however.)
Once you have an analysis, the Test menu is active. You can use this menu to change to nonverbose, or
terse, mode or to plot a distribution relevant to your test.

4.10.6.2 Test Mean from Raw Data (t-Test)

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If you have a collection of numeric data (e.g., the lengths of widgets coming off an assembly line) and a
hypothesis about the mean of these values (e.g., their average length has gotten above some threshold),
you can use a hypothesis test object to determine how likely it is that your observed results can be
explained by chance alone even if your hypothesis is not true (e.g., the mean length of widgets is at the
threshold).

1. Drag a hypothesis test from the shelf or choose Object | New | Hypothesis Test.

2. Choose Test Mean from the test’s pop-up menu.

3. Drop the numeric attribute on the top line of the test.
4. Edit the default test mean to the desired value, and use the pop-up menu that lies under “is greater
than” to choose the desired sense of the test.
5. If desired, choose Test | Show Test Statistic Distribution to show the student’s t- distribution, with
the area corresponding to the p-value shaded.

4.10.6.3 Test Mean from Summary Statistics

You don’t need to have the raw data to perform a t-test. All you need is the count, sample mean, and
standard deviation. This example shows a sample of colleges and acceptance rates, testing whether the
population mean acceptance rate is significantly different from 0.5.
1. Drag a hypothesis test from the shelf or choose Object | New | Hypothesis Test then choose Test
Mean in the test’s pop-up menu.
2. Edit the blue text to fill in your information (see Enter Summary Statistics in Statistical Inference
Objects 172 ).

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3. Choose the desired sidedness of the test by clicking on “is not equal to” and choosing the option you
want from the pop-up menu.
Any of the editable values can be given a formula instead of a typed value. Particularly useful is using a
formula to tie a value to a slider. See Use Sliders to Vary Summary Information in a Statistical Object 173 .
For example, by using a slider for the sample count, you can discover what sample size would be required
to reach some threshold p-value.

4.10.6.4 Compare Means from Raw Data (Two-Sample t-Test)

1. Create a new test by dragging one from the shelf or by choosing Object | New | Hypothesis Test.
2. From the pop-up menu in the test’s upper-right corner, choose Compare Means. You have two
groups and something you’ve measured. You want to know if the difference of means between the
two groups of the thing you’ve measured is significant. We’ll use an example to illustrate this. Suppose
you are doing an experiment with plants and fertilizer. Some of the plants get the fertilizer and some
don’t.

There are two ways to use this test, depending on how the data are structured.
The preferred way of structuring the data is shown here. Each case is a plant, and the attribute Group
tells whether or not the plant got fertilizer. To assign attributes to the estimate object, the Group attribute,
being categorical, goes to the second line of the attribute pane, and the Height attribute goes to the first
line. (Notice that the test is in terse mode.)
The less preferred way of structuring the data is to use one attribute for the values of one group and a
second attribute for the values of the other group. Notice that this means that a single case in the
collection doesn’t really make any sense; it represents a pair of plants, but there isn’t any good reason for
a particular pair to be assigned to the same case. Drop either attribute on either line in the test object; the
difference will be the first attribute minus the second.

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By default, Fathom calculates the significance of the difference in means using unpooled variances. Click
on the phrase “unpooled variances” for a pop-up menu that allows you to switch between unpooled
variances and pooled variance. Use pooled variance when you have reason to believe that the standard
deviation of the values is the same for both groups. Unpooled variances use weaker assumptions and
produce somewhat larger p-values than pooled.

4.10.6.5 Compare Means from Summary Statistics

If you have only summary statistics, Fathom can still perform a comparison of means.
1. Make a hypothesis test object by dragging one from the shelf or by choosing Object | New |
Hypothesis Test. Choose Compare Means from the test’s pop-up menu.
2. Edit the blue text with the values for count, mean, and standard deviation for each group.
Notice that you can use values with units. (The values here are millimeters of mercury used to measure
blood pressure.)
Linking values in the test to sliders can be very informative. See Use Sliders to Vary Summary

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Information in a Statistical Object 173 .

4.10.6.6 Compare Means When the Values Are Paired (A Paired t-Test)
When you have two sets of values that are paired, using a compare means test would throw away the
information that the values are paired. Instead, construct a new attribute that computes the differences
for each case. Then use a test mean to decide if the difference is significantly different from zero (or
whatever value you hypothesize).
This is shown below for an example in which we have a random sample of student test scores before and
after a unit of instruction.

4.10.6.7 Analysis of Variance

When you want to test the hypothesis that the means for several groups are not equal to each other, you
can perform a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). You can use this test only with raw data.

1. Create a new test by dragging one from the shelf or by choosing Object | New | Hypothesis Test.
2. From the test’s pop-up menu, choose Analysis of Variance.
3. Drop attributes on the prompts at the top of the test.
An example is shown below. It appears that the mean incomes of the 13 races in a sample of 500 people
in Alaska are similar enough that chance alone can explain their differences.

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To plot the F-distribution showing the p-value as a shaded proportion of the area under the curve,
choose Test | Show Test Statistic Distribution.

4.10.6.8 Test Proportion from Summary Data

Suppose you read poll results and you want to know whether they indicate that the proposition you are
hoping will pass is really ahead. In this case, you have the summary data to enter into a test proportion
object.
1. Create a new test by dragging one from the shelf or by choosing Object | New | Hypothesis Test.
2. From the test’s pop-up menu, choose Compare Means.
3. Edit the values in blue to reflect your data.
The example shows that 55% of a random sample of 780 voters in favor of Proposition 1 is a lead that
cannot be explained by chance.

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4.10.6.9 Test Proportion Against a Value from Raw Data

When you have collected data that contain categorical information, one question you can ask is whether
the proportion of cases corresponding to a certain category differs from some particular value. Fathom’s
test proportion object will help you answer this question by computing the probability that the difference
you observe could reasonably happen by chance.

1. Create a new test by dragging one from the shelf or by choosing Object | New | Hypothesis Test.
2. From the test’s pop-up menu, choose Test Proportion.
3. Drop a categorical attribute on the prompt at the top of the object.
This example deals with the situation in which only 28% of the staff in a computer department are
women, while the industry average is 40%. The question is whether something other than chance is
required to explain this difference. The test shows that 11% of the time you would expect to get a
difference this great or greater just by chance

Note that, as usual, you can edit various parts of this test.
 A pop-up menu under the category name allows you to change the category whose proportion
is being tested.
 A pop-up menu under the phrase describing the direction of the test can be used to change the
direction.

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 You can edit by typing or by providing a formula for the test proportion.
Choosing Test | Show p_hat Distribution displays a plot similar to the one at right, with the proportion
of the area under the distribution equal to the test’s p-value.
For this test, Fathom uses the normal approximation to the binomial distribution when n*p ≥ 10 and n*(1
- p) ≥ 10. Under these conditions, it will compute a z-statistic. Otherwise, it will use a binomial statistic.
(The test itself tells you which is used.)

4.10.6.10 Compare Proportions from Raw Data

If you have categorical data for individual cases and you want to test whether or not an observed
difference of proportions for two groups is significant, you can use Fathom’s compare proportions test.
Exactly how you do this depends on which of two basic ways your data are structured. First, consider the
preferred data structure. Let’s take a concrete example in which you have a list of 42 employees that
includes their sex and job classification (salaried or hourly). You wish to test whether the observed greater
proportion of males for salaried as compared with hourly is statistically significant.
The portion of data shown at right shows that each case represents an employee with Classification and Sex
as attributes.

1. Create a new hypothesis test by dragging one from the shelf or by choosing Object | New |
Hypothesis Test.
2. From the test’s pop-up menu, choose Compare Proportions.
Look carefully at the top pane of the estimate. Notice, as shown here, that one attribute slot is labeled
“categorical” and the other is labeled “categorical or grouping.”
It makes a difference which attribute you assign to each slot. The attribute whose proportions you are
comparing (Sex in this example) goes in the first slot. The attribute that defines the groups (Classification in
this example) goes in the second slot.
3. Drop the two collection attributes on their slots in the test object.
The resulting test object is shown here.

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There are two problems with this test object: We want to compare the proportion of males rather than
the proportion of females; and our alternative hypothesis is that the proportion of males for salaried
works is greater than that of hourly workers.
4. Click on the word “female” and choose male from the pop-up menu.
5. Repeat this change for the other occurrence of “female”.
6. Click on “Sex where Classification is Hourly” and choose Sex where Classification is Salaried
from the pop-up menu.
7. Finally, click on “is not equal to” and change it to is greater than.

Notice that “the probability of getting a value of z this great or greater would be 0.21.” This means that
we cannot rule out chance as an explanation for the observed difference of proportions.
Now we’ll consider the less preferred data structure, in which one attribute records the sex of the salaried

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employees and another attribute records the sex of the hourly employees. This structure is less preferred
because a case in this collection doesn’t have any meaning; it’s just an arbitrary pairing of one salaried and
one hourly employee.
A portion of the data is shown at right. The blank cells for cases 23 through 26 in the salaried column
make clear that there are a different number of employees in each group.

In this situation, it doesn’t make any difference which attribute you drop in which slot of the test object.
Once you have dropped the two attributes, the text of the test object will fill in with something
nonsensical, similar to what is shown. The problem, of course, is that Fathom is assuming that the
attributes conform to the preferred structure.

To fix things, click your mouse on the first part of the phrase and choose the single-word option, in this
case Salaried.
This change results in Fathom treating each attribute as a group and comparing the proportion in one
with the proportion in the other.
 Change the category being used for comparison by clicking on the chosen category, in this
case female.

4.10.6.11 Compare Proportions from Summary Data

Sometimes you don’t have the raw data from which you wish to test that one proportion is the same as
another. Let’s take a concrete example in which you know the counts for sex and job classification
(salaried or hourly) of 42

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employees and you wish to carry out a hypothesis test of whether or not the greater proportion of males
in the salaried positions, as compared with the hourly positions, is explainable by chance. The summary
data are as follows:
Salaried, female: 10
Salaried, male: 12
Hourly, female: 17
Hourly, male: 13
1. Create a new test by dragging one from the shelf or by choosing Object | New | Hypothesis Test.
2. From the test’s pop-up menu, choose Compare Proportions.
You get a test comparing proportions, with default values; the blue fields are editable.
3. Double-click the bold, blue field FirstAttribute in the body of the estimate, and type a reasonable
name, such as Salaried.
4. Press Tab to move to the next field and continue entering appropriate values.

As you enter values, the text changes throughout the object. The result for our example is shown here.
By default, the test object is configured for a two-tailed test, but in our example, we’re interested
specifically in whether the proportion of males for the salaried jobs is greater than it is for the hourly jobs.
5. Change “is not equal to” by clicking it and choosing is greater than from the pop-up menu.

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Looking at the result, we see that the p-value for this test is 0.21, meaning that about 20% of the time we
would get this level of difference between the two proportions just by chance. Thus, we cannot rule out
chance as the cause of the difference.
It is helpful to get a visual feeling for the p-value.
6. With the test object selected, choose Test | Show Test Statistic Distribution.
The result is the function plot shown here, with the area to the right of the computed value for z (0.7995)
shaded to show the proportion of the time this value or greater would be obtained if the null hypothesis
were true.

4.10.6.12 Goodness of Fit (Chi-Square) Test from Raw Data

When you have data with categorical information, you can use a goodness of fit test to determine whether
or not the distribution of values among the categories conforms to what was expected. The most
common situation is that all categories are expected to be equal.
1. Create a new test by dragging one from the shelf or by choosing Object | New | Hypothesis Test.
2. From the test’s pop-up menu, choose Goodness of Fit.
3. Drop a categorical attribute on the prompt at the top of the object.

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As an example, suppose you have rolled a particular die 100 times, with the results shown in this table.
Just by inspection, you suspect that the die is loaded in favor of 6. But couldn’t this happen by chance?
The result shows that, yes, it could happen by chance, but only about two times out of a thousand;
therefore, you are justified in claiming that the die is loaded.
But not every situation tests for equal probability for each category. For example, you are told what the
proportion of different colors of M&M candies is supposed to be. You want to see, given a random sample
of 120, whether those proportions are reasonable.

After making the test and dropping the attribute in the top pane of the test, click on “are not equally
likely” to bring up a pop-up menu. From that menu, choose have probabilities given above. This
creates a second column in the table that, initially, has all equal probabilities. Edit these values to
correspond to the probabilities you are testing against.
In the example at right, the p-value of 0.2 tells us that it would not be unusual to get a set of counts this
different (or more different) when sampling from a population with the given proportions for each color.
Choose Test | Show Test Statistic Distribution to bring up a graph of the chi-square distribution in
which the shaded area corresponds to the probability of getting a chi-square as great or greater than that
observed if the null hypothesis were true.

This plot corresponds to the M&M situation discussed above. The shaded area is 20% of the total area
under the curve.

4.10.6.13 Goodness of Fit (Chi-Square Test) from Summary Data: Equal Probabilities
If you only have the counts for categorical outcomes, you can still use Fathom to do a goodness of fit
test, because you can enter the attribute name, number of categories, category names, and counts into the
test.

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Let’s suppose you are playing a game with a friend using a spinner that supposedly has three equal
outcomes: A, B, and C. But you think the spinner isn’t fair, so you collect the results of a bunch of spins
as tallies for A, B, and C. You get 24 for A, 37 for B, and 20 for C.
1. Create a new test by dragging one from the shelf or by choosing Object | New | Hypothesis Test.
2. From the test’s pop-up menu, choose Goodness of Fit.
3. Double-click one of the blue <AttributeName> prompts in the body of the test and type Spin.
4. Type 3 in place of 0 for number of categories. (Notice that you now have a table in which you can fill
in information.)
5. Click on each of the RowCategory cells successively and change them to “A,” “B,” and “C.”
6. Fill in the three counts next to their proper category.
You should have something similar to the test shown at right.
With a p-value of about 0.05, you can’t be sure that the results are not simply due to chance. Perhaps a
bigger sample will lead to a significant result!

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4.10.6.14 Goodness of Fit (Chi-Square Test) from Summary Data: Unequal Probabilities

There are certainly many situations in which categorical outcomes are not expected to be equally likely.
Here we’ll consider flipping a pair of coins 100 times and keeping track of the number of times you get 0
heads, 1 head, and 2 heads. Theoretically, these outcomes have probabilities 0.25, 0.50, and 0.25,
respectively.
1. Create a new test by dragging one from the shelf or by choosing Object | New | Hypothesis Test.
2. From the pop-up menu in the test’s upper-right corner, choose Goodness of Fit.
3. Edit the attribute name (in blue) to be Heads.
4. Enter the number of categories (in this case 3).
The table will create three editable rows.

5. Change the row category names from their defaults to “0,” “1,” and “2.”
Notice that the test is, so far, assuming equal likelihood.
6. Click on the phrase “are equally likely” and choose have probabilities given above from the pop-
up menu.
Notice that the table gets a column for probabilities.
7. Enter the appropriate probabilities for each row.
The chi-square statistic and associated p-value are displayed below the table.
With the test object selected, choose Test | Show Test Statistic Distribution to display a plot of the
chi-square distribution with shading to show the probability of getting a statistic as large or larger than the
one observed.

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4.10.6.15 Test for Independence from Raw Data

Suppose you have two categorical attributes and you want to know if there is any relationship between
the two. For example, a school has 70 teachers in three divisions: lower, middle, and upper. You want to
know whether or not a teacher’s assignment by division is independent of sex.
1. Create a new test by dragging one from the shelf or by choosing Object | New | Hypothesis Test.
2. From the test’s pop-up menu, choose Test for Independence.
3. Drop each of the attributes on the prompt of the test.
The results for the Teachers example are shown here (in nonverbose mode). It looks like there may be
some discrimination going on!
The test object computes what the count would be for each cell if the two attributes were independent. These
expected counts are shown in parentheses. When the expected counts in cells drop below five, the
goodness of fit test is no longer very accurate. Fathom warns you about this.

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4.10.6.16 Test for Independence from Summary Data

Nothing about doing a test for independence requires you to have raw data. All you need are the tallies
for each possible outcome.
1. Create a new test by dragging one from the shelf or by choosing Object | New | Hypothesis Test.
2. From the test’s the pop-up menu, choose Test for Independence.
3. Edit the values in blue to reflect your data.
Let’s suppose you do a biology experiment with pill bugs in which you divide up the bugs’ living area into
six regions according to temperature and humidity. On one occasion, you count the number of pill bugs
in each region and enter the counts into a Test for Independence, as shown here. The entry of the
number of categories is what expands the table and allows you to rename categories and enter counts in
cells.
By choosing Test | Show Test Statistic Distribution, you can show a graph of the chi-square
distribution. This graph has shading to indicate the probability of getting a value as great or greater than
the observed value if the attributes are actually independent.

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4.10.6.17 Test Slope

There are many approaches to investigations of a possible relationship between two numeric attributes.
One question that can arise is whether the slope of the observed least-squares regression line is
significantly different from zero. Shown below is an example “playground” that has a collection with only
4 cases. A scatter plot shows the value of attributes x and y, and a test slope object shows (in verbose
mode) the determination of how likely the observed slope would be if there were no relationship between
the two attributes.
1. Create a hypothesis test object by dragging one from the shelf or by choosing Object | New |
Hypothesis Test.
2. Choose Test Slope from the test’s pop-up menu.
3. Drop numeric attributes on the prompt at the top of the test.
A plot of the t-distribution shows the p-value as a shaded area. (Choose Test | Show Test Statistic
Distribution.)
Dragging the points around on the scatter plot to get a feel for what makes a slope significant can be
quite instructive.
Note that this test requires raw data; that is, it cannot be used with summary data.

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4.10.6.18 Test Correlation

Conceptually, there is a difference between testing whether a least-squares slope is different from zero
and testing whether a correlation coefficient is different from zero. The first assumes that a response
attribute’s values are being predicted from a predictor’s values. But in a test for correlation, the two
attributes play a completely symmetric role.
1. Create a hypothesis test object by dragging one from the shelf or by choosing Object | New |
Hypothesis Test.
2. Choose Test Correlation from the test’s pop-up menu.
3. Drop numeric attributes on the prompt at the top of the test.
Because a test of correlation only requires two numbers, the count and the correlation coefficient, you
can enter these numbers directly in the test without needing raw data.
In the example, the same “play” data from the description of Test Slope is used to illustrate Test
Correlation. If you construct these two tests side-by-side using the same data, you’ll see that student’s t is
the same for both. This means that if the slope is significant, so is the correlation coefficient.

4.10.7 Build a Linear Model

We build models to understand things in the real world and to make predictions about them (thus, the
crystal ball). The linear models that Fathom provides as statistical objects are geared to work with
continuous attributes under the assumption that there is a linear relationship between a response attribute
and one or more predictor attributes.
The simple regression model is actually a subset of the multiple regression model; that is, you don’t
need to put more than one predictor attribute in a multiple regression model, and if the model only has
one attribute, it’s equivalent to a simple regression model.

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4.10.7.1 Simple Linear Regression

Suppose you have data for two attributes and you wish to predict one from the other. For example, you
might have a sample of airplane types and data about the cost per hour to run them and their range in
miles. Can you predict cost per hour from the range?
1. Create an empty linear model by dragging one from the shelf or by choosing Object | New | Linear
Model.
2. From the model’s pop-up menu, choose Simple Regression.
3. Drop the response attribute on the first line of the top pane.
4. Drop the predictor attribute on the second line of the top pane.
The result for the airplanes example is shown at right. The blue values are editable either by typing in a
new value or by providing a formula. A formula tied to a slider is especially useful. See Use Sliders to Vary
Summary Information in a Statistical Object 173 .
The last paragraph of the model allows you to type in your own value for the predictor to get an estimate
for the response. The confidence level for this estimate is the same as is given for the slope.
You can make a plot of residuals by making a scatter plot of the two attributes. See Make a Residual Plot
58 .

You can also make attributes for predicted values and residuals in the collection using the linRegrPredicted
and linRegrResiduals functions. (see the Reference section on Statistical Functions for Two Attributes 420
.)

4.10.7.2 Multiple Regression

Most things you want to explain or predict aren’t simple; they depend on a multiplicity of factors.
Statisticians have developed techniques for modeling under such circumstances, and one of these
techniques is multiple linear regression. The basic idea is that there is one continuous attribute, the response,
whose values are hypothesized to depend linearly on one or more other numeric attributes, called predictors
.
The goal of building a multiple linear regression model is to come up with an equation that does a good
job of predicting the response from the predictors. If R is the response attribute and P1, P2, …, PN are
predictors, this equation is of the form:

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R = A0 + A1*P1 + A2*P2 + … + AN*PN, where A0 through AN are coefficients determined during

the model-building process.
The basic steps are to create a linear model object, set it to Multiple Regression, then drop attributes on
the prompts. See this topic’s Subsections from more detail.
Subsections
Building the Model 204
Interpreting the Model 206
Adding, Removing, and Moving Predictor Attributes: The Goal of Model Building 207
Changing Multiple Regression Output 208
Plotting Predicted Values and Residuals 208
Polynomial Regression 209
4.10.7.2.1 Building the Model

To make this explanation concrete, we’ll use the Airplanes.ftm sample document that comes with
Fathom. This document contains a collection of 21 airplanes, with the six attributes shown in the
inspector at right. We would like to be able to predict the cost per hour of operating an airplane based on
some linear combination of the four other numeric attributes.
For now, we’re going to concentrate on the mechanics of building the model, without explaining much
about the underlying statistics or attempting to show good practice. You’ll have to get this from a book
or course.
1. Drag a model object off the shelf or choose Object | New | Linear Model.

2. From the pop-up menu in the model, choose Multiple Regression.

3. Drag the costph attribute into the top pane of the model object.

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You will almost certainly need to resize the model so you can see all of its parts. It should look similar to
the following illustration:

Notice the regression equation in the second pane from the top. Even without any predictors, we are not
completely in the dark; we can use the mean of the predicted values, and that’s what the equation says.
Also notice the empty horizontal bar. The fact that it is empty represents the fact that 100% of the
variation from the mean is, as yet, unexplained. Our goal is to fill in that bar.
4. Drag the seats attribute into the “Drop attributes here to add predictors to the model” line above the
regression equation.
5. Drag the speed attribute so that it fits just under seats.
You should have something like this:

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Each row in the table in the top indicates the incremental effect of adding this predictor to the model last,
that is, after all of the other predictors. Conversely, it can be viewed as the contribution that would be lost
if this predictor were removed from the model. These results will change as predictors are added and
removed from the model, but not when the order of predictors is changed.
Each section of the ribbon in the ribbon chart corresponds to the incremental effect of adding its
predictor in its current position. Changing the order of the predictors will change the graph, but adding or
removing predictors to the model won’t affect the contributions of predictors that precede the change.
By default the ANOVA table at the bottom shows the portion of the variance accounted for by the
model. To show the incremental effect of adding each predictor to the model, choose Model | Show
Predictors In ANOVA Table.
The final section of the multiple regression model contains results for the model as a whole.

4.10.7.2.2 Interpreting the Model

There’s a lot going on here! There are two things to focus on before we go into the details: There is now
a regression equation with three terms that can be used to predict costph from seats and speed. Also, the bar
shows that 80% of the variation is accounted for by the linear relationship.
The constant term and the coefficients for the two linear terms. These are also
Coefficient
in the regression equation.

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These numbers are the standard deviation of the sampling distribution of each
Std Error
of the corresponding coefficients.

t-Statistic The value of student’s t for the coefficient.

The probability that a value for the coefficient this different from zero would
p-Value
be obtained if the population value of the coefficient were zero.

The change in R2 that this attribute would contribute if it were the last attribute
DR2 added (i.e., at the bottom of the list).

Regression The equation with which you can predict the response. The “hat” over the
Equation response attribute name indicates that it is a predicted value.

The bar represents the variation in the response. Each segment of the ribbon
Ribbon Chart represents the portion of that variation “accounted” for by an attribute. The
blank segment represents the remaining, unaccounted for, variation.

One important number in this table is the p-Value. If this value is small (and a
value of zero means that it’s really small), then it is unlikely that the amount of
ANOVA Table
explanation provided by the model would occur by chance under conditions in
which there was no linear relationship among the attributes.

This is the total R2 value for the model. You can think of it as the proportion
R-Squared
of variation in the response accounted for by the model.

4.10.7.2.3 Adding, Removing, and Moving Predictor Attributes: The Goal of Model Building

You can drag additional attributes to the table of attributes. Notice that as you drag, you can decide where
in the table an additional attribute goes, as signified by the location of the thick black line. (You can drag
more than one attribute at a time to the table.)
You can remove an attribute by selecting its line in the table of attributes and then choosing Test |
Remove Attribute.
You can move an attribute within the table by dragging it to a new location. Notice that the portion of
the ribbon chart corresponding to an attribute turns red when you select the attribute. Moving the
attribute changes its place in the table, the regression equation, and the ribbon chart. Notice that moving
things around does not change the coefficient for any of the attributes or the total R2. It does, however,
change the sequential contribution.
You might well ask, “What is the goal of all this adding, removing, and moving of attributes? How do I
know when I’m done?” Building a multiple regression model is a bit of an art. There’s no single right
answer. To some extent, you’re trying to account for as much of the variation as possible. But you also
want the model to be as simple as possible, and you want the attributes to make sense as you interpret the
model.
Think again about the Airplanes model. Doesn’t it seem likely that fuelgph would be better at explaining
cost than any of the other three possible predictor attributes? In fact, the model with fuelgph as the only
predictor accounts for more of the variation than the model with all of the other three! Simple linear
regression turns out to be simpler and better.

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4.10.7.2.4 Changing Multiple Regression Output

You may not need all of the multiple regression object to show. Two commands in the Test menu hide
portions of the object. Hide Sequential Contributions Chart hides the ribbon chart, and Hide ANOVA
Table hides the bottom table. Also, unchecking Verbose will get rid of a few words. Using all these
options, the multiple regression model of Airplanes looks like the example here.
You can choose Test | Show Predictors in ANOVA Table to examine the intermediate statistics
computed for each predictor, as shown below.

4.10.7.2.5 Plotting Predicted Values and Residuals

Of course, you want to take a look at the residuals. Once you have a multiple regression model, this is
easy.
1. With the model selected, choose Edit | Inspect Linear Model.
2. Drag attributes from the Cases panel of this inspector to a graph.

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Here’s a plot of residuals versus predicted values for the Airplanes data.
You can use this inspector to define new attributes in terms of the predicted values and residuals. You
can also copy the formulas, especially the formula for the predicted value, and use them elsewhere. (Of
course, the formulas won’t dynamically update.)
You can make a case table that includes the predicted values and residuals by first selecting the model
object and making a new case table, or connect the model to an existing case table by dragging the model
name from the upper-left corner of the model object to the case table.

4.10.7.2.6 Polynomial Regression

Suppose you have some bivariate data and you have some reason to believe that the right model for the
data is a third-degree polynomial. You can use the multiple regression model to find the coefficients for
each term.
At right are some fictitious data that look vaguely cubic. The trick is to realize that by adding attributes
for xSquared and xCubed, you can reduce the problem of polynomial regression to multiple linear
regression.
1. Drag a model object from the shelf or choose Object | New | Linear Model and choose Multiple
Regression from its pop-up menu.
2. Make attributes for powers of x.

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Now build up the linear model as shown here. Notice in the ribbon chart that each term contributes
significantly to the model.
Finally, show the model’s inspector, copy the regression equation, and plot it on top of the original scatter
plot.
Note: You have to edit the equation, replacing xSquared and xCubed with x^2 and x^3 before the function
will plot.
The resulting plot, with the cubic on top of the data, is shown here.

4.10.8 Collect Measures from a Test or Estimate

The values computed in a test, estimation, or linear model object are also available for collecting as measures.
This can be useful when the estimate or test is of a simulated situation or when you are manually
changing the parameters and want to record each set of results.

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1. Select the estimation, test, or model object.

2. Choose Test | Collect Results as Measures.
The resulting collection will contain five identical (probably) cases. (Five is the default number of cases to
collect.) You can delete four of them. Some of the attributes in the measures collection for testing a
proportion are shown below. Each test or estimate has its own set of computed values that result in
attributes in the measures collection.

As usual with a measures collection, you can collect more measures and control the number and
conditions for collecting measures in the Collect Measures panel of the collection’s inspector. If the
attributes in the test or estimate are randomly generated, Fathom rerandomizes before collecting each set
of measures.

4.11 Share Your Results: Presenting and Printing Fathom

Results
When you’ve been working with a file, your results often seem obvious to you: You are familiar with what
the cases and attributes represent, where the data came from, and what your graphs and other results
show. However, these things won’t be obvious to others unless you make them explicit.
This area of Fathom Help addresses sharing your Fathom work with others, whether by disseminating a
Fathom document itself, giving a presentation by projecting Fathom on a screen, printing a Fathom
document, or getting Fathom output into word processing or presentation software.
You can add explanatory text and pictures to your documents to help your audience understand what you
have or to provide instructions and questions to users of your document.
You can make the collection reflect your data or simulation (for example, using coin icons that show
heads or tails or having position, size, and caption reflect case values).
If your file has unique and interesting data or if it clearly demonstrates an important concept, please
consider sending it to the Fathom development team at fathom@keypress.com. We might even upload it
to the Fathom Resource Center to share it with other Fathom users.
Subsections
General Techniques and Ideas 211
Share Your Fathom Documents 214
Present in Fathom 214
Prepare to Print a Fathom Document 214
Paste Pictures of Fathom Objects into Another Program 215

4.11.1 General Techniques and Ideas

Whichever form your “publishing” takes, there are some general points to keep in mind.
 Name collections, attributes, measures, and sliders intelligibly and accurately. Their names
should indicate what they represent.

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 Use space wisely. Delete unnecessary objects, objects that don’t help you tell your story. Move
related objects together. (For example, put the collection and graph of the collection that
serves as a population in one area, the sample collection and its objects in another, and the
measures collection and its objects in another.)
Subsections
Add Comments to a Collection 212
Work with Text in Text Objects 213
Paste Pictures 213
See also
Change the Appearance of Cases in a Collection 106

4.11.1.1 Add Comments to a Collection

Each Fathom collection has a special place for holding documentation: the Comments panel. The
biggest advantage of the Comments panel over text objects is that many users read text objects and then
delete them to free up space; the Comments stay with the collection.
Note: When you import data, text that Fathom recognizes as not being the data itself is stored in the
collection’s comments automatically.
1. Double-click the collection (the box of balls) to show its inspector.
2. Click the Comments tab to go to the Comments panel.
3. Type or paste comments into the pane. Fathom will store them when you save the file.
See also
Work with Text in Text Objects 213
Format Text in Text Objects 213
Paste Pictures 213

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4.11.1.2 Work with Text in Text Objects

You can’t type or paste words directly into empty document space; text goes in a text object.
1. Drag a text object from the shelf into your document or use the shortcut Ctrl-Shift-T (Win),
z-Shift-T (Mac).
2. Type or paste text there.
 Resize a text object by dragging an edge or corner; move it by dragging the top of its frame.
If a text object is empty, it will have a gray border around it when it isn’t selected to remind you where it
is.
 If necessary, choose Edit | Show Text Palette for formatting controls and special characters
(see Format Text in Text Objects 213 or Show/Hide Text Palette 377 ).

4.11.1.3 Format Text in Text Objects

When a text object is selected, the Edit menu has Text Font, Text Size, and Text Style menus. These
work as they do in most programs. Alternatively, there’s a text palette, which you can show or hide, that
contains these menus, a menu for changing text color, and a variety of special symbols.
1. To insert mathematical and statistical symbols into your text object, choose Edit | Show Text Palette
.
2. If necessary, click in a text object to activate the palette and click the

button to expand its symbols and special characters section.

3. If a symbol you want isn’t visible, the rightmost button of the symbols palette is a pop-up menu with
even more symbols.

4.11.1.4 Paste Pictures

You cannot make drawings in Fathom, but you can paste in pictures. If you are writing your report in
Fathom, this is a good way to illustrate parts of your report in which the data do not speak for
themselves.
1. In some other application, copy a picture onto your clipboard.

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2. Switch to Fathom, making sure that nothing is selected in your document. (Click in an empty space to
deselect all objects.)
3. Choose Edit | Paste Picture.
You can resize the picture just as you would any other object in Fathom, by dragging on the edges of its
frame.
You can also copy and paste pictures of Fathom objects in a Fathom document (for example, if you want
several static graphs of randomizations).
1. Select the object and choose Edit | Copy As Picture.
2. Click in an empty area of the Fathom document (to deselect all objects).
3. Choose Edit | Paste Picture.

4.11.2 Share Your Fathom Documents

Here are some considerations for preparing Fathom documents to be used by others.
 Make sure the file names end in the Fathom extension .ftm so they can be shared across
platforms.
 The focus and size of inspectors are saved with the document. Sometimes it’s helpful to other
users to have an inspector appear when the document is opened. Make sure the inspector is on
the right panel and it and its panes are sized properly before you save.
 If the file contains simulations such as sampling and collecting measures, leaving animation on
for these processes facilitates the user’s understanding of those processes.
 Make your file read-only before disseminating it. (see your computer’s help for details.)

4.11.3 Present in Fathom

Here are some hints for projecting Fathom documents onto a screen:
 To make reading the document easier from the back of the room, you can globally increase the
size of all text in graphs and other objects using the Font Size for Text in Objects pop-up
menu in Fathom Preferences.
 If you have a series of graphs or other objects you want to show one at a time, you can iconify
them all (drag the bottom-right corner all the way to the top left). Then, when using the
document, select an iconified object and choose Object | View In Window to expand it. Click
the window’s close box when through.

4.11.4 Prepare to Print a Fathom Document

 Before printing your document, you should first make sure objects don’t get broken across page
breaks. Choosing File | Show Page Breaks adds dotted lines to show where the edges of pages fall.
 Resize an object by dragging an edge or corner.
 Move an object by dragging the top of its frame or by using your keyboard’s arrow keys to move an
object 5 pixels at a time.

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4.11.5 Paste Pictures of Fathom Objects into Another Program

If you can’t produce the kind of report you need within Fathom itself, you can get images of Fathom
objects into other programs, such as word processing or presentation applications.
Pictures are static, not live, and they will not change when you change the Fathom document.
 Select an object and choose Edit | Copy As Picture, then paste into the receiving file.
Fathom will only copy Fathom objects as pictures: collections, graphs, case tables, summary tables,
statistical objects, sliders, text objects, and pictures. To copy, for example, formula editors or inspectors,
you need to use a screen-capture program.

5 Movies
This is a set of QuickTime movies, each around a minute or two long. They show how to use some of
Fathom’s features. To see and hear them, you need the free QuickTime player. (It comes already installed
on Mac. Windows users can download installers from Apple.) If you prefer, you can watch these movies
by browsing the FathomHelp/Movies folder in the Fathom application folder on your hard disk.

Subsections
Graphs 215
Importing Data 217
Inspectors 218
Measures 219
Menus 219
Plotting 220
Summary Tables 223
Surveys 224
Using Formulas 225
Other 226

5.1 Graphs
Click the movie's name to open the movie.

Entering Data and Making a Graph

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This movie starts at the very

beginning. Learn how to make a
case table, enter data into it, and
make a graph by dragging attributes
from the case table to the graph.

Entering Data and Making a Graph

Adding Filters to a Graph

When you don’t want to be

working with all the data, you can
use a filter to just see a portion of
it. This movie shows you how to
use a filter with a graph.
Adding Filters to a Graph

Legend Attributes
Learn how to split plots by
categorical and numeric attributes
to create a legend that gives each
point its own symbol or color. This
splitting is often helpful in looking
for differences between groups or
in spotting trends. Legend Attributes

Plotting Multiple Attributes on an Axis

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 Movies

Learn how to plot more than one

attribute on an axis and how to
remove particular attributes.

Plotting Multiple Attributes on an Axis

Rescaling Axes

Learn how to change the scale of

an axis using either the graph’s
inspector or using dynamic
dragging directly on the axis.

Rescaling Axes

Zooming in Graphs

Learn how to zoom in and zoom

out of graphs so that you can better
see the details of what is happening
with your data.

Zooming in Graphs

5.2 Importing Data

Importing Census Microdata

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Learn how to import data from

1850 to 2000 in which cases are
people who filled out the long form
of the census. Learn how to choose
which cases to import and which
attributes to include.

Importing Census Microdata

Internet Import by Dragging the URL

This movie demonstrates how to

bring data from a Web page into
Fathom by dragging the URL icon
from a browser into a Fathom
document.

Internet Import by Dragging the URL

5.3 Inspectors

Dragging Attributes from Inspectors

You can drag attributes from
wherever you can see their names,
including the incredibly useful
inspector. Learn how in this movie. Dragging Attributes from
Inspectors

Inspectors for Collections, Graphs, and Sliders

Learn how to use inspectors and

the panels within them to take
control of Fathom objects.
Inspectors for Collections, Graphs,
and Sliders

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5.4 Measures

Creating a Measure to Find the Sum of Three Dice

In the context of a simulation with

dice, learn how to create a measure
that computes the sum of the dice.
This is the first of a two-part series
in which the results of many
simulations are collected.

Creating a Measure to Find the

Sum of Three Dice

Collecting Measures to Build Up a Distribution

This is the second part of a two-

part series about building up the
distribution of the sum of three
dice. Learn how to collect measures
to compute the sum of three dice
and display the results.
Collecting Measures to Build Up a
Distribution

5.5 Menus

Choosing Commands from Context Menus

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Learn how to choose

Fathom commands using
context menus. These are
the menus you get with
“right-click” when you have
a two-button mouse, or
control-click on a Macintosh
with a one-button mouse.
Not only is this incredibly
useful, it’s used throughout
the movies.

Choosing Commands from context Menus

Where’s My Menu? Objects and Their Menus

Fathom only shows an object’s

menu when that object is selected.
Learn about this and about context
menus in this movie.

Where's My Menu? Objects and

Their Menus

5.6 Plotting

Plotting Values in Graphs

Learn how to plot values in graphs

to display computed quantities.
You will learn how plotted values
behave when a graph is split and
how to remove plotted values.

Plotting Values in Graphs

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Movable Lines in Scatter Plots

Learn how to use movable lines to

estimate the rate of change of one
attribute with another.

Movable Lines in Scatter Plots

Using Regression Lines in Scatter Plots

In this movie you’ll see both a least-

squares regression lines and a
median-median line and see how
the latter is more resistant to
outliers than the former. You’ll also
see how valuable it can be to split
the data into groups and get a
regression line for each group.

Using Regression Lines in Scatter

Plots

Plotting Functions in a Scatter Plot

Learn how to plot a function in a

scatter plot and then edit that
function to vary it dynamically.

Plotting Functions in Scatter Plot

Locking the Intercept of Lines at Zero

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Sometimes a line in a scatter plot

only makes sense if it goes through
the origin. Learn how to lock the
intercept of lines at zero.

Locking the Intercept of Lines at

Zero

Using a Residual Plot

A residual plot helps you look for

patterns in the data that are not
explained by a fitted curve or line.
In this movie you’ll learn how to
make them and read them.

Using a Residual Plot

A Dot Plot, a Histogram, and a Box Plot

Learn how to make and manipulate

a histogram by direct dragging of
the bars and also by changing
properties in the graph inspector.

A Dot Plot, a Histogram, and a

Box Plot

Determining a Best Fit by Minimizing the Sum of Squares of Residuals

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Learn how to show the squares of

the residuals for lines and curves
and how to use these to determine
a best fit.

Determining a Best Fit by

Minimizing the Sum of Squares of
Residuals
5.7 Summary Tables
Four Basic Objects—Collections, Case Tables, Graphs, and Summary Tables

This movie shows you how to

make collections, case tables,
graphs, and summary tables. Once
you master these basics, you can
explore data and learn the rest of
Fathom’s interface.

Four Basic Objects—Collections, Case Tables,

Graphs, and Summary Tables

Working with Summary Tables

Summary tables display the results

of calculations on the collection as
a whole. In this movie you will
learn how to add attributes and
formulas to a summary table.

Working with Summary Tables

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5.8 Surveys
Creating and Publishing a Survey

Learn how to create a survey

collection, add questions to it and
publish it on the Fathom Surveys
website.

Creating and Publishing a Survey

Creating Pop-up Menu Responses

This movie shows you how to

make changes to a survey, such as
adding multiple choice answers
and adding questions.

Creating Pop-up Menu Responses

Taking the Survey

This movie shows you how to
create student accounts and give
students access to the survey. It
also illustrates how to get the URL
Taking the Survey
for the survey.

Getting Results

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Learn how to retrieve results once

the surveys have responses.
Demonstrate to your students how
they can download the results into
a Fathom document like any other
data

Getting Results

Uploading by Students

This movie shows you how to

grant permission to your students
to upload the survey. All surveys
need to be reviewed by a
responsible adult before they can
be published.

Uploading by Students

5.9 Using Formulas

Compute Values for Attributes with Formulas

Learn how to define an attribute

based on a formula. Learn how to
bring up the formula editor using
the case table’s context menu and
also how to show the formula row.
Compute Values for Attributes with
Formulas

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Using the Formula Editor

Learn how to enter formulas in
Fathom’s formula editor, including
fractions, π, attributes, and
exponents. Using the Formula Editor

5.10 Other

Selecting Cases

Learn how selecting cases can help

you explore data. You’ll see how
Fathom dynamically links selection
in one object to all other objects.

Selecting Cases

Working with Categorical Data

Often data, especially survey data,
are categorical rather than numeric.
In this movie you will learn about
various ways to represent
categorical data with bar charts and
ribbon charts. Working with Categorical Data

Working with Units

Learn how to assign units to an

attribute, enter data that has units,
and convert from one unit to
another.
Working with Units

Taking a Sample

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In this movie you will learn how to

take a sample from a collection,
how to repeat the sampling
process, and how to change the size
of the sample.

Taking a Sample

Conserving Screen Space

This movie shows problems that

can occur if you’re not careful
about how you use screen space.
Learn several useful techniques for
overcoming these problems.

Conserving Screen Space

6 Tours
The tours introduce you to all the features of Fathom in different contexts. They’re written for you to do
in order and step-by-step. We expect you to use a computer running Fathom while you go through the
tours. You may, of course, use the tours differently—jumping from topic to topic, for example—but
keep in mind that you may come across instructions in the wrong order. That is, in later tours, you will
need to know basics covered in the first tours.
Unless you’re very comfortable with computers and with statistical concepts, you probably don’t want to
do the tours in one run. Consider doing a couple of tours, then using Fathom for a while to get used to
the basics before doing later tours.
From time to time, we ask you to open a file. These files are in the Sample Documents | Learning
Guide Starters folder in the Fathom directory.

Although Fathom has many keyboard shortcuts, they are not mentioned in these tours, nor are Fathom’s
context (right-click) menus. If you prefer keyboard shortcuts to choosing from menus, you might want to
keep the Quick Reference handy as you use these tours. If you like context menus, you can usually get
what you want from them. All Fathom objects have their own context menus that contain most of the
commands that apply to each.
Subsections

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Exploring Data—Census at Schools 228

Data and Prediction—Arm Span 234
Importing U.S. Census Microdata 240
Using Formulas to Explore the Planets 246
Generating Mathematics—Change Playground 251
Simulation—Polling Voters 255
Testing a Hypothesis—Plant Growth 259
Testing for Independence—Pets and Sports 264
Numerical Integration—The Elevator Experiment 273
Classroom Survey 277
Typing Tutor Experiment 282
How Fast Do You Walk?—Measuring Distance with Sensors 283
Cooling Water—Measure Temperature Over Time 285
Timing with Photogates 286

6.1 Exploring Data—Census at Schools

CensusAtSchool is an international project that collects and disseminates data about students from the
United Kingdom, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. (For more information, visit their website at
www.censusatschool.ntu.ac.uk/default.asp.)
In this tour, you’ll use Fathom to start exploring the data. You’ll learn how to navigate around Fathom
and how to make and use graphs.

Opening the File

This tour uses a file from the Sample Documents collection that comes with Fathom.
1. If Fathom isn’t already running, launch it.
2. Choose File | Open Sample Document.
3. Open CensusAtSchool.ftm from the Learning Guide Starters
folder.
4. If the document window isn’t already maximized, click its maximize
button.

Your Fathom window should look like this:

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The document currently has two objects: a text object, explaining where the data come from, and a
collection, which is where the data are stored. Each gold ball in the collection represents one case, which
in this file is one person.
5. Put your cursor over the collection.
The status bar at the bottom left of the Fathom window gives some information about the data: This
collection has 500 cases and 19 attributes, or variables.

Inspecting the Collection

Let’s see what data we have about our students.
6. Double-click the collection, or select it and choose Object |
Inspect Collection.
This shows the collection’s inspector open to the Cases panel,
which shows all of the attributes and the values for one case.
Unlike the collection and graph objects, the inspector is a window that
floats above the document window. It also floats with you if you scroll
down or to the side.
Some values and attribute names are too long to be completely visible.
You can resize the column widths by dragging a boundary between
two column headings.
7. Browse the cases by clicking the arrows at the bottom of the
inspector.
We can see that we have some basic demographic data, such as where
these students are from and their gender and age, as well as data about
their households, such as how many people they live with, and other
information, ranging from their heights, how they get to school, and
what technologies are available to them.

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Graphing Data
There are many different relationships to explore, but first let’s see where all of these students are from.
8. Drag a graph object from the object shelf into your document, or
choose Object | New |Graph. You get an empty graph because you
haven’t yet told Fathom what attribute to graph.

9. Drag the attribute name Place from the inspector, and drop it on the
prompt below the graph’s horizontal axis. (You could, instead, have
dropped it on the vertical axis.)

By default, you get a bar chart showing where the students live and how many live in each place. The
United Kingdom has the most students in this sample, and Queensland (a state in Australia) has the
fewest.

To see exactly how many students are from South Africa, hold the
cursor over the bar representing the South African students, and read
the status bar in the lower-left corner of the Fathom window.
The status bar indicates what percentage of students come from each
place. You can also show this information on the graph.

10. Use the pop-up menu at the top right of the graph to change the
graph to a ribbon chart.
The data appear as a single big block, representing all of the
values, divided into sections; the axis is labeled with percentages

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Continuing our exploration of the data one attribute at a time, let’s see
how old the students are.
11. Drag Age from the inspector, and drop it below the horizontal axis
to replace Place.
Now each student is represented by a dot placed along the axis.
12. Select the oldest student by clicking their dot in the dot plot.
Where is that student from? Notice that when you select a data point,
the inspector shows that case. You can read all of that student’s values
(this student, female, walks to school
and likes English).

Is there any relationship between where students are from and their age? One way to look for
relationships is to make use of the fact that selection in one graph is reflected in another.
13. Make a second graph next to the first one and drag Place to its horizontal axis.
14. Select the bar representing Queensland students by clicking it.
The bar turns red to show the selection of students. Notice that some of the dots in the dot plot have
also turned red and that the students from Queensland are highlighted in the collection.

In Fathom, selecting data in one object selects them in every other

object. This gives a quick, simple way of looking at relationships
between attributes. You can also select a group of points by drawing a
selection rectangle around them.
The two graphs show that the Queensland students are all in the
middle; none are the youngest or oldest. Perhaps this is a result of
how CensusAtSchool was publicized in Australia.

To get a better sense of the difference in the age ranges of the

students, try looking
at them in one graph.
15. Drag Place to the vertical axis of the Age graph (you can drag it
from either the other graph or the inspector).
Putting a categorical attribute on a numeric graph splits the graph,
allowing you to compare the age distributions of the three groups
directly.

This graph shows, for example, that the narrowest range of ages is for the Queensland students; the
South African students span the greatest range and have all the oldest students; and the youngest students

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are from the United Kingdom.

Moving, Resizing, and Deleting Objects

Before we continue exploring our data, let’s clean up the screen a little. First, we’ll delete the text object.
16. Select the text object and choose Object | Delete Text Object.
Deleting the collection would actually delete all the data, so we don’t want to do that. However, Fathom
has unlimited undo, so you can always get it back. Let’s test this.
17. Delete the collection.
Notice that all the graphs become empty.
18. Choose Edit | Undo Delete Collection to get it back, then double-click the collection to get the
inspector back.
Anytime you make a mistake in Fathom, you can choose Edit | Undo [action]. You can also redo
anything you’ve undone by choosing Edit | Redo [action].
To clear space, we can make the collection a small icon that won’t take up much room.
19. Drag the lower-right corner of the collection up and toward
the opposite corner until the object becomes iconified (that is, a
little box of gold balls).

20. Move the inspector to the right of the Fathom window by dragging its title bar.
21. Delete the Place graph.
22. Move the Age graph to the left side of the window by dragging the top of its frame.
23. Finally, simplify the Age graph by removing Place. Select the graph and choose Graph | Remove Y
Attribute.

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Exploring Graphs
We saw how to use selection to explore relationships. Fathom also allows us to drag things in graphs. We
can use this to further explore the Age graph.
24. Duplicate the Age graph by selecting it and choosing Object | Duplicate Graph.
25. Change one of the graphs into a histogram.
26. Select one of the histogram bars.
This selects a strip of dots in the dot plot. Put the cursor over the selected bar to read about it in the
status area: the range of values it contains and how many cases are in it.
27. In the histogram, drag an edge of one of the bins to make the
bins wider.
Each bin now represents more cases, so some of the bins are
too tall to see their tops.

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The dots are now in bins, each the same width. Sometimes the
choice of bin width affects the overall look of the data, for
example, whether there’s one tallest bin or more than one. Let’s
dynamically explore how bin width affects the histogram’s look.

28. Drag the 70 on the vertical axis down until you can see the
tops of all the bins.
Notice how some of the bumpiness in the histogram has been
washed out with the wider bins. Selecting a bin now selects a
broader strip of dots in the dot plot.

Although there are other ways of rescaling graph axes (see Fathom Help for details), the easiest is simply
to drag the axes: Dragging near the ends of axes dilates them, dragging the middle shifts them.
29. Choose Graph | Rescale Graph Axes to see all the data.

Going Further
Using the techniques you’ve learned, answer these questions or make up your own.
 Is math more popular with males or females?
 Which place has the highest proportion of students with Internet access?
 Which country’s students have to travel farthest to get to school?
 Which place has the highest proportion of students who walk to school? Are these the students who
have the greatest travel time?

6.2 Data and Prediction—Arm Span

This tour focuses on relationships between numeric data and linearity. Do taller people have bigger
wrists? How is height related to arm span or other kinds of bone-length measurements? Which
measurements allow us to best predict someone’s arm span?

Entering Data
For this tour, we’ll be entering data from scratch. For this, we need an empty case table.
1. If Fathom isn’t running, launch it. Otherwise, create a new, empty document by choosing File | New.
(You might want to maximize your window to give yourself plenty of room to work.)

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2. Drag a case table from the shelf into your document.

We need to tell Fathom what attributes we want to record.

3. Click <new>.

4. Type Name for the first attribute, and press Tab.

As soon as the new name is accepted, Fathom creates an empty
collection (iconified) to hold this data. The case table now has
the title of that collection: Collection 1.

5. Make the table wide by dragging its right edge.

6. Add the following attributes (column heads): ArmSpan,

WristCircum, Forearm, and Height.

All objects connected to a collection have that collection’s name.

Let’s give this collection a more meaningful name.

7. Double-click Collection 1 in either the case table or the

collection.

8. Type People in the dialog box and click OK.

Now we’re ready to enter the values.
9. Click in the cell below Name.
10. Type Scott and press Tab.

The Tab key moves you to the next cell. (If you’re at the end of a case, it moves you to the first cell of the
next case, so you can tab your way through the whole table. See Fathom Help: Keyboard Shortcuts 441
for more on moving within and between cells.)
11. Type 76.5 in for Scott’s height in inches, and press Tab.
Because this value has a unit, a new row (the units row) appears above the first case, and the unit
name appears in its cell in green. This is Fathom’s way of indicating that it recognizes the unit as a unit
and that the unit applies to the entire attribute.
12. Type in the rest of the data for Scott, and press Tab to move to the first cell of the next case.
After typing inches for each of the first cells, you don’t have to retype inches, as you’ll see in the next case.

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13. Type the rest of the people’s names and their measurements (just the numbers). As soon as you leave
each cell that has a unit applied, Fathom inserts the unit’s abbreviation.
14. Save the document to preserve your data.

Making Scatter Plots and Analyzing Relationships

Making a graph requires two things: the empty graph and the attribute names to drag to it. In Tour 1, we
got the attributes from the inspector; but we can drag attributes from anywhere we see them. This time
we’ll use the case table, because it doesn’t take up too much space.
15. Make an empty graph.
16. Drag WristCircum to the horizontal axis and ArmSpan to the
vertical axis.
You get a scatter plot: each dot represents one person’s wrist
size and arm span. The dots are scattered, but fairly linear.
You can see a positive correlation between wrist
circumference and arm span—as one gets longer, so does the
other.

It would be nice to see who each data point belongs to.

17. Select Name in the case table.
Notice that the Table menu appears whenever the case table is selected.
18. Choose Table | Use As Caption.

19. Move the cursor to point at a data point.

The person’s name now shows up in the status bar.

We can add a line to the graph to help quantify the relationship between wrist size and height.
20. Select the graph.
Notice that now the Graph menu appears and the Table menu is gone. If you can’t find a menu or a
command for an object, try selecting the object to make its menu appear.

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21. Choose Graph | Add Movable Line.

A line appears on the graph, and its equation is given below the
graph. This line is not based on the data in any way. You have to
move it to get it to “fit” the data.

22. Run the cursor along this line, noticing how the cursor changes
shape. Experiment with using different cursors to drag the
line.

23. Move the line to give a pretty good fit to the data by first dragging one end and then the other.
The line is an eyeball fit; different people will fit the line somewhat differently. Fathom can also compute
several standard lines of fit. One of these is the least-squares line. Let’s find out just what that means.
24. With the graph selected (so the Graph menu is in the menu
bar), choose Graph | Show Squares.

Fathom draws a vertical line from each data point to the

movable line (known as the point’s residual) and a horizontal
line of the same length, creating a square for each data point.
Below the graph, it reports the sum of the areas of all the
squares. This sum is one way to judge how well a line fits data.

25. Drag the line around. Watch the squares and their sum change.
26. Adjust the line to make the sum of the squares as small as you can make it.
The line that minimizes the sum of the squares of the residual is the least-squares line.
27. Choose Graph | Least-Squares Line.
A second line appears in the graph. This one is computed from the data and is not movable. Were
you close?
28. Choose Graph | Remove Movable Line.
What does the equation of the least-squares line tell us about the relationship between wrist size and arm
span? (Someone with a wrist 1 inch bigger around than another person will likely have an arm span about
14 inches longer.)

Dragging Data
In Fathom, we can drag data within graphs to change their values. This allows us to explore how changes
in the data will change our analysis

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29. Drag one of the data points.

Notice that while you drag, the point moves, the values in the
case table change to reflect the point’s current position, the
line moves (to retain its least-squares quality), and the line’s
equation updates.

Drag data points around in the graph, noticing how much effect each point has on the line’s equation.
After exploring the effects of changing the data, we could undo all the moves until we have the original
data back—but we’ll use a different method.
30. Select the collection and choose File | Revert Collection.
After warning you that this step is not undoable, Fathom puts all the data back in its original state (the
state at which you last saved) without taking away the other changes you made (the graph and its line,
for example).
One way to judge how well a line fits data is to look at a residual plot.
31. Select the graph and choose Graph | Make Residual Plot.

A second plot appears below the graph. The horizontal axis is

identical to that in the original graph, but the vertical axis isn’t
labeled ArmSpan. Instead, it’s labeled Residual, which is each
point’s vertical distance from your line of fit. Notice its scale.
32. Drag points in either the original plot or the residual plot to
explore the residual plot.
33. When you are through, restore the original data (by undoing or
reverting).

What’s the Best Predictor?

We can use a line to predict likely values when given only one of the measurements. Let’s see how well
this method predicts your height given your wrist size.

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34. Make a new graph with WristCircum on the horizontal axis and
Height on the vertical axis. Add a least-squares line.
35. Measure or estimate your wrist circumference
in inches.
36. Click and hold your mouse over the line. The cursor changes
and a red dot appears on the line.
37. With the red dot showing, drag the cursor around in the
graph. The dot traces the line, and its coordinates appear in
the graph.
38. Use this feature to predict your height. How far off is the
prediction from your actual height?

Although you can’t measure your own arm span without help, maybe we can use this technique to predict
it. Let’s look at the relationships of the other attributes to arm span to see which is best for predicting it.
Look at the graph of ArmSpan versus WristCircum. After the equation of the least-squares line, the r2 value
is given. The closer this number is to 1, the better the correlation between the two attributes.
We now want to graph arm span against each of the other attributes. Here’s a quick way.
39. Select the ArmSpan graph and choose Object | Duplicate Graph. You get a copy of your graph, with
arm span and the least-squares line in place.
40. Replace WristCircum with Forearm by dropping Forearm below the horizontal axis.
Do forearm length and arm span seem correlated?
41. Select the ArmSpan graph and choose Object | Duplicate Graph. Change the graph to show arm
span as a function of height.
Height and arm span are very highly correlated, aren’t they? This graph will probably give a better
prediction than the Forearm graph.
42. Trace the line to see what value this data predicts for your arm span. Look at the residual plot to see
how far off this is likely to be. (With help, you could see how close this prediction is to your arm
span.)

Going Further
 In this tour, we changed how cases are captioned. Look in Fathom Help to learn how to change the
captions to give a whole sentence about each person (using the concat function). Change the gold ball
images in the collection to look like people and base their size and placement on the data values. (See
Fathom Help: Change the Appearance of Cases in a Collection 106 .)
 Leonardo da Vinci documented the correlation between height and arm span, as well as correlations
between other human body measurements. You could research what correlations he found and collect
data on friends and family to verify them.

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6.3 Importing US Census Microdata

Since 1790, the U.S. Census Bureau has conducted a thorough survey of the American population once
every ten years. The first censuses were primarily concerned with the number of people, so the federal
government could make decisions about representation and taxation. Today, the U.S. Census Bureau
collects a variety of data, including age, sex, race, national origin, marital status, and education. The most
detailed information published by the U.S. Census Bureau is called microdata, or data about individuals.
Using Fathom, you can import samples of census microdata from 1850 to 2000. The attributes you get
depend on the questions asked in a particular year. You can use these data to explore many characteristics
of the American people. This tour focuses first on racial diversity, then on school attendance.
Note: For this tour to work, your computer must be connected to the Internet. If you’ve done the normal
installation of Fathom, you will have the files you need in place. (If not, make sure the Fathom
application folder contains the Helpers folder, which contains the ImportSpecs folder, which contains
the file IPUMS_USA_InterfaceSpec.xml .)

Getting to Know the Data

1. In a new Fathom document, choose File | Import | U.S. Census Data.

You get an empty collection and its inspector open to the

Microdata panel.
2. Read the help message in the inspector.
Choose Attributes and read the help for that, too.

The bottom section of the panel shows the current request: By

default, this is a sample of people from all over the United States
(because no state or metropolitan area is selected) from the 2000
census. The attributes requested for each person are the census
year, state where he or she lived, age, sex, race, and marital status.

3. Expand the Attributes list, then the Person list.

If necessary, make the inspector larger to see the whole set.
(Note: You can resize the panes on this panel by dragging their
edges.)

4. Click Year and Location, and read the attributes.

5. Move your cursor over Urban or Rural.
The status bar at the lower left of the Fathom window shows information about the attribute that
describes the attribute and tells the years for which it is available:

Skim through the list of attributes, clicking on headings of interest in the left pane, and reading about the
attributes in the right pane. For now, we’ll keep the default request but add one more attribute.
6. In Education, check School Attendance.
7. Click Download Data.

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Fathom connects to the Internet and submits your request to IPUMS (Integrated Public Use Microdata
Series, at the University of Minnesota), which has a searchable database of census microdata samples.
Fathom decodes and imports the results into a collection. (If left coded, all data would be in the form of
numbers, rather than, for example, “male” and “female.”)

When Fathom has finished importing the data, the lower-left

corner of the inspector reports the number of cases.

Let’s explore the racial diversity of the United States as a whole

and compare that with diversity in specific regions. We’ll begin
with this first sample.
8. Go to the Cases panel of the inspector to see the attribute
names.
9. Make a graph of Race_General by dropping it on the vertical axis
(it has long values, so it will be easier to read that way).
Whites make up a substantial majority of the cases in this
sample of the country as a whole.

To compare racial diversity, we’d like to quantify it. We’ll do this in two ways. First, we’ll look at the
proportion of the majority race (the smaller that proportion is, the more racially diverse an area is), and
then we’ll look at how many different racial groups live in an area. We’ll use a summary table.
10. Drag a summary table from the shelf.
11. Drag Race_General to the summary table and drop it on the
down arrow that appears when you’re over the drop area.

12. Resize the summary table to see all of its contents.

By default, the table shows the counts for a categorical attribute,
but we’re more interested in the proportions.
13. Double-click the formula to show the formula editor and
replace count() with columnProportion. Click OK to close the
editor.
The counts are replaced by proportions for each race.

Right now, we’re investigating the majority race, so we’re looking at the proportion of whites. We can
make a new summary table to calculate only this proportion.

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14. Make a new summary table, and drop the collection’s name in
it.
You get the count of the number of cases in the collection.

The collection has been connected to the summary table, so it “knows” about the collection and its
attributes. We can edit the formula to calculate only the proportion of cases whose race is white.
15. Double-click the formula to show the formula editor, and delete the existing formula.
We could type the formula we want, but, instead, we’ll use the attribute and function list in the formula
editor itself.
16. Open the Functions list in the middle right pane of the
formula editor. (You can resize the panes by dragging their
edges or resize the editor by dragging its lower-right corner.)
17. Open the list of Statistical functions, then open One Attribute.
18. Scroll down to proportion, and double-click it to insert it in
the formula.
Although you can type everything into the formula editor,
sometimes it’s easier (and more accurate) to choose items from
the list (for example, if you don’t remember exactly what you
named a particular attribute or if its name is long).

19. Open the Attributes list (Attributes appear before Functions),

and double-click Race_General to insert it. Type = “White” and
close the formula editor.
You have told Fathom to calculate the proportion of cases
whose race value is white. (You have to enclose the value in
quotation marks for Fathom to recognize it.) This expression
illustrates a common formula in Fathom, where you specify
for which category you want something calculated.

Now we want Fathom to calculate how many distinct racial types are in this sample.
20. Choose Summary | Add Formula (the menu won’t appear unless the summary table is selected).
21. Enter the formula uniqueValues(Race_General) and close the
editor.

The summary table now has two statistics calculated: the

proportion of whites in the sample and the number of distinct
values for the race attribute.

Your numbers may be a bit different from those shown here. When IPUMS has more cases available than
we are asking for, we get a simple random sample. Try downloading data several times to see how much
the numbers change.
We now have a rough idea of the racial diversity for the United States as a whole. We want to look at how

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the diversity varies around the country. When we ask for different data, our data will be replaced, so we
need a record of the values we got for the country as a whole. We can make a picture of this table and
keep it for future reference.
22. Make the summary table a good size—as small as possible but still showing all the information.
23. Select the summary table and choose Edit | Copy As Picture.
24. Click in a blank place in the document to deselect the table.
25. Choose Edit | Paste Picture.
This isn’t a live summary table and won’t change when we change the data. (You might also want to have
a picture of the graph of race.)

Changing the Cases Requested

Now we will change the request from its default of all of the country to one state.
26. In the inspector, go to the Microdata panel.
27. Expand the Choosing Cases list and click States to see the list
of states.
28. Pick one state by clicking its check box.
Notice that your choice of state was added to the current
request summary on the bottom pane of the inspector.
29. Click Download Data.
The data fill whatever graphs or other objects you have (except
pictures) with the new sample.

Is this state more or less racially diverse than the country as a

whole? (Maine, for example, is less diverse according to both our
criteria: over 98% white and only four racial categories.)

School Attendance
You could continue the exploration of racial diversity, looking at different states and metropolitan areas
to find the most and least racially diverse places in the United States. But let’s move on and look at some
of the other attributes.

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30. Make a graph with Age on the horizontal axis and

School_attendance on the vertical axis.

Who’s the oldest person in school now? What does N/A mean
for this attribute?

Let’s look at the age range of students and the rate of school
attendance over the years. The IPUMS collection has samples of
data going back to 1850. It lacks data from the 1890 census (the
data were lost in a fire, unfortunately) and, as of this writing, the
1930 data (which IPUMS will be adding soon).

31. Go to the Microdata panel of the inspector.

32. Click the Years heading in the Choosing Cases list.
33. Check the boxes for 1850, 1900, 1940, 1970, and 2000, and submit the request.
34. When the data come in, graph Census_year.
Notice that you don’t get a dot plot; you get a bar chart, instead. Fathom is treating this attribute as
categorical. (To learn more about why, see Fathom Help: Attributes with Category Sets 332 )
It would be nice to see the years in chronological order.
35. Rearrange the bins by dragging a bin label to the correct position.
Now, whenever you graph Census_year, the years will be in
chronological order.
36. Change the graph to a ribbon chart.
37. Make another graph of School_attendance.
38. Select the “Yes_in school” bar.
Notice the pattern of selection in the other graph. Within each
vertical slice representing year, the proportion of people in school
is colored red.

39. Drop School_attendance in the middle of the ribbon chart of year.

You now have a time series display. The vertical bands are the census years, and the legend patterns
show changes in proportions of the population that are in or not in school for that census year.

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40. Make a new graph with Age on the horizontal axis and
Census_year on the vertical axis.
The people in school should be selected in this graph, too.
41. Change the graph to a histogram.
What do these graphs tell you about schooling over time in the
state you chose?

Adult Education
Our histogram showed something about the age range of those in school. We can use filtering to look
more closely at the schooling of children or of adults. First let’s look at just the children.
42. Select the ribbon chart and choose Object | Add Filter.
The formula editor appears.
The formula entered for the filter tells Fathom what cases to keep in
the graph.
43. Type the formula age < 18 and click OK.
The ribbon chart changes to show only the
children, and the filter formula appears below
the graph. Notice that none of the other
objects are filtered; the filter applies to this
graph only.
There don’t seem to be any N/A cases for the
earlier years. What might this tell us about the
census for those years?
If we want all our objects to be filtered, we need
to apply the filter to the collection itself. Let's
look at the pattern for adult education.

44. Select the collection and choose Object | Add Filter.

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45. Type the formula age > 18 and click OK.

The collection opens, and cases that have been filtered out are
gray. Also, the filter formula appears below the cases.
Notice that the ribbon chart of children is now blank, because
we’ve filtered out all the cases in that object.
46. Select the graph and choose Object | Remove Filter.
The adult cases appear.
Use these graphs (and others if you wish) to explore adult
education in the United States over the years.

Going Further
 Try downloading data for California in the years 1850 and 2000. Make a ribbon chart with Census_year
on the horizontal axis and Sex in the middle. What do you see? What’s going on here? (Hint: Who came
to California before 1850? Note: The 1850 census did not count Native Americans.) Verify your
hypothesis by getting more data, such as Occupation. How long did it take for the sexes to even out?
(Find out by getting some years in between.)
 Explore the idea that people now move around more than did people in the past. (Make an attribute
with a formula that compares people’s current state with their birthplace, such as
if(Birthplace_General = State_FIPS_code), “Same State”, “Moved”

6.4 Using Formulas to Explore the Planets

Here we use formulas to define new attributes and to plot functions. We’ll look at a data set with only
nine cases—the planets in our solar system. We'll compute the density of the planets and investigate the
relationship between a planet’s distance from the sun and the length of its year.

Getting to Know the Planets Collection

1. Open the document Planets.ftm from the Learning Guide Starters folder.
There are two objects here: text, explaining the attributes (this information is also in the collection
comments), and the collection of planets.
2. After reading the text, hide the text object by selecting it and choosing Object | Hide Text Object.
We did something special to this collection; we have to open it to see.
3. Open the collection by dragging its lower right corner down and far to the right.
Instead of the usual gold balls, the cases have different images in different sizes.

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In Fathom, you can use formulas to turn the collection itself into a graphical representation of your data.
4. Double-click the collection to show the inspector.
5. Go to the Display panel by clicking its tab.
There are many special display attributes with formulas in them:
x and y control each icon’s placement horizontally and vertically
(with the origin being the top left corner); image controls the
picture (by default, the familiar gold ball); width and height control
image size (you can see their entire formulas without resizing—
the formulas are simply the planets’ radii); and caption controls
what text appears below each icon.

6. Make the inspector much wider.

7. Drag the lower border of the y row to make it taller, so you can read the entire formula.
8. Double-click the formula field for image to see how the images were determined.
9. Resize the formula editor and the top pane so you can read the whole formula.
The case images are controlled by a switch function that evaluates each case’s caseIndex (the first case
has a caseIndex of 1; the second, 2; and so on). In this example, each case gets its own image.
Fathom comes with dozens of built-in images that can be used in display formulas. (To see them all, see
the sample document IconList.ftm.) See Fathom Help: Change the Appearance of Cases in a Collection
106 for more on using this feature.

10. Click OK to close the formula editor.

11. Iconify the collection, and close the inspector.
12. Make a case table for this data. (If you select the collection first, it will fill with the data; otherwise,
drop the collection’s name into the case table to connect them.)

Computing the Densities of the Planets

We’ll now have Fathom compute each planet’s density. We need to know the volume and mass for each,
because density is the ratio of these values. We’ll find the volume using the radius (the attribute Radius)
measured in millions of meters. The mass, measured in Earth masses, is recorded in the attribute
M_Earths. We’ll compute density in two steps using two new attributes (though we could do it in one),
beginning with volume.

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13. With the case table selected, choose Table | Show Formulas.
A new row appears; the formula cells are shaded to show that
none of the existing attributes are defined by formula.
14. Add a new attribute named Volume.
15. Double-click its formula cell to show the formula editor.

The top of the formula editor holds the formula itself. You can
type into the formula pane, or use the keypad and attribute and
function lists to enter things into the formula.

The formula we need is πRadius3. Because this is your first

formula, we’ll go step-by-step.
16. Type 4/3

Notice that the cursor is next to the 3, not the whole

expression. You need to move out of the denominator.
17. Press the right arrow on your keyboard to move out of the
denominator.
18. Type pi*
Pressing the * for multiplication tells Fathom that “pi” is a
word (not the beginning of an attribute name, for instance),
and Fathom shows the symbol π.

19. Either type radius (the formula editor is not case sensitive), or expand the Attributes list and double-
click Radius.
When you enter a valid attribute name, it turns magenta.
20. Type ^ to make an exponent, and 3 to cube the radius.
21. Press Enter or click OK to accept the formula and close the formula editor.
The formula appears in the cell, and the attribute values have a gray background to show that they are
computed.

22. Make another new attribute, Density, and give it this formula:
The numerator is the mass in Earth masses, and the denominator is the volume in Earth volumes, so the
density comes out in Earth densities.
23. Graph Density.
24. Click a data point to see which planet it represents.

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25. Select more than one data point by dragging a rectangle around
a group of points.

Use selection in the graph to answer these questions.

 Which planet has the lowest density?
 What do the three planets on the right have in common?
 What do the four planets on the left have in common?
 What is special about Earth?
 If the Moon is a chunk of Earth, where would it be on this graph? (You could look it up, and see where
it does lie.)

Playing Kepler
Now we’ll study one of the most famous relationships in physics - how the period of an orbit depends on
the orbit’s radius. This relationship was discovered by Johannes Kepler in 1618.
26. Replace Density with orbit_AU, and put year on the vertical axis of the graph. You should see the
points on a gentle upward curve.
It looks like we could predict how long a planet takes to go around the sun if we knew the radius of its
orbit. Let’s try fitting a function.
27. With the graph selected, choose Graph | Plot Function.
28. In the formula editor, enter a plausible function, such as
orbit_AU2.
A curve appears in the graph, and its equation appears below.
The curve is too steep. It looks like we need an exponent between
1 and 2. We’ll use a slider to vary the exponent until it’s right.

29. Drag a slider from the shelf.

A slider is simply a named value that, used in formulas, is a

dynamic, varying parameter. By default, the first slider you make is
named V1.
30. Double-click the slider’s name and type something more
appropriate, such as exponent.

The exponent we need is between 1 and 2, so let’s expand the slider’s axis to get finer control.

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31. Drag numbers off the slider’s axis until the slider goes roughly
from 1 to 2.
Now we need to get this slider into our function.

32. Double-click the function’s formula below the plot area of the
graph to show its editor.
33. Replace the 2 with the slider’s name (you can find the name in
the Global Values list, or simply type it), and close the editor.
34. Drag the slider’s thumb, and watch the plotted function change
to reflect the slider’s value.

It looks like the function needs to be exactly halfway between 1

and 2. Let’s test this theory by editing the slider’s value directly.
35. Double-click the slider’s value to select it, change it to 1.5, and
press Enter. This curve fits the data very well.

The curve’s equation is year = radius3/2, or year2 = Radius3, or, as

Kepler wrote it, T 2 = R3, where T is the length of the year and R
is the planet’s radius.

Straightening the Planets: Kepler with Logs

We can also figure out the relationship between period and radius of an orbit by taking the logarithm of
both attributes.
36. Make two new attributes logOrbit and logYear. (These are the names, not the formulas.)
37. Give them the formulas log(orbit_AU) and log(year),
respectively.
38. Make a second graph of logYear as a function of logOrbit.
It looks like a line.
39. Choose Graph | Least-Squares Line. Check out the slope.
Look familiar?

If T 2 = R3, then log(T 2) = log(R3). So, 2 log(T) = 3 log(R). This

means that Kepler’s law implies that the slope of log(orbit_AU)
versus log(year) should be 1.5, and we see that it is.

In the graph, there is a gap between Mars and Jupiter. What goes there?

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Orbits in Detail
So far, we have been looking at the orbit_AU attribute, which has each planet’s average distance from the
sun. However, planets move in ellipses, not circular orbits. The collection has attributes for the minimum
and maximum orbital distances for each planet: periAU and apheAU (short for perihelion and aphelion).
We can add these attributes to our graph of year versus orbit_AU.
40. Drag the attribute periAU to the horizontal axis of the graph,
but don’t release it yet.
Notice that when the attribute is over the graph, each axis has a
big, gray plus sign. When you move the cursor over it, the
highlighting disappears from the axis, and the plus itself
becomes highlighted.
41. Drop the attribute on the plus.
The attribute is added to the axis: a second set of data points
appears (blue squares rather than gray dots), and a legend
appears at the bottom of the graph, telling you which kind of
dot represents which attribute.

42. Add apheAU to the same axis (dropping it on the plus).

Green triangles appear for this third attribute.
For most planets, the three values are almost on top of each other,
but Pluto’s are far apart. What does this tell us about Pluto’s orbit?

6.5 Generating Mathematics—Change Playground

This tour also focuses on using formulas to define new attributes, but this time we’ll work in a purely
mathematical context, experimenting with change and how to calculate change using Fathom’s prev
function.

Creating the Collection

Here, we don’t have data in the sense of observations; rather, we are working simply with some numbers.

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1. In a new, empty document, make a new case table with two

attributes: A and B.
2. Give attribute A the values 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
3. Select attribute B, and choose Edit | Edit Formula to show the
formula editor.
4. Type A–prev(A)
You are telling Fathom to compute values for B defined as the
difference between each case’s value for A and the previous
case’s value for A. Before accepting the formula, you predict
what each value of B will be. Why?

5. Click OK to accept the formula and close the formula editor.

6. Make a line plot of A by putting A on the vertical axis of a new
graph and choosing Line Plot from the graph’s pop-up menu.
The horizontal axis is now labeled Index (the first case has a
caseIndex of 1; the second, 2; and so on).
7. Similarly, make a line plot of B.
Just for fun, let’s make the dots bigger in these two graphs.

8. Double-click the A graph’s axis.

This shows the graph’s inspector.
The inspector lets us control properties of the graph. For example,
instead of dragging axes to rescale a graph, we can numerically
specify the upper and lower bounds of an axis: xLower and xUpper
control the horizontal axis’s lower and upper bounds.
9. In the inspector, change the value for pointSize to 8. All the data
points in this graph are bigger.
10. Double-click an axis in the B graph.
The inspector shows the properties of the B graph.

11. Change B’s pointSize to 8.

12. Close the inspector by clicking its close box.

Playing with Change

13. In the graph of A, drag point 3.
You will see the value changing in the case table. The graph of B will also change.
What points in B move? How do they move? Why?
14. Try to drag a point in B.
You can’t change these values by dragging, because they are defined by formula.

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15. Change the data in A to 10, 8, 6, 4, 2.

16. If necessary, rescale each graph so all the points show again, by selecting the graph and choosing
Graph | Rescale Graph Axes.

What does graph B show? Why does it show this?

The screen shots below each show a set of data of B. Create each graph or table on your computer by
changing the data for A.

Cumulative Sum
Let’s make a new attribute, C, that is the cumulative total of A for each case.
17. Add the attribute C, giving it the formula A + prev(C).
Note that it’s not A + prev(A), because that would add only two values of A rather than adding to the
previous cumulative sum of A.
18. Make a line plot of C. What shape is this? Why? (There’s a calculus connection here: B is the
derivative of A; C is the integral.)

Fibonacci Numbers
Now that we’re used to how the prev function works in Fathom (there’s also a next function that takes the
value of the next case), we can look at other uses, such as the Fibonacci numbers (1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, …). For
this, we’ll start over, making another collection.

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19. Scroll down in the Fathom window to give yourself a blank area.
20. Make a new, empty case table with an attribute called Fib.
We need to use a formula that will result in the first two cases getting the value 1 and the rest of the cases
getting the sum of the previous two numbers. For this, we need an if-statement.
21. Select Fib and choose Edit | Edit Formula.
22. Type if(
When you type the open parenthesis, Fathom gives you a template for filling out the if statement. You
want the first two cases to have the value 1.
23. Inside the parentheses, type caseIndex£2. (To get the £ press Ctrl (Win) Option (Mac) and click the <
button that appears on the keypad.)
24. Press Tab to get to the top result clause. (This specifies what value the cases that meet the condition
get.)
25. Type 1 and tab to the next clause.
For all cases that don’t meet the specified condition, we want the result to be the sum of the two previous
values.
26. Type prev(Fib) + prev(prev(Fib))
So, the whole formula says, for the first two cases, give a value of 1; otherwise take the previous value and
add it to the value before that. This construction is typical for a recursive definition: Use caseIndex in an if
statement to define the initial condition. One fork of the if statement defines the initial values; the other
defines the recursive step.

27. Close the formula editor.

The case table is still empty, because you haven’t added any
cases to this collection (in the past, you simply typed them).
28. Select the collection (the box of gold balls labeled Collection 2),
and choose Collection | New Cases.
29. Type 10 and click OK.
The case table fills with the results of your formula.
30. Make a line plot of Fib.
31. Add an attribute n to the case table, giving it the formula
CaseIndex.
Now the case numbers appear as an attribute (not simply as
row labels in the case table).

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32. Put n on the horizontal axis of the graph.

If you like, you could go on to fit a function to this graph. You
could also add more cases to the collection and explore what
happens to the ratio of adjacent values of Fib as n increases.

6.6 Simulation—Polling Voters

In this tour, we simulate a population of voters, a certain proportion of whom will vote in favor of a
particular proposition. We investigate the question of how accurately a random sample of voters can
predict the outcome of an election.
The city of Freeport has a rent control initiative, Proposition A, on the ballot. The local newspaper is
going to conduct a poll three weeks before the election to gauge public sentiment. Staff members need to
know how big a sample to poll. Our job is to set up a simulation they can use to determine, for any given
sample size, the accuracy they should expect.

Modeling the Population of Voters

We start by creating a model for the population, the people who will vote in the election for or against the
proposition. The model will consist of a single number—the proportion of voters who will vote yes.

1. Start with a new, empty document.

2. Create a slider named probYes.

A proportion can only lie between 0 and 1, so we should adjust the slider scale. We could do this by
dragging on the scale until it’s close enough, but there’s another way to control axes.

3. Double-click the slider’s axis.

This brings up the slider’s inspector.
The inspector lets us control the slider’s appearance and behavior.
4. Edit the values for the Lower and Upper properties (the lower and
upper bounds of the axis) to be 0 and 1.
The slider models the population. We’ll use a collection to model
the simulated samples. We’ll start with samples of 100.

5. Make a new collection named Sample of Voters.

6. Add 100 cases to the collection (Choose Collection | New Cases).

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7. Double-click the collection.

The inspector now shows properties of the collection.
There is only one inspector window. You change what it inspects by double-clicking the desired object.
8. In the inspector, create an attribute called vote by clicking <new> and typing the attribute name.
We want the values for this attribute to be “yes” and “no.” The values will be drawn from an infinite
population, whose proportion of yeses is set by the slider.

9. Double-click the Formula field for the

vote attribute to show the formula editor.
10. Enter the formula shown at right by typing
if(random( )<probYes Tab “yes” Tab “no”

11. Close the formula editor.

For each case, Fathom will generate a random number between 0 and 1 and evaluate it. If the number is
less than the slider’s value, Fathom will give the case the value “yes”; otherwise, Fathom will give the case
the value “no.” (The function random( ) has a minimum of 0 and a maximum of 1, unless you specify
otherwise.)
It’s always good to check your simulations.

12. Make a case table for the collection, and check that you have a roughly even mix of yeses and noes.
13. Delete the case table.
14. Graph the vote attribute.
You should now have the three objects shown at right (and the inspector).
15. Choose Collection | Rerandomize several times.
Each time you rerandomize, the bars in the graph change, reflecting the results of a new sample.
16. Drag the slider’s thumb to change its value to somewhere around 0.80.
The vote is no longer close; it is a slam dunk for the proposition.
17. Move the slider’s thumb back to somewhere near 0.50 to model a close election.

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Simulating Repeated Surveys

We now have a population whose “true vote” is controlled by a slider, and we want to see how well a
sample of 100 people accurately predicts election results (compared with other sample sizes we’ll do
later). We need to run the simulation many times to see how well the sampling does in the long run.
We could simply rerandomize many times, each time recording the proportion of yeses for each run (our
sample statistic of interest), or we can have Fathom do this grunt work for us. In Fathom, this is called
collecting measures. First, we need to define measures to collect.
18. In the collection’s inspector, go to the Measures panel by clicking its tab.
This looks much like the Cases panel, in that there’s a prompt for creating/naming measures and a
Formula column for defining how each measure is computed.
The interface for working with measures is similar to that of working with attributes, but measures
themselves are different. Whereas attributes have distinct values for each case, a measure has one value
for the collection as a whole.

19. Create a measure called propYesVote.

20. Give it the formula proportion(vote = “yes”)
21. Check the value of the measure against the graph, and
rerandomize a few times to check that your setup is working
as expected.

Now that we have defined a measure, we want to collect a lot of them in a new collection (to sample our
population repeatedly). Although there’s a command that will do this, let’s use the drag-and-drop method.
22. Make a new, empty collection, putting it to the right of the existing objects.

23. Drop the name of the measure onto this collection.

You’ve told Fathom to “collect this.” Fathom rerandomizes
the source collection of voters, calculates the measure, and
stores it in the measures collection, which is now called
Measures from Sample of Voters. Little green balls fly from
the source to the measures collection to help show what’s
happening.

Let’s look at this collection.

24. Make a case table for the measures collection.

What was a measure in the source collection is now an attribute in
the measures collection; each case represents the results of one
survey of 100 people. We got five cases by default.

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25. Graph these data.

We need to do more surveys. The controls for the measures collection are—where else?—in its inspector.

26. Double-click the measures collection to show its inspector.

27. Go to the last panel, the Collect Measures panel.

28. Change the number of measures to collect from 5 to 20.
29. Click Collect More Measures.
The sample rerandomizes in the graph of the sample of voters,
giving a new collection of votes. The proportion of yeses then
appears in the graph of the measures collection.
We strongly urge leaving the animation on. The animation shows
what’s happening and slows down the process. The very concept
of what’s happening is hard to get at first; watching and thinking
about what’s going on helps avoid confusion (for example,
thinking that things in the measures collection represent some
thing, rather than an abstract summary of a whole collection of
things).

You might want to make a summary table of the collection of samples, showing the proportion of yeses,
and run the simulation a few more times.
You could change the slider’s value, change the collect measures control to replace existing cases, and see
the results of repeated polling when the race isn’t close.
But we were investigating sample size, so, when you’re finished experimenting, let’s return to that.

Changing Sample Size

The trouble is, we aren’t collecting the sample size. How do we do that? We need another measure, which
we need to define for the Sample of Voters collection.
30. Double-click the collection of voters.
31. In the Measures panel, define a second measure, SampleSize, giving it the formula count().
In Fathom, the count function, without any arguments in it (such as
count (sex = “male”)), simply gives the number of cases in that collection.

We need to start the simulation over, because we’re now collecting the sample sizes.
32. Double-click the measures collection, and check Replace existing cases in the Collect Measures
panel.
33. Collect 50 measures.
Notice that the case table first empties, then fills, with two attributes this time, one for each of the
measures defined.
34. Uncheck Replace existing cases. You want to keep these measures after you change the sample

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size, not throw them away.

35. Select the collection of sample voters, and add 300 new cases (choose Collection | New Cases).

This gives a total of 400 voters per survey.

36. Open the measures collection a little bit by dragging its
bottom-right corner down and out until you can see the
Collect More Measures button.

37. Click this button to collect 50 measures of samples of 400 each.

We need to add this information to our measures graph. What we want
is a split dot plot.
38. Drag SampleSize from the measures collection’s case table and drop it on the vertical axis of the
measures graph.
You get a scatter plot, which isn’t what you want. You need SampleSize to be treated as a categorical
attribute, not a numeric one.

39. Undo the last step.

40. Drop the attribute on the vertical axis again, but this time hold
down the Shift key when you drop.
This forces Fathom to treat the numeric attribute as categorical,
and you get a split dot plot, showing the distributions of
proportions of yeses for the two sample sizes.

We now have a tool to use with the newspaper staff to show them the effects of sample size on polling
results: Smaller samples have more spread than larger, for example.

6.7 Testing a Hypothesis—Plant Growth

Charles Darwin believed that there were hereditary advantages in having two sexes for both the plant and
animal kingdoms. Some time after he wrote Origin of Species, he performed an experiment in his garden.
He raised two large beds of snapdragons, one from cross-pollinated seeds, the other from self-pollinated
seeds. He observed, “To my surprise, the crossed plants when fully grown were plainly taller and more
vigorous than the self-fertilized ones.” This led him to another, more time-consuming experiment in
which he raised pairs of plants, one of each type, in the same pot and measured the differences in their
heights. He had a rather small sample and was not sure that he could safely conclude that the mean of the
differences was greater than 0. His data for these plants were used by statistical pioneer R. A. Fisher to
illustrate the use of a t-test.

Looking at Darwin’s Data

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1. Open Darwin.ftm from the Learning Guide Starters

folder in the Sample Documents folder.
This document contains the data for the experiment described
above: 1 attribute, 15 cases.
2. Make a case table, a dot plot, and a summary table similar to
those shown here.

We see that most of the measurements are greater than 0, meaning that the cross-pollinated plants grew
bigger. But two of the measurements are less than 0. Darwin did not feel justified in tossing out these two
values and was faced with a very real statistical question.

Formulating a Hypothesis
Darwin’s theory—that cross-pollination produced bigger plants than self-pollination—predicts that, on
average, the difference between the two heights should be greater than 0. On the other hand, it might be
that his 15 pairs of plants have a mean difference as great as they do (21-eigths of an inch) merely by
chance. You can write out these two hypotheses in Fathom in a text object to be stored with your
document.
3. From the shelf, drag a text object into the document.

4. Write the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis. At

right you can
see one way to phrase the hypotheses.
You can choose Edit | Show Text Palette to bring up a full
suite of tools for formatting text and creating mathematical
expressions.

Deciding on a Test Statistic

At the time of Darwin’s experiment, there was no very good theory for dealing with a small sample from
a population whose standard deviation is not known. It was not until some years later that William
Gosset, a student of Karl Pearson, developed a statistic and its distribution. Gosset published his result
under the pseudonym Student, and the statistic became known as Student’s t. When the null hypothesis is

that the mean is 0, the t-statistic is simply, , where is the observed mean, s is the sample
standard deviation, and n is the number of observations.
Let’s compute this statistic for Darwin’s data using one of Fathom’s built-in statistics objects.

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5. Drag a test object from the shelf.

An empty test appears.
6. From the pop-up menu, choose Test Mean.
As shown at right, the Test Mean test allows us to type in
summary statistics.
The blue text is editable. This is very useful when you don’t have
raw data.
7. Try editing the blue text. You can, for example, enter the
summary statistics for Darwin’s data.

Here are some things to notice.

 Changing something in one part of the test may affect other

parts. For example, editing the AttributeName field in the first
line also changes it in the hypothesis line and in the last
paragraph.
 In the hypothesis line, clicking on the “is not equal to” phrase
brings up a pop-up menu from which we can choose one of
three options. For Darwin’s experiment, we want the third
option because his hypothesis is that the true mean difference is
greater than 0. Notice that making this change alters the phrasing
of the last line of the test as well.
 In addition to simple editing of numbers, we can also determine
their value with a formula. For example, we might want to tie the
sample count to a slider named n so that we could investigate the
effect of different sample sizes. To show the formula editor,
choose Edit | Edit Formula with the text cursor in the number
whose value you wish to determine. These computed values
display in gray instead of blue. Editing the value itself deletes the
formula.

Checking Assumptions
Gosset’s work with the t-statistic relied on an assumption about the population from which
measurements would be drawn, namely, that the values in the population are normally distributed. Is this
a reasonable assumption for Darwin’s data?
Height measurements of living things, both plants and animals, are usually normally distributed, and so
are differences between heights. But we might worry, because the two negative values give a decidedly
skewed appearance to the distribution.

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Fathom can help us determine qualitatively whether this amount of skew is unusual. We’ll generate
measurements randomly from a normal distribution and compare the results with the original data.
8. Make a new attribute in the collection. Call it simHeight for simulated height.
9. Select simHeight and choose Edit | Edit Formula. Enter the formula shown below.

This formula tells Fathom to generate random numbers from a normal distribution whose mean and
standard deviation are the same as in our original data. We want to compare the distribution of these
simulated heights with the distribution of the original data. We can do that directly in the dot plot that
already shows HeightDifferences.

10. Drop simHeight on the plus sign to add it to the horizontal axis.
The graph now shows the original data on top and the
simulated data on the bottom.
One set of simulated data doesn’t tell the whole story. We need to
look at a bunch.

11. Choose Collection | Rerandomize.

Each time you rerandomize, you get a new set of 15 values from a population with the same mean and
standard deviation as the original 15 measurements. Three examples are shown below.

A bit of subjectivity is called for here. Does it appear that the original distribution is very unusual, or does
it fit in with the simulated distributions?

Testing the Hypothesis

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Once we have decided that the assumption of normality is met, we

can go on to determine whether the t-statistic for Darwin’s data is
large enough to allow us to reject the null hypothesis.
In step 7, we typed the summary values into the test as though we
didn’t have the raw data. But we are in the fortunate position of
having the raw data, so we can ask Fathom to figure out all the
statistics using that data.

12. Drag HeightDifferences from the case table to the top pane of the
test where it says “Attribute (numeric): unassigned.”
13. If the hypothesis line does not already say “is greater than,”
then select that choice from the pop-up menu.

The last paragraph of the test describes the results. If the null hypothesis were true and the experiment
were performed repeatedly, the probability of getting a value for Student’s t this great or greater would be
0.025. This is a pretty low P-value, so we can safely reject the null hypothesis and, with Darwin, pursue
the theory that cross-pollination increases a plant’s height compared with self-pollination.

Looking at the t-Distribution

It is helpful to be able to visualize the P-value as an area under a distribution.

14. With the test selected, choose Test | Show Test Statistic
Distribution.

The curve shows the probability density for the t-statistic with 14
degrees of freedom. The shaded area shows the portion of the area
under the curve to the right of the test statistic for Darwin’s data.
We’ve set this up as a one-tailed test; we’re only interested in the
mean difference being greater than zero. The total area under the
curve is 1, so the area of the shaded portion corresponds to the P-
value for Darwin’s experiment.
Let’s investigate how the P-value depends on the test mean, which
is currently set to 0.
15. Drag a slider from the shelf into the document.
16. Edit the name of the slider from V1 to TestMean.
17. Select the 0 in the statement of the hypothesis in the test.
Choose Edit | Edit Formula.

18. In the formula editor, enter the slider name TestMean and click OK.
Now the value of the null hypothesis mean in the test and the shaded area under the t-distribution change
to reflect the new hypothesis.
19. Drag the slider slowly and observe the changes that take place.
For what value of the slider is half the area under the curve shaded? Explain why it should be this

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particular value.
The illustration below shows something similar to what you probably
have. Note that the test has been switched to “nonverbose” (choose
Test | Verbose).

Going Further
 Play around with changing the data and observing the effect on the P-value. How much closer to 0 can
the experimental mean be (without changing the standard deviation) and still have a P-value greater
than 0.05? If you make the standard deviation smaller, what happens to the P-value (and why)?
 Make a Test Mean object that tests the mean of simHeight instead of HeightDifferences. Notice that each
time you rerandomize, you get a new P-value. Think about what it means when the P-value is greater
than 0.05. Would you call this a “false positive” or a “false negative”? By repeatedly rerandomizing,
estimate the proportion of the time that the P-value is greater than 0.05. What practical significance
would that have in planning an experiment?

6.8 Testing for Independence—Pets and Sports

A survey of 325 middle school students from a city school district asks, among other things, for students’
gender, whether they prefer cats or dogs, and whether they prefer basketball or football. With these data,
we can investigate whether, in this city, girls prefer cats over dogs, whether gender matters in terms of
favorite sport, and whether there is a relationship between favorite pet and favorite sport.
This tour is not for the faint of heart; it’s a marathon. We’ll be combining classical statistical inference
techniques with a computer-intensive method called scrambling. You will simulate the null hypothesis to
generate a distribution, and you will also plug the data into a chi-square test for independence. We’ll
assume that you are familiar with the basic techniques of using Fathom.

Using a Ribbon Chart

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1. Open PetSportSurvey.ftm from the Learning Guide Starters folder in Sample Documents.
Look at the 12 cases that appear in the open collection. Simply by looking at a small number of the 325
cases in the sample, it’s impossible to make any valid predictions about what trends there might be in the
whole population.
We’ll concentrate on the question of whether there is any relationship between a student’s sex and his or
her pet preference.

2. Make a graph and drag the Sex attribute to the horizontal axis.
3. Change the graph to a ribbon chart by choosing Ribbon Chart
from the graph’s pop-up menu.
You can see from the ribbon chart the approximately equal
numbers of boys and girls in the sample.

4. Drag the Pet attribute to the middle of the graph.

Each rectangle of the ribbon chart is now divided into two
regions, one for each kind of pet. The height of the “dog”
portion is higher for boys than it is for girls. This translates to “A
greater proportion of boys than girls prefers dogs over cats.”
You can use the tick marks on the vertical axis to estimate the
proportion of boys that prefer dogs: a bit less that 70%. For a more
exact proportion, move the mouse on top of a region in the graph
and read the statement that appears in the status bar. For example,
with the mouse over the girls that prefer dogs:

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Computing Proportions
A ribbon chart does a good job of displaying differences in proportions. But if we want to know the
computed values, we need a summary table.

5. Drag a summary table from the shelf.

6. Drag the Sex attribute to the column header of the empty summary
table.
7. Drag the Pet attribute to the row header of the table.
For a categorical attribute, a summary table shows the number of
cases in each category of the attributes. We’re not interested in the
counts as much as we are the proportions.

8. Double-click the formula beneath the table to show the formula

editor.
9. Type the formula columnProportion and click OK.
columnProportion is a special keyword that applies only to formulas
for a summary table. If you oriented your table the other
direction, you would want to use rowProportion.
You should see the computed column proportions for each cell.
The number 0.31677019 in the cell for boys who prefer cats
means that about 32% of boys prefer cats to dogs. Similarly,
about 68% of boys prefer dogs to cats, whereas about 58% of
girls prefer dogs to cats.

The Null Hypothesis and Choosing a Test Statistic

The heart of statistical inference is determining whether an observed difference is due to random
variation or an actual difference in the population. The difference of proportions, 68% – 58%, or 10%, is
fairly small. Perhaps it is due to chance. Just how likely is it that a random sample would have a difference
of proportions this large if there were actually no difference in pet preferences between boys and girls ?
The assumption that sex is unrelated to pet preference is the null hypothesis in this situation. Another way
to phrase our question is: If the null hypothesis were true, what is the probability of getting a difference
of proportions of 10% or greater? (We have to add the “or greater” because a greater difference is even
stronger evidence in favor of there being a relationship between sex and pet preference.)
The difference of proportions is an example of a test statistic. Using simulation and techniques similar to
those used in the tour, Simulation - Polling Voters 255 , we could determine the probability of getting the
observed difference of 10%. For the purposes of this tour, we’re going to use a closely related test
statistic, called the chi-square statistic, which is commonly used for testing whether a relationship exists
between two categorical attributes.

Expected Versus Observed

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The chi-square statistic is based on the notion that if there were no

difference between girls and boys, then the proportion of each that
prefers dogs should be the same as the overall proportion of students
who prefer dogs; that is, about 63%, as we can read from the row
summary in the summary table. For this hypothetical sample, we would
get a ribbon chart like the one at right.
Now that we know the expected proportion of boys that prefer dogs,
we can compute an expected number. It is simply the expected
proportion times the number of boys. Because there are 161 boys,
that’s 0.63 • 161, or 101.6 boys. Similarly, for the girls, we have 63% of
164 girls, or 103.4 girls.

The fractional boys and girls may seem strange, but it’s okay as long as we keep it hypothetical.
Let’s compute these numbers in the summary table.
10. Double-click the formula below the table.

11. In the formula editor, type the expression shown here and click OK.
columnTotal, rowTotal, and grandTotal are all keywords you can use only when writing a formula for a
summary table. They are in the Special list in the formula editor. You can also enter them in a formula
by double-clicking them in this list.
You should see the expected values computed in each cell.
Because this is such a common computation, Fathom has a shortcut for it.
12. Double-click the formula again and substitute the single word expected for the more complicated
expression. (This keyword is also in the Special list.) Click OK.
You should get the same results.
The term expected, or expected value, has a very general meaning in statistics. Here, in Fathom, we’re
applying it to the very particular situation of a chi-square test where the null hypothesis is that the row
and column attributes are independent.
We now want to compare the expected values with the observed values.

13. With the summary table selected, choose Summary | Add

Formula.

14. Type the formula count( ) into the formula editor and click OK.
Your summary table should look similar to the one shown at right.
Notice that the two formulas produce the same numbers for the row
and column summaries. Think about why that should be true.

Computing the Chi-Square Statistic

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There are many different statistics we could invent using the observed
and expected values. We’re going to use one for which statisticians have
figured out how to compute a distribution without having to resort to simulation—the chi-square
statistic. It’s based, as you might imagine, on the difference between the observed and expected values.

15. Add the formula shown at right to the summary table.

The chi-square statistic is simply the sum of the numbers we just
computed. To calculate the sum of these values in Fathom, we have
to create a collection from them.

16. With the summary table selected, choose Summary | Create

Collection From Cells.

You should see a new collection labeled Cells from PetSportSurvey

Table.
17. Make a case table for the new collection.
Each case in this new collection corresponds to a single cell in the
summary table—four cells and four cases. Each of the three formulas
in the summary table corresponds to one attribute in the measures
collection. We’re interested in the sum of the values for S3.

18. Show the inspector for the new collection and define a measure for
it, as shown at right. This number is the chi-square statistic.
We now have our statistic, but we do not yet know how likely it would
be to get a chi-square value this big or bigger by chance alone. The
advantage of using a well-studied statistic, however, is that Fathom can
easily compute this probability for us.

19. Define a second measure, pValue, for this collection. Give it the formula shown here.

ChiSquareCumulative is a function built in to Fathom. It takes two arguments: the first is the value of chi-
square that we have computed (the first measure we made); the second is the number of degrees of freedom
available, in this case, 1. (If you know all the row totals and column totals, degrees of freedom is the
number of cell counts you could fill in before all the rest were determined for you.) The function
computes the probability of getting that value of chi-square or less under the assumption that the two
attributes are independent. Because we’re interested in “or greater,” we subtract the function’s value from
1.

Your inspector should look similar to the one shown

here. The probability of getting a chi-square statistic
greater than or equal to 3.77, under the assumption of
the null hypothesis, is 0.052.

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What are we to make of this result? We can say that if there were no difference between boys’ and girls’
pet preferences, and if we repeated the random sampling many times, we would get a result this extreme
or more extreme about 1 time in 20. For many situations, especially in the social sciences, this level of
probability is persuasive enough to say that we have probably found something. But in other situations,
especially in medical research, we would not be able to say we had found something, because the
consequences of being wrong would be too great.

Testing for Independence—The Simple Way

You may be thinking that this was an awful lot of work to accomplish a fairly routine calculation. You’re
right; and Fathom has the ability to do this computation quickly and simply. Here’s how.
You may want to hide or delete objects to free up some space. Keep the original collection and its case
table.

20. Drag a test object from the shelf.

You get an empty test.
21. Choose Test for Independence from the pop-up
menu.
The analysis shows #Evaluation error# for the chi-
square statistics and the P-value because Fathom
doesn’t yet have information to compute them. We
could type in the relevant values, but it’s much easier
to have Fathom compute them from the raw data.
22. From the PetSportSurvey collection, drag Sex and
then Pet to the top portion of the analysis.

Sometimes we don’t need a full explanation of how the

inference works.
23. Choose Test | Verbose to turn off verbose mode
and to see a more compact version of the test.
You should see, as shown here in the nonverbose
form, the results of a chi-square test. The value of
chi-square and its P-value are both given. They
should be the same as the values you computed in
the previous section of this tour.

Graphing the Chi-Square Distribution

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It’s helpful to see where the computed chi-square statistic for this
sample lies in the distribution of chi-square values that would result
when the null hypothesis is satisfied.
24. With the test object selected, choose Test | Show Test Statistic
Distribution.

The graph you get should be similar to the one shown here. The
shaded area under the right portion of the curve corresponds to
the P-value for the observed chi-square statistic.

Simulating the Null Hypothesis

With Fathom, we can simulate conditions under which the null hypothesis is true and repeatedly perform
the sampling and computation of a chi-square statistic. Although this does not tell us anything more
about the particular experiment, it does shed light on the process of statistical inference.

The null hypothesis states that there is no relationship between the two attributes Sex and Pet. What if we
were to take all the values for the attribute Sex and scramble them so that “boy” and “girl” got reassigned
randomly to each case? Any relationship that might exist between the two attributes would be wiped out
by the scrambling. Any remaining relationship would have to be due to chance alone.
25. Select the PetSportSurvey collection.
26. Choose Collection | Scramble Attribute Values.
A new collection should appear labeled Scrambled PetSportSurvey.

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27. Make a case table for the new collection.

By default, Fathom scrambles the first attribute in the
collection. That works well here, but in other situations
you may need to scramble a different attribute. To do so,
show the scrambled collection’s inspector and use the pop-
up menu in the Scramble panel to choose an attribute to
scramble.
28. With the scrambled collection selected, choose Collection
| Scramble Attribute Values Again
You should see the values in the Sex column of the case
table change each time you scramble again.

29. Make a ribbon chart for the scrambled collection, just as you did in steps 2–4.
As we scramble, we can see the variation in the relative proportions. This variation is due solely to
chance.
30. Make a new test for independence. This time, drop attributes from the scrambled collection into it.
Each time you scramble again, the chi-square statistic and the P-value are recomputed. Because you’re
simulating the conditions of the null hypothesis, the chi-square values will not be very large, and the P-
values will not be very small.
Now we want to collect many chi-square values from the scrambled collection. We will build up a
distribution of these values and see what shape it has.
31. Select the scrambled test and choose Test | Collect Results as Measures.
Fathom will scramble the scrambled collection five times, each time collecting values computed by the
test for independence and putting them in a new collection, labeled Measures from Test of
Scrambled PetSportSurvey.
32. Make a case table for the measures collection. Your screen should look similar to that shown below
(in nonverbose mode).

The two important columns in the table are chiSquareValue and pValue.
33. Make a histogram of each of the attributes, chiSquareValue and pValue.

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Your histograms won’t look like much yet, because you have only collected the results of five
scrambles. You need some more.

34. Double-click the measures collection and go to the Collect

Measures panel.

35. Uncheck both Animation on and Replace existing cases.

36. Specify that you want 95 measures instead of 5.
37. Click the Collect More Measures button.
Collecting 95 measures may take a while. A progress bar will give
you an idea of how long you will need to wait.
When the collection process completes, you should have 100 P-
values and 100 chi-square statistics.

What do these histograms tell us? First, we see that chi-square

statistics as high as the one we got for the original sample, 3.77,
don’t occur very often. But they do occur; in fact, they occur
about 5% of the time, corresponding to the P-value we
computed for the original sample.
Second, the shape of the chi-square histogram markedly
resembles the plotted chi-square distribution we made in step
24. That makes sense—one is from theory and the other is
from simulation, but they should show the same thing.
Third, the distribution of P-values is spread over the interval
from 0 to 1. Select the lowest bar in the pValue histogram and
notice that the highest bars in the chi-square histogram are
selected. By selecting only those P-values less than or equal to
0.05, you can read off an approximation for the so-called critical
value for chi-square in the chi-square graph.

Going Further
 Consider the other two pairs of attributes possible: Sex versus Sport and Pet versus Sport. Would you
expect them to show more or less independence than Sex versus Pet? Look at the corresponding
ribbon charts. Do the observed differences in proportions look significant? Perform a chi-square test
on each of these pairs. Explain why one result is so much more significant than the other.
 Though the ribbon chart is probably the easiest way to see relationships between categorical attributes,
three other displays are possible, shown below.

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Make these three displays (using Fathom Help as needed), and learn how to interpret them. Think about
circumstances in which you might prefer one versus another.

6.9 Numerical Integration—The Elevator Experiment

The purpose of gathering data is not always to explore
relationships between attributes. Often the purpose is to
compute some quantity from the data. In this tour, we’ll use
data supplied by a force probe to find distance traveled.
As shown at right, a force probe hangs on a ring stand in an
elevator, and a coffee cup hangs from the probe. Force and
time data are gathered as the elevator goes from one floor to
another. Data collection starts and stops with everything at rest.
Which direction and how far did the elevator go? We’ll first
find the acceleration of the elevator and then use numerical
integration to find the distance traveled.

Importing the Data

The data from the elevator experiment are in the Sample Documents folder Learning Guide Starters |
Elevator Data. There are four files labeled Elevator Data. They all contain the same data, but you
import their data into Fathom in different ways.
1. Start with an empty Fathom document.
2. Follow one of the methods below to import the data.

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Drag a URL: Open the file Elevator Data Web.html. Drag the
URL icon from the address bar of the Web browser into the
Fathom document.
A collection named Elevator Data Web.html appears in the
Fathom document. Open its inspector, and go to the Comments
panel. Whatever Fathom cannot decipher as data, it puts in the
collection’s comment, to help document the data.
(Extra: Copy the picture from the Web browser and paste it into
the Fathom document.)

Import from a Text File: Either drag the text file into your
document or choose File | Import | Import From File. You’ll get
a new collection, Elevator Data Text.txt, in your document. (You
could also open the text file in a word processor; select and copy
all the text; and paste into an empty collection in your Fathom
document.)

Copy and Paste from Excel: Open the Excel document Elevator Data Excel.xls. Select and copy the
entire range of filled cells. In Fathom, make an empty collection and paste in the data.
Copy and Paste from Logger Pro: If you have Logger Pro software, you can open the Elevator Data
Logger Pro file, and select and copy all the data. In Fathom, make an empty collection and paste in the
data.

Graphing Force versus Time

Because this is Tour 9, chances are you don’t have trouble making graphs. But there are a few tricks that
will decrease the work and improve the results.

3. Make a line scatter plot with Force on the vertical axis and
Time on the horizontal axis.
There about 500 points all crowded together, so it’s hard to see
the detailed structure of the graph. We can reduce the point size
to see the graph better.
4. With the graph selected, choose Object | Inspect Graph.
5. Change pointSize from 5 to 0.1.
Point size is in pixels, and this is small enough that you won’t
see any point at all.
6. Also change xAutoRescale to false. (Click on it and type.)
7. Now adjust the horizontal axis to look like the graph at right.

Have you figured out yet whether the elevator went up or down?

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Getting the Units Right

The force probe measures force in Newtons and time in seconds. Entering these units will help with graph
labeling and with calculation.

8. Go to the Cases panel in the collection inspector.

9. Click Show Details.
10. Select each attribute in turn and type its unit into the Units
edit area.
There are many ways to write the units, but “s” works for
seconds, and “N” for Newtons.

Finding the Net Force

When the elevator is at rest, the force probe is measuring the weight of the coffee cup. To find the force
of the elevator, we need to subtract this weight, or rest force, from the total force. We don’t actually know
the weight of the cup. We’ll use a rough estimate for now and adjust it later.
11. Make a slider named restForce and give it the value 0.9 N.
12. Make an attribute, netForce, with the formula Force – restForce.
13. Replace Force on the scatter plot with netForce.
Where there’s a net force, there must be an acceleration. But how much?

Using Force to Find Acceleration

Force equals mass times acceleration. The rest force is the coffee cup’s mass times the acceleration of
gravity. Convince yourself that acceleration should be defined as shown at right. Notice that Fathom
knows the constant gravity (Earth’s gravity), and you can use it as though it were a unit.
14. Define an attribute acceleration with the formula shown here.

The units of acceleration are N/kg. That’s not wrong, but m/s2 would be more helpful.

15. In the inspector, with the details pane showing, select

acceleration. Change the units as shown and press Enter.
If the units you entered are compatible, all the values will update. If
they are not, the old units will remain and the values appear in
magenta rather than in black.

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16. Replace netForce on the graph with acceleration.

Notice that each of the three graphs you’ve made so far have the same shape. They differ from one
another by a scale factor.

Integrating Acceleration
We’ve converted the force of the elevator to acceleration.
Now, to find the distance traveled, we need to integrate
(twice). Our graph is not a smooth function, but we can
integrate over many small areas to find the velocity at any
given time. This is called numerical integration.
We’ll approximate the effect of acceleration over time by
saying that the acceleration at a given time has acted constantly
over the preceding time interval. If we magnify a small section
of the graph and add rectangles whose area is acceleration at a
given time multiplied by the time interval, as shown at right,
the area of each rectangle corresponds to an increment in the
velocity. The velocity at any given time is the sum of the areas
of the rectangles that precede it.

17. Define a new attribute, velocity, with the formula shown below.

The prev function returns the previous value of the attribute and, if you don’t specify otherwise,
returns 0 for the first case.
Notice that the units of velocity are m/s. This is a good check on the reasoning that goes into the
formula.

18. Select the graph of acceleration and

choose Object | Duplicate Graph.
19. Move the new graph so that it doesn’t
overlap the existing one.
20. Replace acceleration with velocity in the new
graph.
There’s a problem! The graph shows that
the ending velocity was not 0 m/s. But the
conditions state that everything was at rest
at the end of data collection. What went
wrong?
Recall that restForce was an approximation.
Now is the time to adjust it.

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21. Expand the scale on the restForce slider

and adjust it so that the ending velocity
is 0 m/s.
(Adjusting the rest force parameter is a
bit like zeroing your bathroom scale.)

Finding the Distance Traveled

During each small time interval, the velocity can be considered constant. The velocity times the length of
the interval gives the distance traveled during that interval. It’s numerical integration again.

22. Define an attribute distance and give it a formula analogous to the

velocity formula.
23. Make a graph of distance versus time and read off the final
distance traveled.
Which way did the elevator go?
The building in which these data were gathered has a balcony, so it
was possible to measure the distance the elevator traveled with a
tape measure. This measurement agreed with the computed value to
within a couple centimeters!

Going Further
 Interpret each section of the graphs. Go for a ride in an elevator and compare that experience with
what the graphs suggest.
 Investigate the sensitivity of the distance traveled to changes in restForce. If you change restForce by 0.1%,
by what percentage does the distance change?
 In the tour, we assumed that the force is constant for the preceding interval of time. This clearly does
not apply to the first data point. Adjust the numerical integration to take this into account. How much
does this adjustment change the distance traveled?

6.10 Classroom Survey

It’s the beginning of the year and, not only do you want students to get to know each other, you want
them to get started with data analysis. You decide to conduct a survey.
When making a survey it’s helpful to start with an investigative purpose rather than a laundry list of
questions. In the classroom you might brainstorm conjectures students would be interested in testing. In
this tour, we’ll design the survey to test the conjecture that girls spend more time on the telephone and
boys spend more time watching TV.
To take this tour, you need
 the Fathom Surveys software extension on your computer

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 internet access
 a teacher account at the Fathom Surveys website. Your subscription administrator can email you
information about how to create one.
 to have taken the Ethics of Classroom Surveys online tutorial
 Optional: a student account that students can use to take surveys (see Add Student Users 148 for
directions)
Subsections
Making the Survey 278
A First Look at the Survey 279
Modifying the Survey 280
Taking the Survey 281

Getting the Data as the Survey Maker 281

Getting the Data as a Survey Taker 282

6.10.1 Making the Survey

A survey is represented in Fathom as a collection. Each attribute in
the collection corresponds to one question, and each case
corresponds to one respondent. The collection’s name is the survey’s
title.
1. Open a new Fathom document.
2. Drag a collection from the shelf and drop it in the Fathom
document.

3. Double-click the name Collection 1 and type Phone and TV into

the dialog box.
4. With the collection selected, choose Create Survey from the
Collection menu.

If you don’t see Create Survey in the Collection menu, the

Fathom Surveys software extension is probably not installed on
your computer.

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An inspector appears for the collection, open to the Survey panel.

We want to collect three pieces of information from each respondent:
gender, time on the phone, and time watching TV. Responses will be
stored as values for attributes.

5. Define three new attributes as shown.

To see the full attribute names, drag the
column border Attribute to the right.
6. Type questions for the phone and TV
attributes. (If you don’t type a question, the
attribute name will appear in the survey.)

To get a larger space to type in, drag the border

below the attribute names.

6.10.2 A First Look at the Survey

Let’s upload the survey to the Fathom Surveys

website and see how it looks.

1. Click Upload Survey in the inspector’s Survey

panel.
2. Enter the username and password for your Fathom
Surveys account. If you are unable to get past this
dialog box, contact the person who administers
Fathom Surveys for your site.
If you have not yet completed the Ethics of Classroom
Surveys tutorial, you will see a link to the tutorial.
(Now is a good time to take it!)

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When you upload your survey, two changes take place at the bottom
of the Survey panel: The Upload Survey button changes to say
Survey Uploaded, and a web link, View Survey, appears above the
Download Results button.

3. Click the View Survey link.

Your web browser should launch and take you to the Fathom Surveys
website. (You may be asked for your username and password again.)

Your survey should be similar to this one.

Viewing the survey online often makes it clear that
some changes are needed before people can take it.
In this case, the gender question should probably be
answered with a pop-up menu, and there should be
a brief set of instructions above the questions for
taking the survey.

6.10.3 Modifying the Survey

To give the Gender attribute a specific list of possible

responses we need a category set.
1. Switch back to Fathom, and click on the Format cell
to the right of the Gender attribute. Choose Define
New Category Set from the pop-up menu.

A dialog box appears with Gender_Set as the suggested

name for the new category set.

2. In the Categories box, enter male, female and

click OK.
Generally you’ll want instructions to appear at the
top of the survey.
3. In the Instructions pane on the Survey panel
type in some instructions (such as the ones
shown here).

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4. Click Upload Survey again.

Notice that, assuming you haven’t logged out of the
Fathom Surveys site, you are not asked to log in this
time.
5. Switch to your web browser and refresh the survey
page. (Or use the View Survey link again.)
6. Check that your changes have been made.

6.10.4 Taking the Survey

You might be asking how students will find their way to this survey page. You can copy the URL from
your browser and email it to students or put it on a school site accessible to them. Or, you can write it
where they can see it and copy it into their web browser.
Another way to copy the URL is to right-click (Win) Ctrl-click (Mac)
the View Survey link and choose Copy URL from the pop-up menu.
You’ll take the survey using the student account that students will use
to take surveys.

1. Copy the survey URL to the clipboard.

2. In your web browser, log out of Fathom Surveys as an instructor by
choosing the Exit tab.

3. Use the previously copied URL to go to the survey page.

4. Log in using your student username and password.
5. Fill out and submit the survey. Notice that after you click Submit, the survey remains on the screen
ready to fill out again, and there is a note near the top of the page keeping track of how many times (in
this session) the survey has been taken. This makes it convenient for multiple students to fill out a
survey at a single computer.
6. Fill out and submit the survey several more times, pretending to be a different student each time.

6.10.5 Getting the Data as the Survey Maker

Sometimes you, as the survey maker, want the data to come into the
collection in which you defined the survey, and other times you, as
someone other than the survey maker, want the data to come into a
new collection.

Getting the survey into the original collection is simple.

1. Back in Fathom, in the inspector’s Survey panel, click Download
Results.

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2. Make a graph to convince yourself that the data is as accessible as any other Fathom data.

6.10.6 Getting the Data as a Survey Taker

Anyone can download the data into Fathom by dragging the URL of the results.
1. From the Take Survey page, click the View Results link.
2. Make a new Fathom document and position the windows on your screen so you can see both the
browser window and the Fathom document window.
3. Drag the URL from the browser into empty space in the Fathom document (see View and Download
the Results 144 ).
In the new collection the Survey panel shows the questions and has a button that can be used to
download the latest data. Unlike the Survey panel in the original collection, there is no button for
uploading the survey.

6.11 Typing Tutor Experiment

Have you ever wondered which keys on a computer keyboard give you the most trouble. For example,
which ones does it take you the longest to reach? In this tour you'll use Fathom to find out. You’ll turn a
collection into an experiment that records the time and key of your keystrokes.
This tour assumes you know how to make case tables and graphs.

Making a Timer and Connecting It to a Collection

To do an experiment, you start with a collection.
1. Drag a collection from the shelf to your document.
2. With the collection selected, from the Collection menu choose Create Experiment.

Notice that the name and icon of the collection change to

reflect that you now are using the collection as an experiment.
The collection’s inspector opens to the Experiment panel,
ready for you to change the experiment’s setup and turn the
experiment on.
3. Choose the Keypress radio button.
You’re now ready to start the experiment. You need something
to type, of course. Choose a paragraph of normal text and
make yourself comfortable.
4. Press the Turn Experiment On button and type the text.
5. When you’re finished press Turn Experiment Off.

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The experiment collection now contains one case for each

keypress.
6. Make a case table for the collection.
7. In order to determine which keys take the longest for you to
type, you need a new attribute, one that computes the time
from the previous keystroke to the current one.
8. Define a new attribute, deltaT, with the formula: Time - prev
(Time, "")

9. Make a graph of Key versus deltaT.

10. Plot the mean of the deltaT’s.
11. Sort the categories of Key by the plotted value. (With the
graph selected, choose Graph | Sort by Plotted Value.)
Your graph may look similar to the one shown at right. Do you
have any particular problem keys?

Explore More
 Try the experiment again either by deleting all the data and starting over or by adding more data to the
existing experiment. (You’ll probably get an outlier for the first new case. Fix that by deleting its time.)
Are the two sets of data consistent?
 Does your key speed depend on which row of the keyboard a given key is in? (You’ll need to figure out
how to calculate the row for each case.)
 Similarly, does one hand type faster than the other? (If you’re familiar with statistical inference, this
might be an opportunity to use it!) Are some fingers faster?
 What about pairs of keypresses? Does having to use one finger to type two consecutive letters (as in
the first two letters of love) slow you down?
 Use your data to estimate your typing speed in words per minute. Do this both on a per character level
and as an average over the entire collection. Does the average of the instantaneous speeds equal the
overall average?

6.12 How Fast Do You Walk?—Measuring Distance with

Sensors
In this tour you will gather data from a motion detector sensor. After the data is gathered, you will
construct a mathematical model of the physical situation.

What You Need

A Vernier motion sensor—either Go! Motion or Go! Link/LabPro with a motion detector sensor.

Making Meters

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A meter is a Fathom object that connects to a sensor. This experiment requires a distance meter.

1. Plug the motion sensor into the LabPro and plug the LabPro into
the USB port of the computer.
2. Make a distance meter by clicking on the meter icon and dragging it
to the document.

The new meter gets the name Distance and begins reporting the distance.

Setting Up the Fathom Experiment

In Fathom an experiment is represented by a collection connected to one or more meters or sliders.

3. Make a new, empty collection.

4. Drag the plug from the Distance meter and drop it on the collection.
Notice that the name of the collection becomes Experiment with Distance and that the collection icon
changes to show that the collection is an experiment collection. Also, the inspector for the collection
opens to the Experiment panel.
5. Make a case table for the experiment collection.
The case table has a column for each of the meters, but no data have yet been gathered.

6. In the Experiment panel of the inspector, click the Turn

Experiment On button.

Every second you should see a new case appear in the case table. If so,
you’re almost ready to gather the “real” distance data. If not, make
sure the sensor is properly connected to the computer and try again.
7. Press Turn Experiment Off to turn off the data collection.
8. Check Replace existing cases to get rid of the throwaway data.

Performing the Experiment

Place the motion sensor on a table. Walk back and forth in front of it
a couple of times and you will see the distance values change.

9. Ask a partner to click the Turn Experiment On button.

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You might want to change the number of cases per second in the
inspector to something more frequent—perhaps 10 cases per second
10. Make a scatter plot showing distance versus time.
11. Add a movable line to the graph (choose Graph | Add Movable
Line) and use the slope of the line to estimate your speed.

6.13 Cooling Water—Measure Temperature Over Time

In this tour you will gather data from a temperature sensor. While the data are being gathered, you will
construct a mathematical model of the physical situation and determine whether the model fits the data.
This probably shouldn’t be your first experience with Fathom. You’ll need to be familiar with making
collections and graphs, and analysis of the data will be a lot more fun if you’ve learned about plotting
functions and using sliders. If you’re brand new to Fathom, try a more basic tour!

What You Need

 A Vernier temperature sensor—either Go! Temp or Go! Link/LabPro with a temperature sensor.
 A glass that you can fill with hot water. The thinner the walls of the glass, the faster the water will cool.

Making Meters
A meter is a Fathom object that connects to a sensor or to a slider. This experiment requires a
temperature meter.

1. Plug the temperature sensor into the LabPro and plug the LabPro
into the USB port of the computer.
2. Make a temperature meter by clicking on the meter icon and
dragging it to the document.

The new meter gets the name Temperature and begins reporting the temperature.

Setting Up the Fathom Experiment

3. In Fathom an experiment is represented by a collection connected to one or more meters or sliders.
4. Make a new, empty collection.
5. Drag the plug from the Temperature meter and drop it on the collection.
Notice that the name of the collection becomes Experiment with Temperature and that the collection
icon changes to show that the collection is an experiment collection. Also, the inspector for the collection
opens to the Experiment panel.

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6. Make a case table for the experiment collection.

The case table has columns for time and for the temperature meter, but no data have yet been gathered.

7. In the Experiment panel of the inspector, click the Turn

Experiment On button.

Every second you should see a new case appear in the case table. If so,
you’re almost ready to gather the “real” temperature data. If not, make
sure the sensor is properly connected to the computer and try again.
8. Press Turn Experiment Off to turn off the data collection.
9. Check Replace existing cases to get rid of the throwaway data.

Performing the Experiment

Fill your glass with piping hot water, place it on the insulating pad, and
put the temperature sensor in. You will see the temperature meter’s
value rise rapidly as the probe equilibrates to the hot water.

10. Click the Turn Experiment On button.

You might want to change the number of cases per second in the
inspector to something less frequent—perhaps 5 seconds per case.
You can start analyzing the data while it is being gathered. There is no
need to stop the experiment.
11. Make a line scatter plot showing temperature versus time.
As additional data is gathered, the scatter plot updates.

Explore More
 Fit a function to your data. Stop the experiment and predict the temperature of the water at some later
time. Start the experiment again and see how close (or far) you are.
 Record the temperature of the air over a 24 hour period. Explain the results.
 Does stirring a teaspoon of salt into glass of water change its temperature? How about stirring a bit of
baking soda into some vinegar.

6.14 Timings with Photogates

Suppose you want to measure precisely how long it takes some object to travel a certain distance. You
could use a stopwatch, but you would have a lot of reaction time error. When a photogate’s light is
blocked, it triggers a time with an error of less than a millisecond. In this tour you’ll set up a pair of
photogates to make this measurement.

What You Need

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 Two Vernier Photogates.

 An Experiment: For our experiment, we have a ramp with a ball at the top ready to roll down the
ramp. The ball will roll through first one photogate and then another. The triggering of these
photogates will enable Fathom to measure the time it takes for the ball to travel between them.
Your experimental setup does not need to be a ball rolling down a ramp. Anything that will block one
photogate and then the other will be fine.

Photogate Meters
Make sure the LabPro device is plugged into the USB port of the computer.
Sometimes you may notice that the photogate meter choice does not appear at the top of the menu even
though a photogate probe is connected. This is because the older Vernier photogates do not provide
auto-identification.
1. In a new Fathom document, make two photogate meters and an empty collection.
2. Connect each meter to the collection.

When photogate meters are created, they automatically get assigned to the digital channels on the LabPro,
the first photogate meter to the first channel, and the second meter to the second channel.
3. Block one of the photogates (using your hand or any other object) and notice which of the meters
changes.
The meters are automatically named Gate1 and Gate2 corresponding to a LabPro channel.
To measure the transit time between the two photogates, the experiment must record the time at which
first is blocked and the time at which second is blocked as a single case.

Configuring the Experiment Collection

4. Make a case table for the experiment collection.

Notice that there is an attribute for time and one each for the midtimes and gate times for each gate.
These correspond to the middle of the time for which each gate was blocked (this is an offset in seconds
from the start of the experiment at 0 seconds) and the duration for which it was blocked.
5. You need to set the experiment to be triggered by the clearing of the photogate.

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6. Click the experiment collection’s icon to show its inspector.

7. Set the experiment to trigger collection of a case based on Gate1 going from blocked to clear.

Collecting Data
Everything should be ready to collect data from the photogates.
8. Click the Turn Experiment On button in the experiment’s inspector.
9. Move the object (e.g. the ball on the ramp) through the two photogates.
10. You should see a new case appear in the experiment’s case table.
Until you press the Turn Experiment Off button, each time you move the object through the two
photogates, a new case gets generated in the experiment collection.

Data Analysis
Compute the transit time as the difference of the times at which the photogates were blocked, and the
velocity as the distance between the photogates divided by the transit time.

In a real experiment there will be some other information to record for each measurement, something on
which the transit time or velocity depends. For example, with the ball rolling down the ramp, it might be
that the angle of the ramp is varied or that the distance of the ball from the first photogate is changed.

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The length of the object rolling through the photogate is an important measurement to compute the
velocity of the object.

Explore More
 Try out the other possibilities for what to collect by changing the meters’ inspectors.
 See if you can set up the two photogates to directly measure the acceleration of gravity.

7 Sample Documents
Over 300 sample documents come with Fathom. They are drawn from content areas including calculus,
painting, economics, popular culture, and biology, to name a very few. Some contain collections of
thousands of cases and many attributes, while others contain just a few cases and perhaps a single
attribute. In addition to data, some documents illustrate a mathematical or statistical concept, while others
demonstrate useful techniques in Fathom.
Under most operating systems and browsers, you should be able to click the document name to open the
document in Fathom. If you have trouble opening sample documents, see I’m Having Trouble Opening a
Fathom Document from My Browser 448 .
Finding documents relevant to a particular need can be difficult. Here are three useful techniques:
 The documents are listed here in Fathom Help in the same way they are grouped in the
Sample Documents folder. Look for documents under the heading that seems most
appropriate to your need.
 Use Fathom Help’s Search capability. For example, if you are looking for documents that
illustrate use of confidence intervals for proportions, try searching for “proportion.”
 There is a Fathom document, Sample Documents, that lists all the documents, one to a case.
You can use graphical and filtering techniques with this collection to help find what you are
looking for (or to prove that it doesn’t exist). For example, the filter includes(Description,
“population”) might be helpful in looking for data on population growth.

Subsections
Education 290
Fathom Techniques 291
Language and the Arts 291
Learning Guide Starters 293
Mathematics 293
Science 299
Social Science 304
Statistics 315
Teaching Math with Fathom 325
Walkthrough Guide Starters 327

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7.1 Education
Document name Characteristics Description

Data from Education with 106 Academic Performance and

API CA HS's Complete cases, 17 attributes. Useful for demographic info for all CA
Project, Teacher investigation high schools in 2002.

Data from Education, Statistics Grades obtained by business

BusinessStudents_TAMU with 699 cases, 4 attributes. Useful students at Texas A&M, along
for Activity with sex and ethnicity.

Data from 1983 to 1998 on

Data from Education with 9 cases,
Computers in Schools various aspects of computers in
5 attributes. Useful for Activity
schools

Data from Education with 1332

2002-2003 salaries for different
Faculty Salaries 2002-2003 cases, 8 attributes. Useful for
faculty ranks. Includes state.
Project, Student investigation

Grades recorded during several

Data from Education, Statistics years for a Calculus 2 course at
Grades_Calc2 with 267 cases, 6 attributes. Useful the Instituto Tecnológico de
for Activity Costa Rica, with one case per
student.

Grades recorded during several

Data from Education, Statistics years for a Statistics course at
Grades_Stats with 233 cases, 6 attributes. Useful the Instituto Tecnológico de
for Activity, Project Costa Rica, with one case per
student.

Results from polls taken in

Data from Education, Statistics
1993, 1994, 2000, and 2003
ITCR_students with 1785 cases, 8 attributes.
among students of the Instituto
Useful for Activity, Project
Tecnológico de Costa Rica.

Grades obtained by students in

Data from Education, Statistics the author’s classes at the
StudentsGrades with 746 cases, 7 attributes. Useful Instituto Tecnológico de Costa
for Activity, Project Rica. Each case is a student’s
grade in a course.

Data from Education, Statistics

Visits of students to author’s
Visits to office hours with 3207 cases, 5 attributes.
office hours.
Useful for Activity, Project

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 Sample Documents

7.2 Fathom Techniques

Document name Characteristics Description

Shows how to use category sets

Simulation from Statistics with 4
to deal with situations in which
Colored Balls cases, 1 attribute. Useful for
one or more categories do not
Learning Fathom, Demonstration
appear in the data.

Simulation from Probability with Shows how to use the cardIcon

DeckOfCards 52 cases, 4 attributes. Useful for function and how to simulate
Learning Fathom dealing out a poker hand.

Shows how to use units to

Demonstration from Physics with
calculate the amount of energy
Energy Calculator 1 case, 6 attributes. Useful for
in a penny and how long it
Learning Fathom, Demonstration
could light a 60 watt bulb.

Shows all the available icons

28 cases. Useful for Learning
IconList that can be displayed for cases
Fathom
in a collection.

Demonstration with 40 cases, 2 5 demonstrations of Version 2

Slider Examples attributes. Useful for Learning techniques for working with
Fathom sliders.

Uses an example in which

acceleration has been measured
Demonstration from Physics with
and velocity is computed
Units Example 100 cases, 4 attributes. Useful for
through numerical integration.
Learning Fathom
Shows how units work out
properly.

7.3 Language and the Arts

This folder contains a subfolder: Text Passages 292 .

Document name Characteristics Description

Data from Art with 1146 cases, 5

Artists with their name, birth
Artists attributes. Useful for Activity,
date, and death date.
Project

Data from Language Arts, Religion The five longest books of the
Bible - Big books with 7800 cases, 3 attributes. bible with the number of words
Useful for Activity, Project for each chapter and verse.

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Fathom 2 Help

Data from Language Arts,

500 2-word phrases that bring
Technology with 500 cases, 3
Googlewhacks up a single search result in
attributes. Useful for Activity,
Google.
Project

Data from Art with 3249 cases, 8 Paintings in the National

National Gallery Collection attributes. Useful for Activity, Gallery of Art in Washington,
Project DC.

Collection consists of a 2000

word sample from a much
Activity from Language Arts with
larger word list. Comment tells
Words 2000 2000 cases, 1 attribute. Useful for
how to use the word list to
Activity, Project
estimate your own vocabulary
size.

7.3.1 Text Passages

Each of these documents includes the full text, one character per case, of a portion of a speech or literary
work. Can you characterize the difference in distributions of letters for different writers? Can you figure
out how to get the distribution of word lengths and compare those distributions?
Document name Characteristics Description

A portion of George H. W.
Bush’s inaugural address
Data from Language Arts with
broken down so that each
BushInaugural 1646 cases, 1 attribute. Useful for
character is a case. Compare
Activity, Project
with other president’s speeches
or other literary documents.

Data from Language Arts with The first two paragraphs of the
Declaration 1060 cases, 1 attribute. Useful for Declaration of Independence,
Activity, Project one character per case.

The first two paragraphs of

Data from Language Arts with
Don Quixote de la Mancha by
DonQuixote 1211 cases, 1 attribute. Useful for
Miguel de Cervantes, in
Activity, Project
Spanish, one character per case.

Data from Language Arts with The first stanza from Goethe’s
Faust 1169 cases, 1 attribute. Useful for Faust, in German, one character
Activity, Project per case.

Data from Language Arts with The Gettysburg Address by

Gettysburg 1443 cases, 1 attribute. Useful for Abraham Lincoln, 1863, one
Activity, Project character per case.

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 Sample Documents

The first three paragraphs of

Data from Language Arts with
The Old Man and the Sea by
OldManAndTheSea 1271 cases, 1 attribute. Useful for
Ernest Hemingway, with one
Activity, Project
character per case.

7.4 Learning Guide Starters

These documents are referenced in the Fathom Learning Guide.

Document name Characteristics Description

A random sample of 500

Data from Demography, Education students from the UK, South
CensusAtSchool with 500 cases, 19 attributes. Useful Africa, and Queensland,
for Learning Fathom, Project Australia taken from the
Census at Schools project.

Measurements made by Charles

Data from Biology with 15 cases, 1 Darwin of 15 pairs of plants in
Darwin attribute. Useful for Learning an experiment to determine
Fathom whether cross-pollination
produces taller plants.

Results sampled from an

Data from Demography, Education Internet survey of K-8 students
PetSportSurvey with 325 cases, 3 attributes. Useful taken in the Fall of 1997 by the
for Learning Fathom, Project Annenberg Channel for a
teacher workshop.

Data from Astronomy with 9 cases,

Information about planets
Planets 12 attributes. Useful for Learning
from Mercury to Pluto.
Fathom

Data from physics with 501 cases, 2

Readings from a Vernier force
attributes. Useful for Learning
Elevator Data Web probe taken during an elevator
Fathom (web version of the data
ride.
for importing into Fathom)

7.5 Mathematics
The math sample documents are grouped into folders.
Algebra 294
Calculus 295
Geometry 296
Number Theory 296
Other Mathematics 297

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Probability 297

7.5.1 Algebra
Document name Characteristics Description

Demonstrates a simple
Activity from Algebra with 900
technique for plotting surfaces.
3D Graphing cases, 4 attributes. Useful for
Could be the basis of an
Activity, Project
investigation of surfaces.

Provides data for looking at the

Activity from Algebra with 46
relationship between building
Buildings cases, 6 attributes. Useful for
height, number of stories, and
Activity
location.

Activity from Algebra with 400 Demonstrates a simple

Color Plotting cases, 3 attributes. Useful for technique for plotting functions
Activity, Project using color.

Demonstration from Algebra with

Contains a fully parameterized
CompoundInterest 37 cases, 6 attributes. Useful for
model for compound interest.
Activity, Demonstration

Demonstration from Algebra with

Demonstrates algebraic
FathomLetters 124 cases, 7 attributes. Useful for
transformations.
Activity, Demonstration

Activity from Algebra with 13

The basis for a curve-fitting
Fontsize cases, 3 attributes. Useful for
activity or a larger project.
Activity

Play from Algebra with a function Shows how to draw things with
FunnyFace
plot. Useful for Project function plotting.

Simulation from Algebra, Biology Shows a simple population

GenerationII with 50 cases, 4 attributes. Useful model. Could be used as
for Activity, Demonstration inspiration for more.

Demonstration from Algebra with Shows how to use Fathom in

GuessAndCheck 11 cases, 5 attributes. Useful for “guess and check” mode, as well
Demonstration as a sample student report..

Demonstration from Algebra with Displays 3 lines and their points

LineIntersections 3 cases, 2 attributes. Useful for of intersection. Uses sliders to
Demonstration move lines.

Activity from Algebra with 50 Shows a function using points

MatchMyPlot cases, 2 attributes. Useful for and asks user to drag sliders to
Activity match points.

294
 Sample Documents

Activity from Algebra with 21 Roughly quadratic relationship

QuadCurveFitting cases, 2 attributes. Useful for is shown and rerandomized
Activity when slider changes.

Demonstration from Algebra with Has a graphic animation of a

Rabbit and Frog 4 cases, 4 attributes. Useful for race. Parameters of race are
Activity, Demonstration attributes values.

Play from Algebra with 100 cases, Demonstrates one method of

ScreenSaver 2 attributes. Useful for plotting parametric functions.
Demonstration, Project Makes pleasing patterns.

Activity from Algebra with 1 case Presents various functions as

SliderFunctions with 5 attributes. Useful for puzzles. Uses sliders for input
Activity and output.

Uses Moore’s Law data to

Activity from Algebra with 9 cases,
Sliders and Curve Fitting instigate curve fitting with
5 attributes. Useful for Activity
sliders.

Play from Algebra with 100 cases,

Parametric plotting with slider
Spirograph 3 attributes. Useful for
parameters. Pretty designs.
Demonstration

Project from Algebra with 10 cases, Column lengths for different

Twofonts
5 attributes. Useful for Project numbers of words in two fonts.

7.5.2 Calculus
Document name Characteristics Description

Activity from Calculus with Shows a curve and its tangent.

CurveTangent function plot. Useful for Activity, Students could go on to try
Demonstration other curves.

Demonstration from Calculus with

Shows the definition of the
DerivativeDef 0 cases, 2 attributes. Useful for
derivative of a function.
Demonstration

A set of data points represent a

Demonstration from Calculus with
function. Computed attribute
IntegralAndDerivative 0 cases, 4 attributes. Useful for
values represent the derivative
Activity, Demonstration
and integral..

Shows how to do numerical

Demonstration from Calculus with integration of an arbitrary
Integration 51 cases, 4 attributes. Useful for function with sliders for lower
Demonstration and upper limits and constant of
integration.

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Fathom 2 Help

Demonstration from Calculus, Compares cumulative count for

Statistics with 100 cases, 1 numbers drawn from a normal
Integrator
attribute. Useful for population with theoretical
Demonstration cumulative count.

Illustrates a situation in which

Demonstration from Calculus with
taking a derivative to find a
Minimization 100 cases, 3 attributes. Useful for
minimum is clumsy compared
Activity, Demonstration
to a numerical technique.

7.5.3 Geometry
Document name Characteristics Description

Data with 92 cases, 11 attributes.
JohnsonSolids
Useful for Project.
Characteristics of Johnson
solids: all non-uniform convex
polyhedra with regular faces and
equal edges.

Simulation of breaking a stick in

Demonstration from Probability,
two places and determining if
Geometry with 1 case with 8
Random Triangle they can make a triangle.
attributes. Useful for
Visualized with plot of segment
Demonstration
lengths.

Demonstration from Probability,

Geometry, Chaos with 5000 cases, Carries Sierpinski triangles to
sierpinskiSquare
3 attributes. Useful for the next number of vertices
Demonstration, Project

Demonstration from Probability, Simulates the process of

Geometry, Chaos with 4000 cases, generating a Sierpinski triangle
sierpinskiTriangle
3 attributes. Useful for by movement toward a
Demonstration, Project randomly chosen vertex.

7.5.4 Number Theory

Document name Characteristics Description

Project from Number Theory with

Shows the number of factors an
Factors 1 case with 0 attributes. Useful for
integer has versus the integer.
Project

Project from Probability, Number

Pi_5000_Digits Theory with 5000 cases, 1 attribute. The first 5000 digits of ð.
Useful for Project

296
 Sample Documents

Project from Number Theory with

Shows how to determine the
PrimeDensity 1000 cases, 2 attributes. Useful for
density of primes.
Project

Project from Number Theory with

Shows sum and product tables
RingTables 1000 cases, 4 attributes. Useful for
for rings of integers mod N.
Project

7.5.5 Other Mathematics

Document name Characteristics Description

Displays the endpoints of

Project from Chaos with 30 cases,
logistic recursion after 30
Chaos 1 attribute. Useful for
generations as seeded by a
Demonstration, Project
slider.

Gives sliders for the first 4

Demonstration from Calculus with
terms of a Fourier series and
FourierSeries 5 cases, 6 attributes. Useful for
displays the component curves
Activity, Demonstration
plus their sum.

Demonstration from Trigonometry Graphs two sine curves and

Sine Waves with function plot. Useful for their sum. Shows beats and
Activity, Demonstration other phenomena.

Demonstration from Calculus, Shows you can build up a

Statistics with 100 cases, 7 Fourier series using a multiple
Square Wave Mult regress
attributes. Useful for regression to compute
Demonstration, Project coefficients.

7.5.6 Probability

Document name Characteristics Description

Simulation from Probability with Shows the difference between

BallsWithoutReplacement 10 cases, 1 attribute. Useful for sampling with and without
Activity, Demonstration replacement.

Simulation from Probability with Demonstration based on a

BathroomTiles 10000 cases, 1 attribute. Useful for bathroom floor with randomly
Demonstration, Project arranged tiles

Activity from Probability with 365 For each of 365 days during
Birthdays1978 cases, 3 attributes. Useful for 1978, records the number of
Activity births in the U.S. Periodic data.

297
Fathom 2 Help

Activity from Probability with 1 Illustrates the meaning of

BlackCards
case, 1 attribute. Useful for Activity independence using cards.

Simulation from Probability with Shows how to solve a particular

BlackjackPairs 52 cases, 4 attributes. Useful for problem relating to dealing out
Demonstration cards.

Activity from Probability with 50

BrownianMotion cases, 2 attributes. Useful for Models Brownian motion.
Activity

Simulation from Probability with

Shows how to model the
Buffon_Needle 500 cases, 5 attributes. Useful for
Buffon Needle problem.
Demonstration

Simulation from Probability with 1

DiceBetting case with 3 attributes. Useful for Simulation of a betting situation.
Activity, Demonstration

Simulation from Probability with Simulation of a famous scenario

Ehrenfest 1720 cases, 4 attributes. Useful for involving transferring balls
Demonstration between urns.

Demonstration from Probability Visualization of rearranging 16

Enumeration with 16 cases, 13 attributes. Useful possible outcomes of 4 coin
for Demonstration flips.

Simulation from Probability,

Shows how choosing points at
Geometry with 100 cases, 4
Estimating Pi random in a square can lead to
attributes. Useful for Activity,
an estimation of ð
Demonstration

Simulation from Probability with

Allows comparison of the roles
Fair and Unfair Dice 108 cases, 8 attributes. Useful for
of a fair die and an unfair die.
Demonstration

Simulation from Probability with 2

Simulation of particular “family
FamilyPlanning cases, 1 attribute. Useful for
planning” technique.
Demonstration

A simulation that allows viewing

Simulation from Probability with 5 the proportion of flips of five
FiveCoins cases, 1 attribute. Useful for coins that have each of the
Activity, Demonstration possible outcomes as a function
of the number of trials.

298
 Sample Documents

Simulation from Probability with Simulation of drawing cards

GeometricCards 52 cases, 3 attributes. Useful for from a deck until a club is
Demonstration drawn.

Simulation from Probability with Simulation of a lotto game with

Lotto 80 cases, 1 attribute. Useful for sliders controlling various
Activity, Demonstration payoffs.

Simulation from Probability with

Simulation of 10 1-dimensional
RandomWalk 10 cases, 1 attribute. Useful for
steps.
Demonstration

How many random walk steps

Simulation from Probability with 1
does it take on average to get N
RandomWalkUntilN case with 0 attributes. Useful for
steps to the right of the starting
Demonstration
position.

Simulation from Probability with 2 Shows proportion of heads as a

RepeatedFlips cases, 1 attribute. Useful for function of number of flips and
Demonstration the approach toward 0.5

Ten people check their coats in

a restaurant. They all lose their
tags and the cloak room checker
Simulation from Statistics with 10
just gives them a random coat.
Scrambled Coats cases, 2 attributes. Useful for
What is the probability that a
Activity, Demonstration
given person will receive his/her
coat? Shows how to solve the
problem with simulation.

Three people are in a duel.

Simulation from Probability, Game
Shows how to compare two
ShootingMatch Theory with 10 cases, 7 attributes.
different strategies for one of
Useful for Activity, Demonstration
the duelists.

Simulation from Probability, Game

Determines the best strategy for
Theory with 1000 cases, 5
SpinnerGame a player in a spinner game based
attributes. Useful for
on Showcase Showdown.
Demonstration

7.6 Science
The documents in this folder are grouped into the following sub-folders:
Astronomy 300
Biology 301
Chemistry and Physics 301

299
Fathom 2 Help

Earth Sciences 302

Technology 304

7.6.1 Astronomy

Document name Characteristics Description

Mass and orbit data for planets

Data from Astronomy with 110 found outside our solar system.
Extra-Solar Planets cases, 7 attributes. Useful for Have another look at Kepler’s 3
Activity, Project rd law.

Data from Astronomy with 90 Positions relative to Jupiter for

JupiterMoons cases, 11 attributes. Useful for four of its moons over a period
Activity of time.

Data from Astronomy with 100

Apparent radius of Jupiter as a
JupiterRadius cases, 2 attributes. Useful for
function of time.
Activity

Simulation from Astronomy with

Provides a scale model of the
Orrery 10 cases, 11 attributes. Useful for
solar system.
Demonstration, Project

Data from Astronomy with 513 Displays the stars laid out in a
Planetarium cases, 21 attributes. Useful for Mercator projection. Able to
Demonstration, Project show constellations.

Simulation from Astronomy with

This is a simulation of imaging a
PlanetScan 400 cases, 3 attributes. Useful for
planet through a telescope.
Demonstration

Data from Astronomy with 9

Basic data on each of the solar
PlanetsWithUnits cases, 7 attributes. Useful for
system’s planets.
Activity

Data from Space Science with 696 A subset of data from Biomass
SpaceData cases, 11 attributes. Useful for Production Unit aboard the
Project International Space Station (ISS)

Data from Astronomy with 18263

The sunspot number for each
Sunspots Large cases, 6 attributes. Useful for
day 1951-2000.
Project

Data from Astronomy with 2000

Sunspots cases, 5 attributes. Useful for A subset of Sunspots Large.
Activity, Project

300
 Sample Documents

7.6.2 Biology

Document name Characteristics Description

Data from Biology, Statistics with

Measurements of 143 bears.
Bears 143 cases, 12 attributes. Useful for
Useful for multiple regression.
Activity, Project

Bird sightings by a Fathom

Data from Biology with 788 cases,
programmer made over a period
Birds Seen at Work 16 attributes. Useful for Activity,
of a year and a half. Interesting
Project
data and a clever categorization.

Interesting data about

Data from Biology with 62 cases,
Mammals mammals, including size and
11 attributes. Useful for Activity
brain size and sleep behavior.

Data from Biology, Statistics with A really interesting statistics

Midges 15 cases, 3 attributes. useful for problem about distinguishing
Activity between two kinds of midges.

A simulation of an ecosystem
Simulation from Biology with 200
containing predators and their
PredatorAndPrey cases, 10 attributes. Useful for
prey. It shows the population of
Activity, Project
each over time.

Heights at different times of the

day for several subjects (ages
Data from Health, Statistics with
between 20 and 25). They had
Time_vs_height 324 cases, 4 attributes. Useful for
their heights measured at
Activity
different times. Each
measurement is a case.

7.6.3 Chemistry and Physics

Document name Characteristics Description

Data from Chemistry with 112

Information on each element,
Elements cases, 17 attributes. Useful for
displayed in periodic table.
Activity, Project

Gallon per minute discharges

Data from Physics with 19 cases, 2 from a nozzle of 0.5 inch
HalfInchNozzle
attributes. Useful for Activity diameter. Good curve-fitting
data.

301
Fathom 2 Help
Data from Physics with 33 cases, 3
HeatingAndCooling
attributes. Useful for Activity
Data from Physics with 12 cases, 4 time measured during heating a
HeatingWater
attributes. Useful for Activity
Simulation from Physics with 1
Moving Ball case with 2 attributes. Useful for
Demonstration
Data from Physics with 185 cases,
Radiosonde
9 attributes. Useful for Activity
Data from Science with 199 cases,
RubberBandBallExperiment
11 attributes. Useful for Project
Data from Physics with 2000 cases,
Elevator Experiment
6 attributes.Useful for Activity
Data from Physics with 953 cases,
Solar Panel Readings
5 attributes. Useful for Project
7.6.4 Earth Sciences
Document name Characteristics
Data from Geography with 732
CA vs Alaska Weather cases, 12 attributes. Useful for
Project
Data from Environmental Science
GlobalCarbon2000 with 51 cases, 8 attributes. Useful
for Activity, Project
302
Temperature as a function of
time measured during heating
and cooling of a saucepan of
water. Good function fitting
data.
Temperature as a function of
saucepan of water. Good
function fitting data.
Shows the parabolic path of a
projectile with slider parameters
for varying conditions.
Measurements taken from an
ascending balloon.
Measurements taken from a
rubber band ball as the rubber
bands were removed. Could be
an example of a student project
write-up.
Measurements of acceleration
during an elevator ride.
Attributes are created for
velocity and displacement by
integrating the acceleration data.
Experiment data from a solar
panel.
Description
Shows daily weather
information for Barrows, Alaska
and Moraga, California.
Breakdown of man-made
carbon dioxide emissions into
components from 1950-2000
 Sample Documents

Data from Climatology with 1096 3 years worth of temperature

Iowa Temps and Precip cases, 10 attributes. Useful for and precipitation data for one
Activity, Project Iowa location.

Data from Environmental Science Monthly carbon dioxide

MaunaLoa2003 with 552 cases, 3 attributes. Useful measurements from the top of
for Activity Mauna Loa from 1958 to 2003.

Data from Environmental Science Monthly carbon dioxide

MaunaShort with 150 cases, 4 attributes. Useful measurements from the top of
for Activity Mauna Loa from 1975 to 1990.

Data from Geography, Two month’s worth of hourly

Oceanography with 2698 cases, 7 tide information for two
ME and CA Tides
attributes. Useful for Activity, locations with radically different
Project properties.

Data from Environmental Science Carbon dioxide emissions by

RegionCarbon2000 with 450 cases, 9 attributes. Useful year including total and various
for Activity types.

Data from Environmental Science Carbon dioxide emissions by

RegionalCarbon 1900_2000 with 980 cases, 9 attributes. Useful year including total and various
for Activity types, 1900-1997.

Data from Geology with 617 cases, Positions and magnitudes of

SeismicCanada1920_1959 6 attributes. Useful for Activity, Canadian earthquakes 1920-
Project 1959.

Data from Geology with 669 cases, Positions and magnitudes of

SeismicCanada1960_1989 6 attributes. Useful for Activity, Canadian earthquakes 1960-
Project 1989.

Data from Geography with 379

Temperatures at the South Pole
South Pole cases, 3 attributes. Useful for
by month from 1957 to 1988.
Activity

Data from Environmental Science
USAvgAnnualMeanTemps with 30000 cases, 8 attributes.
Useful for Activity, Project
A century’s worth of
temperature data for 10 states
and a number of weather
stations within each state.
Global warming is visible.

Simulation from Probability with Simulates a sequence of weather

WeatherMachine 30 cases, 1 attribute. Useful for by day based on a stochastic
Activity model.

303
Fathom 2 Help

Date, time, position, depth, and

Data from Geology with 17674
magnitude data for earthquakes
WorldEarthquakes cases, 6 attributes. Useful for
around the world during 6
Project
months of 1999

7.6.5 Technology

Document name Characteristics Description

Each case is a model of airplane.

Data from Engineering with 36
Provides good data with which
Airplanes cases, 7 attributes. Useful for
to construct a multiple
Activity
regression model.

Each case is a model of a car.

Data from Engineering with 93
Excellent data with which to
Cars_93 cases, 30 attributes. Useful for
construct a multiple regression
Activity
model.

Data from Engineering with 9 Computer microprocessor

MooresLaw2004 cases, 5 attributes. Useful for statistics back to 1971.
Activity Illustrates Moore’s Law.

Investigate the relationships

Data from Engineering with 16 between weight, length,
Nails cases, 4 attributes. Useful for diameter, and number per
Activity pound of different weights of
nails.

7.7 Social Science

The social science files are grouped into the following folders:
Canada 304

Europe 308
Latin America 309
United States 309
World 313

7.7.1 Canada
Statistics Canada provides a wealth of Canadian data from its 350 active surveys that can be used with
Fathom. E-STAT is the largest single source of numeric data on the Statistics Canada site www.statcan.ca
that is Fathom-compatible. Many datasets extracted from E-STAT are included on the Fathom 2 CD, and
on the Fathom Sample activities and Sample documents web pages. Users are encouraged to visit E-

304
 Sample Documents

STAT to update and extend the data in the Fathom collections found in the sample datasets on the
Fathom CD and websites.
Statistics Canada’s E-STAT is a dynamic interactive teaching and learning tool for the education
community available at http://estat.statcan.ca. It offers an enormous warehouse of reliable and timely
statistics about Canada and its ever-changing people. E-STAT is free to educational institutions and
depository libraries, once you register. E-STAT offers a range of graphing options, complete with lessons
suitable for grade 6 and up. New users are directed to About E-STAT for further information on how to
register and on the supports provided.
E-STAT contains detailed data from the last 4 censuses and time series from over 250 different surveys
in its CANSIM database. These data can be easily transferred into Fathom. CANSIM on E-STAT is
updated once a year, generally in the summer. As of July 2004 E-STAT contains 25 million time series
grouped in over 2,000 tables.
Other datasets are listed on the StatCan Learning Resources website by teaching subject at www.statcan.
ca/english/kits/teach.htm.
Statistics Canada information is used with the permission of Statistics Canada. Users are forbidden to
copy the data and redistribute them, in an original or modified form, for commercial purposes, without
the expressed permission of Statistics Canada. Information on the availability of the wide range of data
from Statistics Canada can be obtained from Statistics Canada’s Regional Offices, its web site at http://
www.statcan.ca, and its toll-free access number 1-800-263-1136.
This folder contains one sub-folder: Canadian Census Files 307 .

Document name Characteristics Description

Drinking receipts and 20-24

Data from Sociology with 13 cases,
alberta2024drinkingplaces year old population from 1990
3 attributes. Useful for Activity
to 2002 in Alberta, Canada

Data from Demography with 18 Births by year from 1950 to

babyboom-quadratic cases, 2 attributes. Useful for 1967. Can be fit with a
Activity quadratic. (But should it?)

Annual imports and exports by

Canada_International_Trade
Data from Geography, Economics
major merchandise groups in
with 17 cases, 63 attributes. Useful
millions of Canadian dollars
for Activity, Project
from 1986 to 2002.

Data from Economics with 103 The size of the Canadian debt in
Canadian Government Debt cases, 2 attributes. Useful for Canadian dollars from 1901 to
Activity 2001.

Canadian Metro Areas
A wealth of demographic
Data from Demography with 46
information about each of the
cases, 70 attributes. Useful for
metropolitan areas of over
Activity, Project
50,000 in Canada.

305
Fathom 2 Help

Data from Political Science with 34 The number of military

Canadian Military Personnel cases, 2 attributes. Useful for personnel in Canada from 1969
Activity to 2002.

Data from Economics with 89

The consumer price index for
CPI_Canada cases, 2 attributes. Useful for
Canada from 1914 to 2002.
Activity

Numbers and rates per 100,000

Data from Sociology, Criminology for 24 types of criminal
Crime_Rates_in Canada with 26 cases, 49 attributes. Useful incidents are provided for
for Activity, Project Canada for the years 1977 to
2002

Over 50 attributes plus latitude-

Data from Demography with 488 longitude and x-y coordinates
Ontario Census Subdivisions cases, 65 attributes. Useful for from the 2001 Census of
Activity, Project Canada for over 450
municipalities in Ontario

Data from Sociology with 49 cases, Languages spoken in areas of

OntarioLanguages
5 attributes. Useful for Project Ontario.

Location, education level,

Data from Sociology with 37 cases,
SmokingAndEducationLevel smoking indicators. Is there a
4 attributes. Useful for Activity
correlation?

Data from Sociology with 1000

Microdata from of a nationwide
TechUse cases, 84 attributes. Useful for
survey about technology use.
Activity, Project

Wheat production opened the

Data from Agriculture, Economics prairies. Estimated areas, yield,
Wheat_in_Canada_since_1908 with 95 cases, 31 attributes. Useful production and average farm
for Activity, Project price of wheat annually by
province since 1908.

Data from Sociology with 17 cases, Total number of youths charged

YouthCrimes
2 attributes. Useful for Activity with a crime by year

National Longitudinal Survey of

Data from Sociology with 1046
Children and Youth: transition
YouthSurvey cases, 19 attributes. Useful for
into adolescence. A wealth of
Project
survey data.

306
 Sample Documents

French language version of

Data from Sociology with 1046 National Longitudinal Survey of
YouthSurveyFR cases, 19 attributes. Useful for Children and Youth: transition
Project into adolescence. A wealth of
survey data.

7.7.1.1 Canadian Census Files

Document name Characteristics Description

Data from Demography with 994 40 attributes from the 1991

1991CensusAlberta cases, 40 attributes. Useful for Census of Population for
Project Canada

Data from Demography with 994 40 attributes from the 1991

1991CensusBritishColumbia cases, 40 attributes. Useful for Census of Population for
Project Canada

Data from Demography with 994 40 attributes from the 1991

1991CensusCanadaFrancais cases, 40 attributes. Useful for Census of Population for
Project Canada

Data from Demography with 994 40 attributes from the 1991

1991CensusManitoba cases, 40 attributes. Useful for Census of Population for
Project Canada

Data from Demography with 994 40 attributes from the 1991

1991CensusNewBrunswick cases, 40 attributes. Useful for Census of Population for
Project Canada

Data from Demography with 994 40 attributes from the 1991

1991CensusNewfoundland cases, 40 attributes. Useful for Census of Population for
Project Canada

Data from Demography with 994 40 attributes from the 1991

1991CensusNovaScotia cases, 40 attributes. Useful for Census of Population for
Project Canada

Data from Demography with 994 40 attributes from the 1991

1991CensusOntario cases, 40 attributes. Useful for Census of Population for
Project Canada

Data from Demography with 994 40 attributes from the 1991

1991CensusPEI cases, 40 attributes. Useful for Census of Population for
Project Canada

307
Fathom 2 Help

Data from Demography with 994 40 attributes from the 1991

1991CensusQuebec cases, 40 attributes. Useful for Census of Population for
Project Canada

Data from Demography with 994 40 attributes from the 1991

1991CensusSaskatchewan cases, 40 attributes. Useful for Census of Population for
Project Canada

Data from Demography with 994 40 attributes from the 1991

1991CensusYukonNWT cases, 40 attributes. Useful for Census of Population for
Project Canada

Smoking, census profile and

Data from Health with 37 cases, 41
CensusHealthCanada CCHS profile for Ontario
attributes. Useful for Project
PHUs

7.7.2 Europe

Document name Characteristics Description

Data from Economics with 101 The purchasing power of the

French Franc over time cases, 2 attributes. Useful for Franc expressed in 2003 Euros
Activity, Project from 1901 to 2001

Data from Economics with 54

Imports and Exports for
German Foreign Trade cases, 3 attributes. Useful for
Germany from 1950 to 2003
Activity, Project

Numbers of people who

Data from History with 51 cases, 3 migrated from Ireland and from
Potato Famine Migration
attributes. Useful for Project Great Britain from 1820 to
1870.

Data from Demography with 162 For each city, provides the
Russian City Populations cases, 4 attributes. Useful for number of males and number of
Activity, Project females.

Activity from Algebra with 21 Study the speed of the Trans-

Trans-Siberian Railroad cases, 6 attributes. Useful for Siberian train as it goes from
Activity Moscow to Vladivostok.

An interesting cross section of

Data from Demography with 1691 the UK including basic
UK Smoking cases, 12 attributes. Useful for demographic data as well as
Activity, Project information on whether they
smoke.

308
 Sample Documents

7.7.3 Latin America

Document name Characteristics Description

Data from Geography with 222 Population of capital cities and

Cities of Brazil cases, 2 attributes. Useful for cities of 100,000 and more
Project inhabitants in Brazil in 2000.

Exchange rates for the

Costa Rica Exch Rate
Data from Economics with 192
costarican Colón with respect to
cases, 3 attributes. Useful for
US Dollar, quarterly from 1986
Activity, Project
to 2004

Data from Demography, History

Population of Costa Rica since
CostaRicaPopulation with 24 cases, 2 attributes. Useful
1522.
for Activity

Data from Demography with 51

PeruPopulation 1950-2000 cases, 2 attributes. Useful for Population by year for Peru.
Activity

7.7.4 United States

This folder also contains two subfolders:
States 311
US Census Files 312

Document name Characteristics Description

Data from Geography with 58 Population data about each of

CACounties cases, 7 attributes. Useful for the 58 counties in California.
Activity, Project Good for data exploration.

Data from Demography with 131 Dates on St Augustine’s

Cemetery cases, 5 attributes. Useful for Catholic Cemetery crypt blocks,
Project Pleasanton, CA.

Activity from Algebra with 17 Study the speed of the Coast

CoastStarlight cases, 4 attributes. Useful for Starlight Amtrak as it proceeds
Activity from Seattle to Los Angeles

Data from Economics with 1104 Monthly CPI data from 1913 to
CPI by Month cases, 5 attributes. Useful for 2000. Can we detect seasonal
Activity, Project variations?

309
Fathom 2 Help

Data from Economics with 91

Yearly CPI data from 1913 to
CPI cases, 2 attributes. Useful for
1997.
Activity, Project

Data from Economics with 55 Defense spending as a percent

Defense Spending 1940-1992 cases, 3 attributes. Useful for of federal spending and as a
Activity, Project percent of GNP.

Presidential voting results for all

Data from Political Science with 59 the counties in California for
Election04CA cases, 18 attributes. Useful for the 2004 presidential election.
Activity, Project Good for building a multiple
regression model.

Data from Sociology with 1656 Chicago murders from 1970 and
Murders cases, 18 attributes. Useful for 1990. Very interesting for data
Project exploration.

The most frequently occurring

Data from Demography with 6244
last names, male first names,
Names cases, 5 attributes. Useful for
and female first names in the U.
Activity, Project
S. in the year 1990.

Data from Education with 1000 SAT scores and college grade
SATGPA cases, 5 attributes. Useful for point averages. Is there any
Activity, Project relationship?

Data from Geography with 1310 Population and area of every

SquareDegrees cases, 4 attributes. Useful for square degree of latitude and
Activity longitude.

Demographic information on
Data from Demography with 254
each of Texas’ counties,
TexasCounties cases, 25 attributes. Useful for
viewable in map form through
Project
coloration.

Data from Demography with 77

Demographic information for
US – Cities cases, 17 attributes. Useful for
77 cities.
Project

Data from Sociology with 28 cases, 1971-1997 time series of violent

US – ViolentCrimeArrests
13 attributes. Useful for Project crime arrests for all US.

Square degrees of longitude and

Data from Geography with 923 latitude with population and
US_ContinentalPop cases, 6 attributes. Useful for area. Set up in map form to
Activity, Demonstration display regions by population
density.

310
 Sample Documents

1948-1997 data. Each year

Data from Demography with 1140 giving life expectancy broken
US_LifeExpectancyOverTime cases, 5 attributes. Useful for down by sex. Years to live and
Project life expectancy for various ages
for each year.

7.7.4.1 States

Document name Characteristics Description

Data from Sociology with 51 cases, Accident and highway statistics

States - Accidents 9 attributes. Useful for Activity, for each state for years 1992 &
Project 1993.

Data from Political Science with 51

Representation in Congress by
States - Apportionment cases, 6 attributes. Useful for
state with change from 1990
Activity, Project

Data from Sociology with 51 cases,

Population and highway
States - CarsNDrivers 10 attributes. Useful for Activity,
statistics for each state in 1992
Project

Data from Demography with 51 Ethnic population, number of

States - Ethnicity cases, 8 attributes. Useful for prisoners, and median income
Activity, Project breakdown by state

Data from Sociology with 51 cases,

1989 statistics on how people
States - GetToWork 4 attributes. Useful for Activity,
go to work for each state
Project

Data from Sociology with 51 cases, 1989 statistics by state on

States - PhonesAndRentals 15 attributes. Useful for Activity, number phones for home
Project owners versus renters.

Several years (up to 1996) of

Data from Education with 51
mean verbal and math scores by
States - SAT cases, 15 attributes. Useful for
state. Has percent taking test in
Activity, Project
1996.

Data from Sociology with 51 cases,

1992 population, fatality,
States - Seat Belts 11 attributes. Useful for Activity,
seatbelt, and other data
Project

Data from Sociology with 51 cases, Number of homes using sewer

States - Sewers 4 attributes. Useful for Activity, and septic tanks by state for
Project 1990

311
Fathom 2 Help

Data from Economics with 51 Taxes collected for each state in

States - Taxes cases, 11 attributes. Useful for FY 2002. Broken down in
Project interesting ways.

Data from Sociology with 51 cases,

States - Traffic 10 attributes. Useful for Activity, More highway statistics by state
Project

Data from Sociology with 51 cases,

1990 breakdown of urban and
States - UrbanRuralPop 5 attributes. Useful for Activity,
rural populations by state
Project

Data from Sociology with 51 cases,

Economic and education
States - Women 8 attributes. Useful for Activity,
statistics for women
Project

A great deal of information

Data from Geography with 51
about each state, plus to “map-
StatesMap cases, 20 attributes. Useful for
like” ways of displaying the
Project
information.

7.7.4.2 US Census Files

Document name Characteristics Description

Data from History with 2250 cases,

California people from two
CA_1880_1990 12 attributes. Useful for Activity,
different years
Project

Data from Demography with 500

People who filled out the census
CA_includesBerkeley2000 cases, 11 attributes. Useful for
long form in 1990
Activity, Project

Data from Demography with 500

People who filled out the census
DC103 cases, 11 attributes. Useful for
long form in 1990
Activity, Project

Data from Demography with 500

People who filled out the census
FL_MiamiPart3901 cases, 11 attributes. Useful for
long form in 1990
Activity, Project

Data from History with 2000 cases, 2000 people who filled out the
MA_1910_1990 24 attributes. Useful for Activity, long form of the census in 1910
Project or 1990, half in each.

312
 Sample Documents

Data from Demography with 500

People who filled out the census
NY_NYCity5206 cases, 11 attributes. Useful for
long form in 1990
Activity, Project

Data from Demography with 500

People who filled out the census
NY_NYCity5507 cases, 11 attributes. Useful for
long form in 1990
Activity, Project

Data from Demography with 500

People who filled out the census
OH_south1500 cases, 11 attributes. Useful for
long form in 1990
Activity, Project

Data from Demography with 500

People who filled out the census
VA_ArlingtonDCSuburb2200 cases, 11 attributes. Useful for
long form in 1990
Activity, Project

7.7.5 World

Document name Characteristics Description

Capitols and cities with

Data from Geography with 3215 population over 100,000 with
Cities of the World cases, 6 attributes. Useful for country, population, longitude,
Activity, Project and latitude. Makes beautiful
maps.

Data from Sociology with 126

Unemployment statistics by
Countries Unemployment cases, 6 attributes. Useful for
country around the year 2000
Activity, Project

Lists a region for each country.

Data from Geography with 200
Useful for joining with other
Country Regions cases, 2 attributes. Useful for
collections that have countries
Reference
to allow regional analysis.

Data from Demography with 1147 Data for 23 countries from the
CountryPopulations.23 cases, 7 attributes. Useful for United Nations Demographic
Activity, Project Yearbook, 1948-1997.

Data from Demography with 3279 data for 66 countries from the
CountryPopulations.66 cases, 7 attributes. Useful for United Nations Demographic
Activity, Project Yearbook, 1948-1997.

Data from Demography with 229 Men’s and women’s life

LifeExpectancies cases, 4 attributes. Useful for expectancy for ~1998 for 229
Activity, Project countries

313
Fathom 2 Help

Data from Demography with 209

Population data for 2004 plus
Male and Female Populations cases, 6 attributes. Useful for
annual rate of change
Activity, Project

Data from Demography with 203

Fertility and birth rates as they
Women - Reproduction cases, 8 attributes. Useful for
appeared in ~2000.
Activity, Project

Data from Demography with 80

Expected number of years of
World - EducationBySex cases, 4 attributes. Useful for
schooling, broken down by sex.
Activity

Population and area. It’s very

World - NationsPopAndArea
Data from Geography with 221
illuminating to look at a scatter
cases, 3 attributes. Useful for
plot of the two extremely skew
Activity
distributions.

Data from Demography with 206

Male and female populations for
World - PopBySex cases, 4 attributes. Useful for
~1998, plus rate of change.
Activity

Data from Demography with 101

Population and rates by year
World - Population cases, 4 attributes. Useful for
from 1950-2050.
Activity

7.8 Sports

Document name Characteristics Description

Gold medal track-and-field

Data from Sports with 14 cases, 5
Atlanta96 times from the 1996 Atlanta
attributes. Useful for Activity
Olympics

Data from Sports with 330 cases,

National League hitters with
Baseball96 13 attributes. Useful for Activity,
stats.
Project

Data from Sports, Statistics with 61

Bicycle trips with distance,
Bicycling cases, 3 attributes. Useful for
altitude gained or lost, and time.
Activity, Project

Winning runners of the New

Data from Sports with 60 cases, 5
Marathon Times York City Marathon from 1970
attributes. Useful for Activity
to 1999, both men and women.

314
 Sample Documents

Data from Sports with 13 cases, 4 World record times for an

Mile Records
attributes. Useful for Activity assortment of distances

Winning and losing scores for

Data from Sports with 247 cases, 6 all NFL games in the 2001
NFL Scores attributes. Useful for Activity, season. Proposes projects to
Project help place rational bets on
scores for the super bowl.

Data from Economics with 23 How much the networks paid

Olympics - Cost cases, 5 attributes. Useful for for the right to broadcast the
Activity games 1960-2002.

Gold medal times and distances

Data from Sports with 25 cases, 21
Olympics for select Track and Field
attributes. Useful for Activity
events, men and women.

Winning distances for 3 men’s

Data from Sports with 23 cases, 4
OlympicsMenFld track and field events, 1896-
attributes. Useful for Activity
2000.

Each case is how many medals a

Data from Sports with 830 cases, 6
Summer Olympic Medals given country won in a given
attributes.
year.

Results for each game played in

WorldSoccerCups_1978-2002
Data from Sports with 748 cases, 8
the World Soccer Cups from
attributes. Useful for Activity,
1978 to 2002. Each case is a
Project
score.

7.9 Statistics
The statistics sample documents are grouped into the following sub-folders:
Correlation and Regression 315
Descriptive 317
Distributions 317
Inference 319
Modeling 322
Sampling 323

7.9.1 Correlation and Regression

Document name Characteristics Description

315
Fathom 2 Help

Famous dataset. Four bivariate

Activity from Statistics with 11 relationships with the same
Anscombe cases, 6 attributes. Useful for number of points, the same
Activity, Demonstration linear regression line, and the
same correlation coefficient

Demonstration from Statistics with Shows how to use build-in

Computing Residuals 16 cases, 5 attributes. Useful for functions to get predicted and
Activity, Demonstration residual values as attributes.

Shows the distribution of

Simulation from Statistics with 20
correlation coefficients obtained
CorrelationInference cases, 5 attributes. Useful for
when two attributes are
Activity, Demonstration
independent.

Points on a scatter plot to drag

Play from Statistics with 7 cases, 2
CorrelationPlay around and observe the effect
attributes. Useful for Activity
on the LSR line and r-squared.

Simulation from Statistics with 20

A slider determines the
CorrSlider cases, 4 attributes. Useful for
correlation of data points.
Demonstration

Data from Sociology with 199 Married couples with ages at

Couples_FULL cases, 8 attributes. Useful for time of marriage, heights, year
Activity, Project of marriage, and duration.

Married couples with ages,

Data from Sociology with 30 cases,
Couples heights, and husband’s age at
5 attributes. Useful for Activity
marriage.

Demonstration from Statistics with

Shows techniques for finding a
Quadratic Regression 5 cases, 3 attributes. Useful for
best fit parabola.
Demonstration

5 sliders parameterize a
Demonstration from Statistics with population a predictor and a
RegressionSimulation 200 cases, 2 attributes. Useful for response. A sample from this
Activity, Demonstration population responds to changes
in the parameters.

Demonstration from Statistics with A slider control a 4 stage

RegressionTransformation 100 cases, 8 attributes. Useful for transformation in which (X, Y)
Demonstration is standardized to (Exp, Res)

Demonstration from Statistics with Shows the relationship between

Two Groups Regression 100 cases, 3 attributes. Useful for Predictor and Response for two
Demonstration groups.

316
 Sample Documents

7.9.2 Descriptive

Document name Characteristics Description

Demonstration from Statistics with Attempts to make explicit the

Finding M-M Line 9 cases, 2 attributes. Useful for algorithm for drawing a median-
Demonstration median line.

Demonstration from Statistics with

Shows how to generate a
FrequencyData 900 cases, 1 attribute. Useful for
collection from summary data.
Template

Demonstration from Statistics with Shows how to generate a

FrequencyTable 100 cases, 4 attributes. Useful for frequency table from numeric
Template data.

Shows the effect of defining a

Demonstration from Statistics with
measure of center that
LeastSumAbsDiffs 5 cases, 2 attributes. Useful for
minimizes the sum of absolute
Demonstration
differences.

Proposes that the sample

Demonstration from Statistics with median is a biased estimate of
Median Bias 500 cases, 1 attribute. Useful for the population median and
Project shows through simulation that
this is true.

An animation of moving each

Demonstration from Statistics with of 100 points from a start value
MovingToTheMean 100 cases, 2 attributes. Useful for to its final position. Shows the
Activity, Demonstration position of the mean. Has some
interesting things to try.

Uses collect measures to show

Demonstration from Statistics with
each of a bunch of measures as
Stability 500 cases, 1 attribute. Useful for
a function of the number in the
Activity, Demonstration
sample.

7.9.3 Distributions

Document name Characteristics Description

Demonstration from Statistics with Shows and explains some of the

A Weird Distribution 1000 cases, 3 attributes. Useful for properties of the Cauchy
Activity, Demonstration distribution.

317
Fathom 2 Help

Plots a binomial probability

Demonstration from Statistics with
distribution and the
Binomial vs Normal function plot. Useful for Activity,
corresponding normal density.
Demonstration
Has sliders for n and p.

Demonstration from Statistics with

Explores the properties of the
DepthFunction 100 cases, 1 attribute. Useful for
“depth” function.
Activity, Demonstration

Plots the three distribution

Demonstration from Statistics with functions—density, cumulative,
DistributionFAQ function plots. Useful for Activity, and quantile—for the normal
Demonstration distribution and for the uniform
distribution.

With sliders to manipulate

Demonstration from Statistics with
parameters, gets at some
Normal 100 cases, 1 attribute. Useful for
important properties of normal
Activity, Demonstration
distribution.

Activity from Statistics with 500

Looks at density histogram and
NormalDensityExploration cases, 1 attribute. Useful for
density curve.
Activity

Two ways to calculate the

Activity from Statistics with no probability of getting some x-
P-Value Calculators cases or attributes. Useful for Value or smaller from a normal
Activity distribution with a given mean
and standard deviation.

Shows the results of conducting

a poll of “n” voters and
Activity from Statistics with 20
recording the proportion voting
Proportions cases, 1 attribute. Useful for
“Yes” where the proportion in
Activity
the population who vote “Yes”
is given by “p”.

Builds up to the question of

Demonstration from Statistics with
what the distribution of p-
pValue distribution 30 cases, 1 attribute. Useful for
Values should look like when
Activity, Demonstration
the null hypothesis is true.

Allows comparison of the fit for

Demonstration from Statistics with
a normal distribution with that
t vs normal 100 cases, 1 attribute. Useful for
for a t-distribution from
Activity, Demonstration
randomly generated numbers.

318
 Sample Documents

Shows three distributions, one

Three Distributions
Demonstration from Statistics with
skew left, one symmetrical, and
300 cases, 2 attributes. Useful for
one skew right, all with the same
Demonstration
mean and standard deviation.

Demonstration from Statistics with Shows density plots of several

Various Distributions function plots. Useful for distributions, parameterized by
Demonstration sliders.

7.9.4 Inference

Document name Characteristics Description

Activity from Statistics with 200

Useful for building
Epidemiologist cases, 1 attribute. Useful for
understanding of false positives.
Activity

Simulation from Probability, Simulation of testing for HIV

HIV Simulation Health with 200 cases, 3 attributes. comparing high and low risk
Useful for Activity, Demonstration populations.

Based on “German Tanks: A

Problem in Estimation,” by
Simulation from Statistics with 200
David C. Flaspohler and Ann L.
TanksEstimators cases, 1 attribute. Useful for
Dinkheller, as it appeared in the
Activity, Demonstration
November, 1999, issue of The
Mathematics Teacher.

The rest of the files in this folder are grouped into the following subfolders:
Confidence Intervals 319
Hypothesis Testing 320

7.9.4.1 Confidence Intervals

Document name Characteristics Description

Shows a polling sample drawn

Capturing Props with CIs
from a population whose
probability of success is given
Demonstration from Statistics with by a slider. Measures are
30 cases, 1 attribute. Useful for collected using this sample to
Activity, Demonstration show the confidence intervals
over many trials and the ones
that do and don't capture the
true proportion.

319
Fathom 2 Help
ConfidenceIntervalDemo
ConfidenceIntervals
ConfIntervalDemoBinom
EstProportionAlgorithm
7.9.4.2 Hypothesis Testing
This folder contains two subfolders:
Independence 321
Non-parametric Tests 322
Document name
BobHaydensFantasy
Challenger
Compare Means Activity
CompareMeansDemo
Helps answer the question, why
Demonstration from Statistics with does the sampling distribution
function plot. Useful for Activity, centered on the sample
Demonstration proportion help you determine
the upper and lower bounds?
Simulation from Statistics with 10
Shows “capturing” of true mean
cases, 1 attribute. Useful for
by confidence intervals.
Activity, Demonstration
Helps show the reasoning for
Demonstration from Statistics with getting from a single sample to
function plot. Useful for Activity, an upper and lower confidence
Demonstration bounds for the population
proportion.
Explains Fathom’s algorithm
Demonstration from Statistics with
for computing a confidence
5 cases, 2 attributes. Useful for
interval from a binomial
Demonstration
distribution.
Characteristics Description
Demonstration from Statistics with Gives a graphical response to
1 case, 10 attributes. Useful for changes in pValues created by
Activity, Demonstration animating a slider.
Data from Space Science with 24
Contains O-ring data from
cases, 3 attributes. Useful for
Challenger flights.
Activity
Simulation from Statistics with 20 Allows manipulation of data
cases, 2 attributes. Useful for points to observe effect on
Activity, Demonstration compare means test.
Simulation from Statistics with 20 Provides an environment for
cases, 2 attributes. Useful for varying parameters involved in
Activity, Demonstration sampling to compare means.
320
 Sample Documents

Provides an environment with

Simulation from Statistics with 100 sliders for repeated generation
Difference of Means cases, 2 attributes. Useful for of samples with two groups to
Demonstration look at the distribution of
collected differences of means.

Explores how likely streaks of

Simulation from Sports with 139
various lengths are in a season
DiMaggio cases, 3 attributes. Useful for
for a player with a particular
Demonstration
batting average.

Demonstrates a method for

Demonstration from Statistics with
comparing an observed
NormalTest_with_bins 199 cases, 10 attributes. Useful for
distribution with an expected
Demonstration
one.

Simulation from Statistics with 20

Uses simulation to get at the
PowerSimulation cases, 1 attribute. Useful for
meaning of power.
Activity, Demonstration

Applies a t-test to two groups of

numbers that have been
Simulation from Statistics with 20
scrambled to guarantee
Scrambled t-test cases, 2 attributes. Useful for
independence. Looks at the
Activity, Demonstration
proportion of time the test
yields a false positive.

Contains the infamous 1970

Project from History with 366
draft lottery data and serves as
US_Draft_Lottery_70_and71 cases, 7 attributes. Useful for
an example of what a student
Project
project might look like.

Shows how to compute a p-

Demonstration from Statistics with value for a Z-test and display
Z Test 25 cases, 1 attribute. Useful for the hypothetical distribution of
Activity, Demonstration sample means. Would be good
for students to build.

7.9.4.2.1 Independence

Document name Characteristics Description

Simulation from Statistics with 133 Illustrates one way to build up a

ChiSquare Schooling cases, 2 attributes. Useful for chi-square distribution using
Demonstration repeated scrambling.

321
Fathom 2 Help

Builds up a sampling
distribution for a measure of
Simulation from Statistics with 200
how different a sample is from a
ChiSquare_2x3_Sim cases, 3 attributes. Useful for
population where what is being
Demonstration
measured is a total chi square
statistic.

This is a simulation of rolling a

Simulation from Statistics with 60 die 60 times and compute chi-
ChiSquareSim cases, 1 attribute. Useful for square and then building up a
Demonstration distribution of these chi-square
values.

7.9.4.2.2 Non-parametric Tests

Document name Characteristics Description

Demonstrates how to perform a

Demonstration from Statistics with Kreskas-Wallis one-way analysis
AnovaRanks 15 cases, 3 attributes. Useful for of variance by ranks (the
Demonstration nonparametric analog of the
Analysis of Variance test).

Shows how to do a test of the

significance of rank correlation.
Demonstration from Statistics with
This test is especially useful
RankCorrelationBrief 50 cases, 2 attributes. Useful for
when, as is true for this data the
Demonstration
relationship between x and y
does not appear linear.

Demonstration from Statistics with Illustrates how to show the

RankCorrelationExample 9 cases, 5 attributes. Useful for workings of a Rank Correlation
Demonstration test with Fathom.

Demonstrates how to perform a

rank sum test for two
Demonstration from Statistics with independent samples
SumRanks 10 cases, 3 attributes. Useful for (sometimes called the Mann-
Demonstration Whitney U Test, which is the
nonparametric analog of the
Compare Means test).

7.9.5 Modeling

Document name Characteristics Description

322
 Sample Documents

Illustrates how to estimate the

Demonstration from Statistics with parameters of exponential
ExponentialGrowth 20 cases, 3 attributes. Useful for growth when you only have
Activity, Demonstration least squares linear regression as
your tool.

Asks the question “Do housing

prices in California depend on
Activity from Economics with 495
where they are more than they
CAHousingPrices cases, 5 attributes. Useful for
depend on, say, the number of
Activity
bedrooms?” and provides the
data to figure it out.

Illustrates how to estimate the

Demonstration from Statistics with parameters of exponential
ExponentialGrowth 20 cases, 3 attributes. Useful for growth when you only have
Activity, Demonstration least-squares regression as your
tool.

Provides data from 1917 to

present in the breakup of ice on
Project from Environment with 41 the Nenana River in Nenana,
Nenana_Ice_Classic cases, 11 attributes. Useful for Alaska. The problem is to
Project develop a good model for
predicting the next year’s
breakup.

Models the line in an ice cream

Simulation from Probability with
shop with one server. Uses
Queuing Simulation 400 cases, 5 attributes. Useful for
collecting measures to gather
Activity, Demonstration
data.

Demonstration from Trigonometry

A neat way of finding the
Swing trig with 95 cases, 5 attributes. Useful
frequency of periodic data.
for Demonstration

Activity from Statistics, Computer Time (in seconds) required to

Time_to_invert_matrix Science with 60 cases, 2 attributes. invert several random matrices
Useful for Activity, Project using the Gauss-Jordan method.

7.9.6 Sampling

Document name Characteristics Description

323
Fathom 2 Help

Provides a population that is

Demonstration from Statistics with non-normal and the ability to
CentralLimitTheorem 10 cases, 1 attribute. Useful for sample from it and observe the
Activity, Demonstration sampling distribution’s
approach to normal.

Demonstration of how to use a

Demonstration from Statistics with
measures collection to collect
CollectingMeasuresDemo 10 cases, 1 attribute. Useful for
values while a slider value is
Learning Fathom
changing.

Shows how one can draw

samples of randomly
Demonstration from Statistics with
determined sizes. In this case,
PoissonDistSampleSizes 11 cases, 0 attributes. Useful for
the sample sizes are chosen
Learning Fathom
from a Poisson distribution with
mean lambda.

Illustrates how repeatedly taking

a poll from a population will
Demonstration from Statistics with
build up a distribution of
Polling Simulation 20 cases, 1 attribute. Useful for
proportions that closely
Demonstration
matches the prediction made
using binomial probabilities.

Demonstration from Statistics with

Shows how to randomly choose
Sample Until_withSlider 1 case with 1 attribute. Useful for
a sample size.
Learning Fathom

Demonstration from Statistics with Provides a method for

SampleSizes with slider 1 case with 1 attribute. Useful for controlling sample size with a
Learning Fathom slider.

Shows the distribution of values

Demonstration from Statistics with
drawn from a population for
SampleSizes 1400 cases, 2 attributes. Useful for
three slider-controlled sample
Learning Fathom
sizes.

Simulation from Statistics with 3 Compares the distribution of

Small Sample cases, 1 attribute. Useful for means with the distribution of t-
Activity, Demonstration values for a small sample.

Simulation from Statistics with Demonstrates one way to do

Stratified sampling 1000 cases, 2 attributes. Useful for stratified sampling, using an
Learning Fathom “over-sampling” technique.

324
 Sample Documents

Compares the sampling

Simulation from Statistics with 100 distribution of means using
Stratified vs Simple cases, 10 attributes. Useful for simple random sampling
Demonstration compared with that of stratified
sampling.

Compares the sampling

Simulation from Statistics with 100 distribution of means using
StratifiedV2 cases, 2 attributes. Useful for simple random sampling
Demonstration compared with that of stratified
sampling.

Working with samples of size 3,

Simulation from Statistics with 1 shows that the sampling
TorZ case, 1 attribute. Useful for distribution of the t-statistic is a
Demonstration t-distribution, not a normal
distribution.

7.10 Teaching Math with Fathom

The documents in this section are referenced in the book Teaching Mathematics with Fathom. This book
is part of the instructor and professional Fathom packages. The documents are grouped into the
following folders:
Algebra 1 325
Algebra 2 326
Precalc and Calculus 326
Statistics 327

7.10.1 Algebra 1

Document name Characteristics Description

Data from Biology with 62 cases, From Teaching Math with

Mammals
11 attributes. Useful for Activity Fathom

Data from Geography with 28

From Teaching Math with
OceanTrain cases, 4 attributes. Useful for
Fathom
Activity

Data from Sports with 25 cases, 21 From Teaching Math with

Olympics
attributes. Useful for Activity Fathom

Data from Algebra with 17 cases, 2 From Teaching Math with

SlopeIntercept
attributes. Useful for Activity Fathom

325
Fathom 2 Help

Data from Algebra with 17 cases, 5 From Teaching Math with

SlopeInterceptPREMADE
attributes. Useful for Activity Fathom

7.10.2 Algebra 2

Document name Characteristics Description

Simulation from Algebra with 37

From Teaching Math with
CompoundInterest cases, 6 attributes. Useful for
Fathom
Activity

Activity from Algebra with 17

From Teaching Math with
FunctionTransformations cases, 2 attributes. Useful for
Fathom
Activity

Activity from Algebra with 17

From Teaching Math with
FuncTransformPRE cases, 8 attributes. Useful for
Fathom
Activity

Data from Algebra with 51 cases, 8 From Teaching Math with

GlobalCarbon2000
attributes. Useful for Activity Fathom

Data from Algebra with 9 cases, 2 From Teaching Math with

HowMuchPaper
attributes. Useful for Activity Fathom

Data from Algebra with 552 cases, From Teaching Math with
MaunaLoa2003
3 attributes. Useful for Activity Fathom

Data from Algebra with 12 cases, 4 From Teaching Math with

MooresLaw2004
attributes. Useful for Activity Fathom

Data from Algebra with 7 cases, 2 From Teaching Math with

PrintingParagraphs
attributes. Useful for Activity Fathom

Data from Algebra with 510 cases, From Teaching Math with
RegionCarbon2000
9 attributes. Useful for Activity Fathom

7.10.3 Precalc and Calculus

Document name Characteristics Description

Data from Calculus with 90 cases, From Teaching Math with

JupiterMoons
10 attributes. Useful for Activity Fathom

326
 Sample Documents

Activity from Calculus with 0

From Teaching Math with
PopulationGrowth cases, 3 attributes. Useful for
Fathom
Activity

Activity from Calculus with 0

From Teaching Math with
RatesOfChange cases, 4 attributes. Useful for
Fathom
Activity

7.10.4 Statistics

Document name Characteristics Description

Data from Calculus with 500 cases, From Teaching Math with
CensusTex
8 attributes. Useful for Activity Fathom

Data from Statistics with 52 cases, From Teaching Math with

DeckOfCards
4 attributes. Useful for Activity Fathom

Data from Statistics with 14 cases, From Teaching Math with

OrbEx
2 attributes. Useful for Activity Fathom

Data from Statistics with 648 cases, From Teaching Math with
PocketPennies
1 attribute. Useful for Activity Fathom

Activity from Statistics with 6

From Teaching Math with
RollingDice cases, 1 attribute. Useful for
Fathom
Activity

7.11 Walkthrough Guide Starters

Document name Characteristics Description

Activity from Demography with

To be used with the
CensusDemo 500 cases, 6 attributes. Useful for
Walkthrough Guide.
Learning Fathom

Activity from Astronomy with 9

To be used with the
PlanetsDemo cases, 10 attributes. Useful for
Walkthrough Guide.
Learning Fathom

Activity from Probability with 2

To be used with the
RollingDiceDemo cases, 1 attribute. Useful for
Walkthrough Guide.
Learning Fathom

327
Fathom 2 Help

8 An Overview of Fathom
This section of Fathom Help is for those who want to understand how Fathom fits together. You won’t
learn much that’s immediately practical, but reading this section will help you get better at figuring things
out.
Fathom presents a simple interface to the beginning user: ten objects on a shelf and seven menus. You
can get started quickly and go far just by dragging attributes from a case table to a graph. But beneath
this simple surface lies enormous possibility for embellishing graphs with lines and functions, building
probability simulations, doing statistical inference via resampling techniques, constructing
parameterized mathematical models, and much more. As your interests in and capabilities with data
analysis and mathematics grow, Fathom will keep pace with you, allowing you to tap into undiscovered
features and ways of accomplishing things.
Subsections
Where Are the Data? 328
Cases 329
Attributes 330
Measures 333
Objects and Windows 333
Collections 334
Case Tables 334
Graphs 335
Summary Tables 335
Inspectors 336
Formulas and the Formula Editor 338
Sliders 339
Derived Collections 340
Statistical Objects 341
Documenting Your Work with Text Objects and Pictures 342

8.1 Where Are the Data?

Data are stored in a collection. A collection contains cases. Cases have attributes. Attributes have
values, usually different values for each case. Attributes can also have units or category sets.
By way of example, suppose you have conducted a survey. The results of your survey are stored in a
collection. Each case in the collection represents one person who filled out the survey. The cases have
attributes corresponding to the questions on the survey: sex, height, age, favorite color, and so forth. The
values of these attributes vary from case to case; one person is “male” and the next “female,” one
person’s height is 165 cm, and another’s is 170 cm, and so on. The attribute height has the unit
centimeters; and the attribute sex has a category set {male, female} that defines its valid values.

A closed (iconified) collection appears as a

box of gold balls.

328
 An Overview of Fathom

People Rerandomize
An open collection displays each case as a
gold ball. (You can change the placement
and appearance of the cases. See Change a person a person a person
the Appearance of Cases in a Collection
106 .)
a person a person a person

In a case table, each row represents one case, and each People
column represents one attribute.
se x height age favC olor
In a dot plot, each dot represents one case, and attributes 1 female 160 cm 17 y black
appear on axes. 2 female 171 cm 16 y red
To decide how to structure your data, ask “What does a case 3 male 172 cm 18 y orange
represent?” For example, if you are recording people’s height 4 male 163 cm 16 y orange
and sex, you’ll want to make each case a person with two
5 female 166 cm 16 y red
attributes: height and sex. Although you could record male
heights in one attribute and female heights in another 6 male 175 cm 17 y black
attribute, a case would then consist of a pair of heights;
however, this pairing would be arbitrary and would get in the
way as you analyze the data.

See Work with Collections 79 .

8.2 Cases
Without cases, there are no data. Sometimes you will encounter cases referred to as records, or even rows
(in a spreadsheet). The range of possibilities for what a case represents is vast: a planet, a car, an element,
an experiment, a set of measurements, a child, a race, a baseball player, a roll of five dice, a poker hand, a
country, a crime, the weather at a particular place and time, a purchase, a song, a family, a building.

It is essential to understand the difference between situations in which you have information about each
case and situations in which you only have summary information. Often these two kinds of data are
referred to as raw data and summary data. Fathom works well with raw data because it allows you to
explore that data and to look for relationships. Fathom does not work well if all you have is summary
data because the interesting work of deciding what to look at has already been done by the person who
created the summary.

The distinction between raw data (or microdata) and summary States
data is not necessarily clear cut. The table shows summary data
State Population Prisoners < ne w>
for each state: its population and the number of prisoners. You
could think of each person in the country as a case and realize 1 Alabama 4040587 19109
that you don’t have the raw data. But you could also consider 2 Alaska 550043 2694
each state as a case, and realize that you can do an interesting 3 Arizona 3665228 21873
analysis of the relationship between a state’s population and the 4 Arkansas 2350725 8699
number of prisoners it has.
5 California 29760021 177949
6 Colorado 3294394 13181

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8.3 Attributes
Attributes describe the cases in a collection. Database mavens often call attributes fields; many
statisticians call them variables. (Fathom chooses “attribute” over “variable” to avoid confusion with the
mathematical meaning of variable.) Other, less commonly used terms are property, descriptor, and
quality.

Attributes are always of cases. In Fathom, just as you can’t have a case without a collection in which it can
live, you can’t have an attribute without a collection whose cases you want to describe. Some examples of
attributes include name (of an animal), population (of a city), speed (of a car), color (of a dress), and playingTime
(of a song).
8.3.1 Tips for Naming Attributes
Attribute names appear in formulas, and this fact places restrictions on their names. Each attribute in a
collection must have a valid, unique name. (Otherwise a formula referring to an attribute would be
ambiguous.) Valid attribute names contain only letters, underscores, and numbers; they cannot begin with
a number. No spaces or other characters are allowed. These restrictions are required for editing of
formulas to work properly.

Examples of invalid attribute names are: Person’s name (both apostrophe and space are not allowed),
IsMarried? (question mark not allowed), and 2ndYearHeight (cannot begin with a number). If you attempt
to give an attribute an invalid name, Fathom alerts you to the problem and attempts to make the name
valid by stripping out invalid characters.

To get numbers in an attribute name, put the number last or in the middle, rather than first. Instead of
1stDrop and 2ndDrop, use drop1 and drop2. When you need several words in an attribute name, separate the
words with an underscore character, or capitalize the first character in each word. Examples:
income_after_taxes or HeightBefore.
8.3.2 Values
An attribute of a given case has a value. Examples: The value of the number_of_siblings attribute for this
person is 3; the value of the diameter attribute for this wheel is 7.5 cm; the value of the color attribute for
this car is “cinnamon”. Some values are numeric, and these are either pure numbers or numbers with
units (quantities). Other values are non-numeric, or categorical.

A value can be missing. Fathom displays these values in case tables or inspectors as an empty cell with a
light yellow background. Normally, when a quantity is computed based on an attribute, the missing values
are simply not part of the computation. Likewise, a case that has a missing value for a graphed attribute
will not appear in the graph. There is no warning that some values are missing.
8.3.3 Numeric vs. Categorical Attributes
Fathom makes a fundamental distinction between attributes whose values are all numeric and attributes
that have one or more non-numeric values. The type of attribute determines how it can be graphed and
what statistics can be computed from it. For example, categorical attributes yield counts and proportions
but not means, medians, or ranges.

Most of the time, Fathom’s treatment of attributes will be what you want. But when it is not, you can

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override the default, as shown below.

Cars Bar Chart
Dot Plot 12
Cars
8
4

1997

2000

2002
1995
1996

1999

2001

2003
2004
Ye ar
1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 count  
Ye ar To force Year to be treated as categorical, hold
Year is being treated as numeric. down the Shift key when dropping the attribute on
the graph axis.

Cars Dot Plot

Cars Bar Chart

16
12
8
4 0 1 2
3 4 5 6 7 8
Pas s e nge r s
2 4 5 6 7 >7
mean  ? isNumber    = 5.19149
Pas s e nge r s
count  
To force Passengers to be treated as numeric, hold
down Ctrl (Win) Option (Mac) when dropping the
Passengers is being treated as categorical because of
attribute on the graph axis. Note that to get the
the presence of the “>7” values.
formula to compute the mean properly, the mean
has to be filtered with isNumber().

8.3.4 Attributes with Units

People
Numeric attributes may or may not have units. If an attribute
se x height age favC olor
has a unit such as meters, you can enter values using any
distance unit from millimeters to light-years, and they will be units centimeters years
converted to meters. You can change the units of an attribute 1 female 160 cm 17 y black
to a different commensurate unit, and all its values will display 2 female 171 cm 16 y red
with the new unit. But if you change the unit to something 3 male 172 cm 3 ft orange
incommensurate (e.g., meters to years), all the values will
4 male 163 cm 16 y orange
become invalid.
5 female 166 cm 16 y red

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If the value for an attribute for a particular case has an

incommensurate unit, that value will be marked as invalid and
will not be plotted in graphs. (see the value for age for case 3 at
right.)

Numeric values without units are just numbers. Numeric

values with units are quantities and are profoundly different
from numbers. For example, 2 + 2 = 4, but 2 meters + 2 feet
= 2.6096 meters. Using units with your data can really help
you understand what the data mean, but the presence of units
also makes Fathom a lot pickier (e.g., refusing to graph two
attributes on the same axis because their units are
incommensurate).

Among the units that Fathom knows about are some

important physical constants that you can use as units, such as
Earth masses (1 Earth mass = 5.9742 x 10^24 kg) or electron
charges (1 electron charge = 1.602176462 x 10^-19 Coulomb).

See Manage Units in a Case Table 77 , Manage Units in the Collection’s Inspector 92 , or Units 435 .
8.3.5 Attributes with Category Sets
Categorical attributes can’t have units, but they can have
category sets assigned to them. A category set defines the valid
values that such an attribute can have. The bar chart at right, for
example, shows that the valid values of Race are “Asian”,
“Black”, “Latino”, and “White”. The bar chart leaves a place for
“Latino” even though there are no people of that race in the
collection. The bar chart also lumps all the values that are not in
the category set into a single “<invalid>” group. Using category
sets can be very helpful, and sometimes absolutely necessary, but
you can go a long way in Fathom without them.

When an attribute has a category set assigned to it, Fathom will treat it as a categorical attribute whether
or not it has any non-numeric values. The attribute for year in the U.S. census microdata, for example, is
automatically assigned a category set. That way, year can be used as a splitting attribute. Plotting year
versus income will give you, not a scatter plot, but a split dot plot.

Assigning a category set to an attribute also ensures that the data, when plotted on a graph or put in a
summary table, will be arranged by the order defined in the category set, rather than alphabetically.

See Control Behavior of Categorical Attributes Using Category Sets 99 .

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8.4 Measures
You can think of a measure as a kind of attribute, but instead of
describing a single case, it describes the collection as a whole, such
as median height, maximum income, or proportion of females.
Typically, you use it to compute something from the values of the
attributes. An example is shown here. A collection consists of two
dice with an attribute face. A measure, SumFaces, has been defined
to give the total of the faces.

To build a sampling distribution of a statistic, you first define that

statistic as a measure, which you then collect. See Define a Measure
105 , Collect Measures and Other Results 159 , and Create

Simulations 156 .

8.5 Objects and Windows

The ten icons on Fathom’s object shelf represent objects that
can be placed in a document. These objects live in the
document, will print with the document, and scroll with the
document. You cannot drag them outside the document
window. Objects have frames around them only when selected.
Some objects, when selected, have their own special menu.

At right are shown two objects—a collection and a graph. The

collection has a frame around it because it is selected.

The document itself is contained in a window, as is the

inspector and any objects that you have chosen to View In
Window.

Windows, such as the inspector shown below, float above the document, may be positioned outside it,
and do not scroll or print with it.

You can copy a Fathom object as a picture, which you can then paste in Fathom or other applications;

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you cannot copy a window (you need a screen-capture program to get pictures of an inspector or formula
editor).

8.6 Collections
In Fathom, collections hold the data; tables and graphs help you view the data. Delete a table or graph,
and the data are still there. Delete a collection, and the data are gone.

An empty, iconified collection is an empty box.

Collection 1

When a collection has cases in it, its icon is a box of gold balls.
You can copy cases from one collection and paste them in another. Your
document can have any number of collections in it. measurements

When you Take a Sample 157 from a collection, the sample cases get put in another
collection. Sample of People

When you Collect Measures 159 , from a collection, the measures get put in another
collection. Similarly, when you Stack Attributes 384 , or Scramble Attribute Values
383 , you get new Derived Collections 340 .

When you Create a Survey 139 by adding questions to a collection, you get a survey
collection.

When you Create an Experiment 151 by attaching a meter to a collection, you get an
experiment collection.

8.7 Case Tables

Elements
The case table presents the familiar tabular view of data. Each
Name Symbol Number State
case appears as a row; each attribute as a column. You can
enter and edit data quickly in a case table as well as add new 1 Actinium Ac 89 solid
attributes. 2 Aluminum Al 13 solid

You can also Rename an Attribute in a Case Table 69 , 3 Americium Am 95 unstable

Rearrange Attributes in a Case Table 74 by dragging them, 4 Antimony Sb 51 solid
resize columns by dragging or double-clicking their borders, 5 Argon Ar 18 gas
Sort Data, and Hide/Show Attributes 75 to make your table 6 Arsenic As 33 solid
less crowded. Although you can change data through a case
7 Astatine At 85 solid
table, it is only one view of the data. If you delete the case
table, the data are still present in the collection. 8 Barium Ba 56 solid
9 Berkelium Bk 97 unstable
See appropriate topics in Work with Case Tables , such as
65

Make a New Case Table 66 or Work with Formulas in a Case

Table 72 .

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8.8 Graphs
Fathom also lets you view data graphically. The graph object
supports various kinds of charts and plots (see Graphs Available
in Fathom 342 ). You tell Fathom what to graph by dragging
attribute names to an axis of the graph (see Beginner Graphing
31 ). You specify the graph type by choosing from a menu in the

corner of the graph object.

The configuration of attributes determines what kinds of graphs

are available. For example, if you put age on an axis and leave the
other axis blank, you can get a box plot or a histogram—
because age is a numeric attribute. But if you put sex on that
same axis, you can’t get a histogram—because sex is categorical.
You get a bar chart instead.
You can also add things such as functions to graphs (see Add
Lines and Functions to Graphs 48 ). Functions can be anything
you can express with a formula (see Fathom Operators,
Functions, and Units 413 ) as well as the more familiar lines, such
as least-squares linear regression lines or median-median lines.

It is frequently possible to place more than one attribute on an

axis (Add Another Attribute to an Already Occupied Axis 35 ),
and an attribute dropped in the middle of a graph usually
produces a legend and changes the color or shape of the plotted
points.

In graphs of numeric attributes, you can change the data by

dragging (unless the data are locked). For example, you can drag
points in a scatter plot to see how the dragging affects a least-
squares line. (see Drag Data in a Graph 39 and Prevent Data
from Being Changed in Graphs 104 .)

See Work with Graphs 33 .

8.9 Summary Tables

While graphs provide the most natural tools for exploring
data, there are certainly times when you need to know one or
more numerical results. Summary tables are a very flexible
tool for organizing the numbers.
You can add attributes to both the rows and the columns of a
summary table. This summary table has two numeric
attributes as the rows and a single categorical attribute as a
column. You can’t mix categorical and numeric attributes in
the rows or columns. See Add or Remove a Summary Table’s
Attributes 110 .

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Formulas appear below a summary table, and each cell of the table contains the results of those formulas
for the cases that belong to that cell. You can add any number of formulas (see Add Formula 401 ). A
menu command lets you quickly Add Basic Statistics 402 or Add Five-Number Summary 402 .
You can sort rows and columns in a summary table (Sort no data
Categories in a Summary Table 112 ), and you can extract a Drop an attribute here
summary table’s computed values into a collection, with one
1.5707963
case for each cell in the summary table, attributes that
0.13418032
describe the cell’s location, and one attribute for each formula 0.5
(Create a Collection from the Cells of a Summary Table 161 ). 
S1 =
2
You can use a summary table as a calculator by adding a S2 = binomialProbability  10 ,21,0.4

formula to it to do your calculation. You can link a collection S3 = binomialCumulative  10 ,21

to a summary table (by dragging the collection name to the

summary table) and construct formulas that refer to attributes
and measures in that collection.

This summary table is being used as a calculator to calculate some values needed in the course of an
investigation.

8.10 Inspectors
When you double-click a collection, its inspector appears as a
separate window floating above the document. The inspector
shows you the names of the case attributes and allows you to
step through the collection one case at a time. There is a lot
you can do in an inspector, such as edit the values; add, delete,
and rename attributes; add, delete, and rename measures;
create and edit the collection’s comments; change how the
cases look; control the size of a sample; and turn sampling
animation on or off.

Some other objects, such as graphs and sliders, have inspectors

as well. Only one inspector appears on your screen at a time.

An inspector has panels, with each giving you control over a related set of characteristics of the object
you are inspecting. The tabs at the top of the inspector let you select the panel to work in. The panels that
are available in a given inspector depend on the state of the object being inspected. Following is a list of
panels that you may encounter in Fathom, with a brief description of their purpose and a link to a more
complete description of that panel’s functionality.

This panel looks at individual cases in a collection and gives you control over case
Cases Panel
attributes.

Measures Panel
This panel gives you the ability to define measures (see Define a Measure 105 ) for a
collection.
Comments Each collection has a Comments panel that you can use to describe the collection’s
Panel origin and purpose.

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 An Overview of Fathom

In addition to attributes that you define, cases in a collection always have a set of
attributes that control how they are displayed in an open collection. You can use
Display Panel
these attributes to change the position, size, image, and caption of the cases
formulaically (see Change the Appearance of Cases in a Collection 106 ).
A category set can be assigned to one or more attributes to define the valid values
for those attributes (see Attributes with Category Sets 332 ). In the Categories
Categories
panel, you can see the list of currently defined category sets and edit the categories
Panel
and their order (see Control Behavior of Categorical Attributes Using Category Sets
99 ).

Import URL When you import data from a website or from a file, the Import panel allows you
Panel to go back to that location and re-import the data.
When you import census microdata from the IPUMS site, use this panel to specify
which cases to get and which attributes the cases should have. The panel sticks with
Microdata Panel
the collection to help make it easy to go back and modify your request (see Import
U.S. Census Microdata from IPUMS 30 ).
Sampling cases from a collection creates a sample collection whose inspector has a
Sample Panel panel that gives you control over the sampling process (see Sampling Simulations
157 ).

Collecting measures from a collection creates a measures collection whose inspector

Collect
has a panel that gives you control over the collecting process (see Collect Measures
Measures Panel
and Other Results 159 ).
When you create a survey, this panel allows you to write questions for attributes, to
collect data. If you have a Fathom Surveys Account 146 , you can upload the
Survey Panel
questions to the Fathom Surveys website. You can download the survey responses
from the website into your Fathom collection as data (see Work with Surveys) 136 .
When you create an experiment, this panel allows you to decide collection
Experiment
parameters, triggers for starting the experiment, and when to turn the experiment
Panel
on or off (see Set Up an Experiment 154 ).
Scrambling the attribute values in a collection creates a new collection whose
Scramble Panel inspector has a panel that lets you specify which attribute should be the one whose
values are scrambled (see Use Scrambling to Test for Independence 162 ).
The inspector of a collection that is made by stacking the attributes of another
Stack Panel collection has a panel that allows you to assign your own names to the group and
value attributes in the stacked collection.
A graph’s inspector has a panel that gives you control over many of the details of
Graph
the graph’s layout, such as the axis bounds, the width of a histogram’s bins, and
Properties Panel
whether Fathom will automatically rescale an axis to include all the data.
A graph's inspector has a Cases panel that shows the error bar lengths and the
Graph Cases
point size, as well as the attributes of the cases. You can change these values using a
Panel
formula or by assigning a constant numeric value.
A slider’s inspector has a Properties panel that gives you control over such things
Slider
as how fast the slider animates, the slider axis bounds, and the formula for the
Properties Panel
slider value.

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Fathom 2 Help

Meter Properties A meter’s inspector has a Properties panel that gives you control over the name
Panel and the meter axis bounds
The inspector for a multiple regression model object has a Cases panel that
Multiple includes the attributes for the source collection and attributes derived by the
Regression
regression model (such as predicted values and residuals), making them available
Cases Panel
for looking at in graphs and summary tables (see Multiple Regression 203 ).

8.11 Formulas and the Formula Editor

Formulas are everywhere in Fathom. They are the driving force of Fathom. You can use formulas as
filters to tell which cases you want to see, and you can use them to compute values (including random
values) for attributes. You can use formulas to devise statistical measures and to plot formulas as
functions against a backdrop of points in a scatter plot. You write formulas in the formula editor. The
formula editor is a modal window, which means that you can’t go on to do anything else in Fathom until
you’ve closed it. The formula editor supports an array of functions, from trig functions to statistical
distributions to conditionals such as if() and switch(). They are all listed in the attribute and function list,
which is a pane at the right of the formula editor. Double-click an item in the list to enter it into the
formula pane above. You can also enter the item by typing. Select an item to see a description in the help
pane. The formula editor displays the names of functions, attributes, measures, and units in special colors.
If you type an attribute name or function and it remains black, you probably misspelled it.

The formula editor has four main parts: the formula pane (where you actually put the formula, which tells
Fathom what you want to do), an onscreen keypad (simply click a button to put that character into the
formula pane), a list pane (from which you can double-click to input functions, attributes, and other
things into the formula), and a help pane (which provides brief help on whatever is selected in the list
pane).
The questions and links below explore further uses of formula editors.

How do I:

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 plot values and functions on graphs? See Add Lines and Functions to Graphs 48 .
 generate random values for an attribute? See Generate Random Values 94 .
 transform the values of an attribute? See Define an Attribute by Formula Using the
Collection’s Inspector 93 .
 recode an attribute so that numeric codes become meaningful names? See Recode Numeric
Values to Categories 132 .
 restrict the cases displayed in a graph to a subset of those in the collection? See Filter a Graph
61 .

 change the computations done in a summary table? See Add or Remove a Summary Table’s
Formulas 111 .
 change the heights of the bars in a bar chart to be something other than proportional to the
count? See Change Bar Charts to Reflect a Function Other Than Count 64 .
 build a sampling distribution? See Collect Measures and Other Results 159 .
 change the look of the gold balls in an open collection to reflect the actual data belonging to
each case? See Change the Appearance of Cases in a Collection 106 .
 stop the sampling process when some condition is met, for example, a “run” of three heads?
See Make a Coin-Flip Simulation 166 .
 use a slider to continuously vary the sample count in a hypothesis test, such as test mean? See
Use Sliders to Vary Summary Information in a Statistical Object 173 .
 use a formula to set start conditions for an experiment? See Start Based on Conditions 155 .

8.12 Sliders
Sliders provide parameters or named numbers, in a document. You can refer to a slider value by name in
any formula in a document. The beauty of referring to a number by name is that when you decide to ask
what would happen if the number were different, you need only type in a new value or drag the slider’s
“thumb,” and you can instantly and dynamically see the effect of the change on everything in the
document that depends on it.

Sliders are commonly used as parameters to models, for example, the coefficient of a term in an equation
being fit to a set of data or the rate at which customers arrive in a queuing simulation.

Sliders have their own inspector that gives you control over quite a number of properties. Especially
powerful is the ability to compute the slider’s value with a formula. Unlike other formulas in Fathom,
slider formulas can refer to the slider itself, so that each time the formula recomputes (for example, when
the slider animates), the value changes based on the previous value. By dropping the name of a collection
on a slider, you can even compute things based on the attributes and measures in the collection.

See Work with Dynamic Parameters (Sliders) 113 and Slider Properties Panel 365 .

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8.13 Meters
Meters provide an interface to external or internal sensors. You can refer to a meter value by name in any
formula in a document.

Meters are commonly used as input to experiments. You can use meters to measure the atmospheric
pressure at the time a certain liquid reaches its boiling point or the time when a car passed in front of the
window in a traffic simulation.

Meters have their own inspector, which gives you control over the name and the axis.

See Work with Meters 151 and Meter Properties Panel 366 .

8.14 Derived Collections

Some of Fathom’s collections automatically fill with data, according to rules you specify. These are called
derived collections, and there are several kinds. The two most important are sample and measures
collections. A sample collection is just what it sounds like: a collection that is a sample of some other
collection, called its source. Select the source and choose Sample Cases from the Collection menu.
The sample collection appears. Control how many cases it samples and whether it samples with or
without replacement in its inspector.

The measures collection is the key to simulation and analysis. It converts measures into case attributes, so
you can record statistics (measures) about your collections. (It’s a bit tricky and is best understood after
you’ve tried it.) Suppose you have a collection with five (randomly generated) dice in it and a measure, or
total, that contains their sum. If you collect measures from that source collection, the measures
collection can record the total as a case. If you tell the measures collection to collect 100 measures, it will
instruct the dice to reroll 100 times, it will compute each total, and it will record those 100 values. See
Create Simulations 156 .
Dice Measures from Dice
face < ne w> total < ne w>
= randomPick  1 ,2,3,4,5,6 1 16
1 2 2 20
2 3 3 17
3 2 4 15
4 1 5 20
5 6 6 21
7 13
8 19
In addition to sample and measures collections, several other derived collections come in handy. A
scrambled collection reorders the values of one of the source collection’s attributes, allowing simulations of
situations in which the values of two attributes are guaranteed to be independent. A cells collection is
generated from a summary table: It has one case for each cell in the table and one attribute for each
formula. A results collection is like a measures collection, except that it treats a statistical object as the source
of its measures.

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8.15 Statistical Objects

When you want Fathom to compute something statistical, you
can use a statistical object. There are three kinds of such objects:
estimates, tests, and models.
Use an estimate to compute a confidence interval for some
population parameter when all you have is a sample from that
data. In the example at right, we have a sample of 1000 voters,
and we want to find a confidence interval for the proportion of
“yes” votes in the population.

This example shows the verbose mode for statistical objects, in

which the results are explained in full sentences that draw
attention to the underlying meaning of the numbers. Most
statistical objects can be used either with summary statistics, as
shown here, or with raw data from which Fathom computes
the summary statistics.
Use a test when you have some data from a sample or an experiment and you want to know whether the
result is statistically significant; that is, how different is the result from what you might get by chance and
is that difference enough for you to make a decision based on it?
In the example at right, some historical data gathered by Charles
Darwin is fodder for a t-test to decide how statistically
significant the mean difference in heights between two groups
of plants is.

Here Fathom’s nonverbose mode is used so that the output is

similar to what you get with a standard statistical package. The
final kind of statistical object is a linear model, which can be used
to build either a simple or multiple linear regression model.

As good as these statistical objects are at getting the job done

when you need some inferential calculations, Fathom only
includes the most basic statistical capabilities. You can use
simulation to accomplish a wide range of statistical calculation
at the cost of some time and with the benefit of getting deeper
insight into how statistical inference works.
(see Collect Measures and Other Results 159 .)
Because statistical objects can be directly driven by formulas (see Use Sliders to Vary Summary
Information in a Statistical Object 173 ) and can derive their data from collections whose cases are
generated randomly, they fit right into Fathom’s simulation environment. You can even collect
measures from a statistical object (see Collect Results from Statistical Objects 161 ) and build distributions
of p-values, slopes, confidence intervals, or anything else that appears in a statistical object.

See Work with Statistical Objects 171 .

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8.16 Documenting Your Work with Text Objects and Pictures

It’s all too easy to forget your train of reasoning during an
exploration, and that’s one reason Fathom has a full-featured
text object (see Work with Text in Text Objects 213 ). The
example here shows the beginnings of a journal kept in
Fathom about an investigation of track-and-field records. My Data Journal

You can also paste pictures directly into Fathom. You could, Friday afternoon
for example, take a digital picture of the apparatus you used in I looked for data about track records on the internet
an experiment and put the picture in with the graphs of your and found things back to the early 1900's.
data. The most useful graphs I could make showed trends
over time.
If you write up your work in a word processing or
presentation program, copy Fathom objects as pictures and
paste them into your document. See Share Your Results:
Presenting and Printing Fathom Results 211 .

9 Reference
This section of Fathom Help provides comprehensive information about important aspects of Fathom’s
interface.

Subsections
Graphs Available in Fathom 342
Inspector Panels 353
Fathom Menus 367
Fathom Operators, Functions, and Units 413
Keyboard Shortcuts 441

9.1 Graphs Available in Fathom

What graphs are available to you depends on what kinds of attributes you have and where you drop them.
Fathom’s attributes are either numeric or categorical.

You can drop attributes on the horizontal or vertical axes or in the plot area. Switch among the available
graph types by using the pop-up menu in the graph.

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 Reference

Subsections
Graphs with Numeric Attributes on One Axis 343
Graphs with Categorical Attributes on One Axis 347
Graphs with Categorical Attributes on Both Axes 350
Graphs with Numeric Attributes on Both Axes 351

9.1.1 Graphs with Numeric Attributes on One Axis

You make each of these graphs by putting at least one numeric attribute on one axis and, if necessary,
changing the graph type using the graph’s pop-up menu. Each graph can be split by putting a categorical
attribute on the other axis or by adding more numeric attributes to the same axis.

See also
Dot Plot 343
Line Plot 344
Histogram 345
Ntigram 345
Box Plot 346
Percentile Plot 346
Normal Quantile Plot 347
Add Another Attribute to an Already Occupied Axis 35

9.1.1.1 Dot Plot

In a dot plot, there is one point for each case.
 Drop a numeric attribute on an empty graph (or replace a categorical attribute with a numeric).

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The dots are stacked by default. You can unstack the dots by unchecking Graph | Stack Dots. This
aligns the dots in one line to better get an idea of sum of squares from a given value.
Split a dot plot by adding one or more numeric attributes to the same axis or by dropping a categorical
attribute on the other axis.

9.1.1.2 Line Plot

In a line plot, there is one point for each case. Points are plotted in case order and connected by lines.
This kind of plot is good for time series: You typically put the attribute on the vertical axis.
 Drop a numeric attribute on an axis and choose Line Plot from the graph’s pop-up menu.

You can add attributes to the vertical axis.

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9.1.1.3 Histogram
In a histogram, cases are grouped into bins of equal width. A rectangle represents each bin, showing how
many cases are in it. Control the width of the bins by dragging a bin edge or using the graph’s inspector.
 Drop a numeric attribute on an axis and choose Histogram from the graph’s pop-up menu.
You can change the vertical axis scale by choosing Frequency (the default), Relative Frequency,
Relative Percentage, or Density from the Graph | Scale menu.

Split a histogram either by adding numeric attributes to the same axis or by dropping a categorical
attribute on the other axis.

9.1.1.4 Ntigram
In an ntigram, cases are grouped into bins of equal population. The height of the corresponding
rectangle is proportional to the density of cases in the bin. You can control the population in each bin by
dragging on the bin edge or by using the graph’s inspector.
 Drop a numeric attribute on an axis and choose Ntigram from the graph’s pop-up menu.

Split an ntigram either by adding numeric attributes to the same axis or by dropping a categorical attribute
on the other axis.

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9.1.1.5 Box Plot

In a box plot, a box extends from the 25th to the 75th

percentile and is cut by a line at the median. “Whiskers”
extend out from each end of the box, either 1.5 times the
interquartile range or to the end of the data, whichever comes
first. Points beyond the whiskers are plotted individually as
outliers.

 Drop a numeric attribute on an axis and choose Box Plot from the graph’s pop-up menu.
Split a box plot by adding more numeric attributes to the same axis or by dropping a categorical attribute
on the other axis.

9.1.1.6 Percentile Plot

In a percentile plot, cases are sorted and then plotted in order;
the other axis shows the percentile of the points. In the
illustration, the graph is steepest at the lowest incomes
because that’s where the most people are; it flattens and
spreads out at the highest values, where there are fewer
people.

 Drop a numeric attribute on an axis and choose Percentile Plot from the graph’s pop-up menu.
Split a percentile plot by adding more numeric attributes to the same axis or by dropping a categorical
attribute on the other axis.

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9.1.1.7 Normal Quantile Plot

In a normal quantile plot, data are plotted against the z-score
associated with the percentile of each case if the data were
normally distributed. Therefore, if the data are normal, the plot
should show a straight line: the greater the deviation, the less
normal the data.

The line in the plot corresponds to quantiles of a normal

distribution whose mean and standard deviation are the same
as the mean and standard deviation of the data. If you put the
attribute on the vertical axis (highly recommended), the
intercept of the line is the mean of the data, and the slope is the
standard deviation.
 Drop a numeric attribute on the vertical axis and choose Normal Quantile Plot from the graph’s pop-
up menu.
Split a normal quantile plot by adding more numeric attributes to the same axis or by dropping a
categorical attribute on the horizontal axis.

9.1.2 Graphs with Categorical Attributes on One Axis

The graphs in this section are made with categorical attributes. When you drop a categorical attribute on
an empty graph, you get a bar chart by default. Change a graph’s type to ribbon chart using the pop-up
menu in the graph object. Both graphs can then have another attribute dropped in the plot area to split

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them.

See also
Bar Chart 348
Ribbon Chart 349
Add Another Attribute to an Already Occupied Axis 35

9.1.2.1 Bar Chart

In a bar chart, there is one bar for each category, showing the population in that category.
 Drop a categorical attribute on an axis.

You can add one more categorical attribute to the axis of a bar chart to get one kind of splitting. See Add
Another Attribute to an Already Occupied Axis 35 .

Or get a different kind of splitting by dropping another categorical attribute in the plot area.

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By default, the bar chart shows the count, but you can edit the formula to have the bars represent other
values. (For example, by changing the formula to mean(age), you would make each bar’s height represent
the mean age within each marital status category.) See Change Bar Charts to Reflect a Function Other
Than Count 64 .

You can sort the bars by choosing Graph | Sort Bars. You can rearrange the bars by dragging their
labels.
9.1.2.2 Ribbon Chart
In a ribbon chart, there is a single bar (the ribbon) broken into pieces. Each piece corresponds to one
category; its size is proportional to the population. The axis shows percentages.
 Drop a categorical attribute on an axis and choose Ribbon Chart from the graph’s pop-up menu.

The developers of Fathom feel that the ribbon chart is a more useful graph than its better-known cousin,
the pie chart. People can more easily and accurately compare rectangle areas than they can the areas of pie
slices. The ribbon chart’s real power, however, comes from splitting it by dropping another categorical

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attribute in the plot area: Each band then shows proportions of the new attribute’s values.

In the above graph, you can easily see that there is a much smaller proportion of men among widowed
people (most of that strip of the ribbon is made up of women).
9.1.3 Graphs with Categorical Attributes on Both Axes
These are the graphs you can make by putting a categorical attribute on one axis and another categorical
attribute on the other.

Subsections
Split Bar Chart 350
Breakdown Plot 350

9.1.3.1 Split Bar Chart

In a split bar chart, each category in the second attribute has its own bar chart.
 Drop a categorical attribute on each axis.

9.1.3.2 Breakdown Plot

In a breakdown plot, each case is represented by a dot, placed in the “cell” representing the subgroup in
which it belongs.
 Drop a categorical attribute on each axis and choose Breakdown Plot from the graph’s pop-up menu.

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9.1.4 Graphs with Numeric Attributes on Both Axes

These are the graphs you can make when you have at least one numeric attribute on each axis of a graph.

Subsections
Scatter Plot 351
Line Scatter Plot 352
Function Plot 352

9.1.4.1 Scatter Plot

In a scatter plot, there is one point for each case at the position indicated by the values on each axis.
 Drop a numeric attribute on each axis.

You can add more numeric attributes to one of the axes or drop any attribute in the plot area.

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9.1.4.2 Line Scatter Plot

A line scatter plot is just like a scatter plot, except that the points are connected according to their order
in the collection. It’s a good graph type for time series data.
 Drop a numeric attribute on each axis and choose Line Scatter Plot from the graph’s pop-up menu.
Radiosonde Line Scatter Plot

800
600
400
200
0
920 940 960 980
pr e s s ur e

You can add attributes to one axis or drop any attribute in the plot area.
Radiosonde Line Scatter Plot Radiosonde Line Scatter Plot
800
12.0
600
11.0 400
200
10.0
0
9.0 920 940 960 980
920 940 960 980 pr e s s ur e
pr e s s ur e te m pC

tempC dew pointC 11.2 11.4 11.6 11.8 12.0

9.1.4.3 Function Plot

A function plot is a graph without any data. You can use this plot simply to graph one or more functions.
1. Make a new graph object and choose Function Plot from the graph’s pop-up menu.

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no data Empty Plot no data Function Plot

12
8
4
0
-4

-8

-8 -4 0 4 8 12
Drop an attribute here. x
2. Choose Graph | Plot Function (or Plot Value) to add a function (or vertical line). Use sliders in the
formulas to manipulate the functions dynamically. See Plot Functions on a Function Plot 54 or Plot a
Function You Can Vary Dynamically (Using a Slider) 55 .

9.2 Inspector Panels

The inspector in Fathom provides a place to find out about and control various aspects of collections,
graphs, and sliders. Some of the apparent simplicity of Fathom comes from the fact that much of the
complexity has been relegated to the inspector panel, and the interface for using these panels is relatively
simple and uniform across different objects.

In this section, we look at the panels one by one and describe their functionality in detail.

Subsections
Cases Panel 354
Measures Panel 355
Comments Panel 356
Display Panel 356
Categories Panel 357
Import URL Panel 358
Microdata Panel 358

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Sample Panel 359

Collect Measures Panel 360
Survey Panel 361
Experiment Panel 362
Scramble Panel 363
Stack Panel 363
Graph Properties Panel 364
Graph Cases Panel 365
Slider Properties Panel 365
Meter Properties Panel 366
Multiple Regression Cases Panel 366
9.2.1 Cases Panel

The Cases panel displays all the case attributes for a collection, and it displays the values for those
attributes one case at a time. Why, you ask, would you need this, given that you can use a case table to
display much more data? Here are some advantages of the Cases panel:
 A Cases panel can display all the attributes compactly. By making the inspector tall and
skinny, you can use it as a kind of attribute palette.
 An inspector floats above the document and doesn’t take up space in the document. Displayed
in a Cases panel, the attributes are always available for dragging, no matter what part of the
document you’re looking at.
 The compact display makes it easier to rearrange attribute order than it is in a case table.
Below are things that you can do in the Cases panel and how to do them.
Move from one case to the next. Click the left or right arrows at the bottom left of the panel.
Move to the next or previous Press Ctrl (Win) Option (Mac) while clicking the left or right
selected case. arrow button.
Edit a value. Click in the cell that contains the value you want to edit.
Edit an attribute’s formula. Double-click the formula cell for the attribute.
Change the width of columns. In the column header area, drag the boundary between columns.

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Change the height of rows.
Use an attribute in a graph or
summary table.
Rename an Attribute in a
Collection’s Inspector.
Add an Attribute to a Collection.
Delete an Attribute in an
Inspector.
Change the order of attributes.
Add cases to the collection.
Click the Show Details button. Select the attribute. Type the
Manage Units in the Collection’s
name of the desired unit in the Units field or change the unit that
Inspector.
is there.
Create a Category Set from
Existing Values.
Create a New Category Set and
Apply It to an Attribute.
Remove a Category Set from an
Attribute.
In the row header area, drag the boundary between rows.
Position the mouse pointer over the attribute name. Drag the
attribute from the inspector and drop it on the desired place in
the graph or summary table.
Double-click the attribute name and type a new name.
Click in the <new> cell at the bottom of the list of attributes.
Type the name of the new attribute. See Tips for Naming
Attributes 330 .
Right-click (Win) Ctrl-click (Mac) to bring up a context menu and
choose Delete Attribute.
Drag an attribute up or down, paying attention to the
highlighting that indicates where the attribute will be placed when
you release the mouse.
Right-click (Win) Ctrl-click (Mac) to bring up a context menu and
choose New Cases.
Click the Show Details button, and select the attribute. Choose
Generate from Values from the Set pop-up menu.
Click the Show Details button, and select the attribute. Choose
the name of the desired category set from the Set pop-up menu.
Click the Show Details button, and select the attribute. Choose
None from the Set pop-up menu.

9.2.2 Measures Panel

The Measures panel is where you define measures that apply to the collection as a whole. Measures have
a number of important uses.

 Define a constant you wish to use in attribute formulas.

 Compute a quantity you are interested in but don’t want to
put in a graph or summary table.
 Define intermediate values you would like to refer to by
name in attribute formulas.
 Define quantities you would like to collect in a simulation.
See Collect Measures and Other Results 159 .

Following are things that you can do in the Measures panel and how to do them.

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Create a new measure.
Change the name of a
measure.
Delete a measure.
Edit a measure’s value.
Give a measure a formula.
Edit an existing formula.
Remove the formula for a
measure.
Change column widths or
row heights.
Collect measures in a new
collection.
Click in the <new> cell in the Measure column and type the name of
the new measure. Measure names have the same restrictions that
attributes names have (see Tips for Naming Attributes 330 ). (Also see
Define a Measure 105 .)
Double-click the measure name and edit.
Right-click (Win) Ctrl-click (Mac) the measure’s name. Choose Delete
Measure from the context menu.
Click in the corresponding cell in the Value column. Note: You cannot
directly edit the value of a measure that is computed by formula.
Double-click the formula cell for the measure, and create the desired
formula in the formula editor.
Double-click the formula cell for the measure and use the formula
editor to edit the formula.
Right-click (Win) Ctrl-click (Mac) on the measure, and choose Clear
Formula from the context menu.
Drag boundaries in the column header or row header area.
Make a new, empty collection. Drag a measure name from the
inspector into the new collection. The new collection will gather five
cases whose attributes are the measures of the original collection. The
most common use of a collection’s measures is for building a sampling
distribution. See Collect Measures and Other Results 159 .

9.2.3 Comments Panel

It’s good practice to explain the purpose of your Fathom
document, the source of the data, any results, and the reasoning
behind those results. One place to provide this kind of
explanation, especially information about the origin of the data, is
in the Comments panel.

When you import data from a URL or a file, Fathom will place
text that it decides is not part of the data in the Comments
panel.

See Import Data from a Text File 81 and Import Data from the
Internet 88 .

9.2.4 Display Panel

The Display panel provides control over the way cases look in an open collection. Using these capabilities,
you can create fun, visually interesting, and illuminating displays of data. See Change the Appearance of
Cases in a Collection 106 for details.
There are six display attributes.

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 x and y determine the position of the center of the icon in

the open collection. The coordinates (0, 0) refer to the point
in the upper left of the open collection rectangle. x increases
to the right; y increases down.
 The image attribute refers to the icon that is displayed for a
case. You can only change the image by writing a formula;
that is, you can’t type the name of the image you want. The
formula editor contains a list of available icons. To bring
back the gold balls, set the formula for the icons to the
empty string (""). The cardIcon function (see Probability of a
Pair 163 ) is designed to be used in the formula for image. A
sample document, IconList, shows a complete list of
available icons with their pictures and names.
 width and height refer to the size of the rectangle in which the
icon is displayed. Although you can make the width and
height bigger than 32, picture icons will not look very good
at larger sizes
 .caption refers to the text that appears below the icon. If you make the formula the empty string (""),
there will be no caption. Choose Table | Use as Caption to change the formula for a caption to be
the name of one or more attributes. A useful function for captions is concat, which allows you to
concatenate up to ten items. For example, concat( name, " is ", age, "years old.") would produce captions
like “Stan is 16 years old.” with individual names and ages substituted for each case’s caption.

Many of the sample documents make use of Fathom’s ability to make data-driven collection displays.
9.2.5 Categories Panel
The Categories panel lists category sets and the categories
within sets. There are certain situations in which it is very
important to list the valid values for an attribute, and this panel
is the place to do it.

You can Create a New Category Set and Apply It to an

Attribute 99 or you can ask Fathom to Create a Category Set
from Existing Values 100 . (To do it by hand, click <new> in
the Set column and type the name for the new set. Then press
Tab or click in the empty Categories cell and type the
categories you want, separated by commas. To use the new
category, you must assign it to one or more attributes in the
Details pane of the Cases panel.)

Here are a few questions and answers about using this panel. See Control Behavior of Categorical
Attributes Using Category Sets 99 .
How do I change the column In the column or row header area, drag the boundary between
widths and row heights? columns or rows.
Right-click (Win) Ctrl-click (Mac) on the name of the category set
How can I delete a category
you wish to delete. Choose Delete Set, and the selected set will go
set?
away.

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You can do this by editing in the Categories column, but it is much

How do I change the order of
categories?
How do I enter a category that
has a comma in it?
Is the name of the set
important?
easier to do this with a bar chart. See Reorder Categories in a
Category Set 101 .
You can’t. Fathom will interpret the comma as a separator between
categories. Instead, you can create an attribute and give it one value
for each desired category, including categories that have commas in
them. Then use the Generate from Values command in the
Cases panel to get the set you want. See Create a Category Set
from Existing Values 100 .
No, except that each set has to have a name that is distinct from all
the other set names.

9.2.6 Import URL Panel

This panel lists a URL from which data were imported. It
allows you to import data from the URL again, giving you the
choice of whether or not the new import should replace the
existing cases.

See Import Data from the Internet 88 .

9.2.7 Microdata Panel

When you Import U.S. Census Microdata from IPUMS 30 , the
microdata collection has a panel where you can specify which
cases you want and what attributes you want them to have.

The Microdata panel has three panes: the top-left pane allows
you to choose cases and attributes to import; the top-right
pane shows the controls for the selected group; and the
bottom pane describes the current request, gives you a link to
IPUMS, tells you how many cases you have imported, and has
a button that you click to import data.
Note: You can resize the three panes by dragging the dividers
between them; and, of course, you can resize the entire
inspector window.

The details of census microdata import can be found in Import

U.S. Census Microdata from IPUMS 30 .

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9.2.8 Sample Panel

When you sample cases from a collection,

the sampled cases go into a new
collection, and that new collection has a
Sample panel. The default sample
consists of ten cases chosen with
replacement, and animation is turned on
so that gold balls float across the screen
from the source of the sample to the
sample itself. See Sampling Simulations
157 .

Below, each of the options available in

the Sample panel are described.

When checked, the sampling process will include animation of gold balls
from the source collection to the sample collection. All graphs and tables
will update continuously during the sampling. All this has the effect of
“Animation on” checkbox
slowing things down very much, a beneficial effect when learning about
sampling. Don’t be too quick to turn the animation off—speed is not
always a good thing.
When this option is checked, the sampling process will be done with
replacement, which means that cases may appear in the sample more than
“With replacement” once. In most situations, this is the preferred choice.
checkbox When sampling is done without replacement, once a case is chosen for the
sample, it won’t be chosen again. This means that the number of cases
sampled is limited to the number in the source collection.
If this is checked, Fathom will empty the sample collection before
starting the sampling process. For most simulations, this is the preferred
“Replace existing cases”
mode.
checkbox
If this option is not checked, Fathom will not empty the sample
collection and will continue to add each sample to the cases already there.
The idea here is that you can get Fathom to automatically collect a new
sample when anything changes in the source collection. Frequently, the
change is driven by a slider that you are dragging or animating. As the
“Collect new sample slider changes, formulas in the source collection change, and a new
when source changes” sample is drawn. Typically, measures are being collected from the sample
checkbox collection so that the information about the sample is not lost.
If there are several formulas changing, Fathom collects a new sample for
each formula change. Though this is not usually what you want, it also
usually doesn’t hurt.
Edit this value to change the number of cases that the sample collection
will sample. If the sampling is without replacement and you make this
“Cases” field
field larger than the number of cases in the source, it will automatically be
set to the number of cases after the sampling is complete.

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“Until condition”
“Sample More Cases”
button
Clicking this button shows the formula editor, ready for you to type a
true/false expression. Sampling will continue until this expression
evaluates to true. Here are some examples:
 face = "heads" will continue the sampling until the value of the
face attribute for the last sample case is “heads.”
 runlength(face) = 2 will sample until two successive values of
face are identical.
 uniqueValues(coupon) = 5 will sample until there are five cases,
each of which has a different value for the attribute coupon.
Note: It is easy to get into a situation in which the sample process does
not stop! Press Esc on the computer keyboard.
Clicking this button causes a new sample to be taken. Note that there is
also a menu command available to do this when the sample collection is
selected. Also, if you open a sample collection, there is a Sample More
Cases button at the top right of the open collection.

9.2.9 Collect Measures Panel

When you collect measures from a collection, a new collection
is made in which these measures are stored (see Collect
Measures and Other Results 159 ). This new measures collection
has a Collect Measures panel that gives you control over the
process. The default settings are that animation is on, newly
collected measures are added to existing measures, and five
measures are collected.

Each of the available options is described below.

When checked, the collecting measures process will include animation of

gold balls from the source collection to the measures collection. All
graphs and tables will update continuously during the sampling. When
you uncheck this option, measures are collected much more quickly, but
“Animation on” checkbox
little updating happens during the process. If the measures collection is
collecting measures from a sample collection (a common setup), turning
off animation for the measures collection also turns off the sampling
animation.
If this is checked, Fathom will empty out the measures collection before
“Replace existing cases” starting the collecting process. For most simulations involving collecting
checkbox measures, the preferred mode is to keep adding measures to the
collection.

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“Re-collect measures
when source changes”
checkbox
“Measures” field
“Until condition”
“Collect More Measures”
button
The idea here is that you can get Fathom to automatically collect more
measures when anything changes in the source collection. Frequently, the
change is driven by a slider that you are dragging or animating. As the
slider changes, formulas in the source collection change, and more
measures are collected. (You usually want to set number of measures to
collect to one.)
If there are several formulas changing, Fathom collects new measures
for each formula change. Though this is not usually what you want, it also
usually doesn’t hurt.
Edit this value to change the number of cases that the measures
collection will collect.
Clicking this button brings up the formula editor, ready for you to type a
true/false expression. Collecting measures will continue until this
expression evaluates to true.
Note: It is easy to get into a situation in which the collecting measures
process does not stop! Press Esc on the computer keyboard.
Clicking this button causes more measures to be collected. Note that
there is also a menu command available to do this when the measures
collection is selected. Also, if you open a measures collection, there is a
Collect More Measures button at the top right of the open collection.

9.2.10 Survey Panel

When you Create a Survey 138 , the collection inspector has a
panel where you can specify the questions you want to upload
to the Fathom Surveys website.

The Survey panel has two panes. The top pane allows you to
create questions and attributes as well as the format for the
questions; the bottom pane allows you to add instructions to
the survey, and has buttons to upload the survey, view the
survey, and download results.

The details of working with surveys can be found in Work with

Surveys 136 .

When checked, the responses on the website are replaced by the cases in
Replace Data on Site
the collection. This is especially useful for teachers to clean up student
checkbox
responses and reload data that students can work with.
Clicking this button uploads the survey to the website. A dialog box
prompts you for your user name and password. The button then
Upload Survey button
becomes inactive and changes to Survey Uploaded, until you make a
change to the collection.
Type instructions here that you want the survey respondents to see. You
Instructions field
can change these as the survey evolves.

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Clicking this button downloads the responses from the website into the
Download Results button collection as cases. You can click repeatedly as more people take the
survey to add cases to the collection.
View Survey link Clicking this link takes you to the survey website.

9.2.11 Experiment Panel

When you create an experiment from a collection, the
inspector has a new panel called the Experiment panel that
gives you control over the process. The default setting is to
collect by time, 1 case per second for 10 seconds. Time is
always measured and an attribute time is always present in an
experiment collection.

Collect By Keypress
button
Collect By Time button
Frequency field
Duration field
Trigger checkbox and
condition
Replace existing cases
checkbox
Turn Experiment On
button
When selected, the experiment will collect one case each time a key is
pressed. The value of the key pressed is automatically collected.
When selected, the experiment will collect one case every tenth of a
second for 10 seconds by default. You can change this by using the rate
and amount fields.
Edit this field to change the number of cases the experiment will collect
for each time unit. Use the pop-up menu to change the granularity of the
time unit from seconds to hours.
Edit this field to change the duration for which the experiment will
collect. You can specify the duration either as total number of cases
collected or total amount of time the experiment lasts.
Check this box to show the formula editor, ready for you to type a
conditional expression that evaluates to true/false. The experiment will
not start collecting values until this condition evaluates to true. This
checking begins after you turn the experiment on (see Turn Experiment
On 362 ).
Check this box to clear all cases from the experiment the next time you
run the experiment. Uncheck to keep old cases.
Click this button to start collecting cases as soon as the other criteria are
met. You can set up the other collection parameters even when sensors
are not present and click this button when you plug in the sensor.

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9.2.12 Scramble Panel

In certain statistics simulations, scrambling the values of an
attribute provides a way to enforce the null hypothesis in
which there is no relationship between two attributes. When
you scramble attribute values (see Use Scrambling to Test for
Independence 162 ), you get a new collection that is a scrambled
collection, with a Scramble panel for controlling the
simulation.

The functioning of the three controls is explained below.

Attribute pop-up menu
“Collect new sample
when source changes”
checkbox
“Scramble Attribute
Values Again” button
By default, Fathom scrambles the value in the first attribute. If there are
only two attributes, it doesn’t make any difference which one you choose.
But if there are more than two attributes, you can use the pop-up menu
to choose the attribute whose values get scrambled.
Normally, changes in the collection you are scrambling do not affect the
scrambled collection until the next time you force scrambling. But if this
checkbox is checked, scrambling takes place each time the source
changes.
Click this button to scramble the attribute values again. You’ll find a
similar button at the top of the open scrambled collection. You can also
use a menu command in the Collection menu when the scrambled
collection is selected.

9.2.13 Stack Panel

When you have recorded data in columns in a case table, with
each column corresponding to a separate group of cases, it
can be important to restructure the data so that there is one
attribute for the group that a case is in and a second attribute
for the value. The Stack Attributes command allows you to
do this; it creates a new stacked collection with a Stack
inspector panel, which lets you decide on the names of the
two attributes in the stacked collection. (see Restructure Data
—Stack Attributes 105 .)

Consider the situation in which the attribute Boys contains the

heights of the boys and the attribute Girls records the girls’
heights. After stacking, by default, the stacked collection
would have the attributes Group and Value. It would be helpful
to rename the Value attribute to Height, which you can do in
the Stack panel.

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9.2.14 Graph Properties Panel

Each graph has its own inspector. Access it by double-clicking
anywhere in the graph, or with the graph selected, choose
Object | Inspect Graph.

Assuming that the graph you are inspecting is plotting data

from a collection, the graph inspector will have two panels, a
Cases panel and a Properties panel. The Cases panel is
similar to the Cases panel in a collection inspector. The
Properties panel allows you to change various values that
control the graph appearance or behavior.

See Work with Graphs 33 .

The properties that are listed in the graph’s Properties panel

depend on the particular plot that is in the graph. The
illustration shows a Properties panel for a histogram.

The meaning of these properties is explained below.

This property is specific to dot plots and scatter plots and is the point
size multiplier that is used in the point size property in the Graph Cases
pointSizeMultiplier
panel. In absence of a formula for the pointSize, this is the size of the
points.

This property is specific to a histogram and is the left boundary of the

binAlignmentPosition
lowest histogram bar on the horizontal axis. You can change this number
to realign the bars. For example, if it were 1 and binWidth were an
integer, the boundaries of all the bars would be on integer values. This
property may change from what you type to reflect the bin alignment
for the first bin, but if the data cover the value typed, there will be one
bar boundary on the number you typed.

binWidth The width of the bars in the histogram.

xLower and xUpper The bounds of the horizontal axis.
yLower and yUpper The bounds of the vertical axis.
legendLower and
The bounds of the legend axis.
legendUpper
Normally, the horizontal axis of a graph has a scale that increases to the
xReverseScale and right, and the vertical axis has a scale that increases upward. You can
yReverseScale reverse either of these scales by changing the value of the property from
“false” to “true.”

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There are certain circumstances in which Fathom automatically rescales

an axis to include all the data. Usually, this is a good thing. But there are
situations in which you would prefer that Fathom does not automatically
xAutoRescale and change the scale; for example, as Fathom is plotting measures that are
yAutoRescale being collected, you might not want it to rescale during that process just
because one data point has gone outside the axis bounds. To prevent
automatic rescaling, change this property to “false.” You can still force
Fathom to rescale the axes by choosing Graph | Rescale Graph Axes.
showXGridlines and
This property determines if grid lines are visible in the graph.
showYGridlines

9.2.15 Graph Cases Panel

With the graph selected, choose Object | Inspect Graph to
show its inspector.

The Cases panel should look very familiar. It differs from the
collection’s Cases panel by having three additional attributes:
the lengths of the horizontal and vertical error bars, and point
size. You can define these attributes by formula.

9.2.16 Slider Properties Panel

Each slider has its own inspector. Access it by double-clicking

anywhere in the slider, or with the slider selected, choose
Object | Inspect Slider.

The slider’s Properties panel makes it possible to do some

really interesting and useful things with sliders. Each property is
explained below or see Work with Dynamic Parameters
(Sliders) 113 .

The first row in the panel contains the name and value of the slider. Both
of these are editable. Of course, if you only want to change the slider’s
Slider name and value
name or type a new value, you don’t need the inspector for that; simply
do it directly in the slider.
Like an attribute or a measure, a slider can have its value determined
from a formula. Double-click the Formula field to edit the formula.
Formula There is quite a range of uses for sliders with formulas. See Define a
Slider by Formula 117 and Make a Slider Do a Random Walk 119 for
details.

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When this property has no value, the slider will animate at full speed if
there is no formula and recompute the formula value once if there is a
formula.
When the property has a positive value and the slider is animated,
Fathom will move the slider or recompute the formula up to a maximum
Max_updates_per_second
of this many times per second.
Clear the field’s contents by deleting the value to remove the speed
restriction.
Note: Putting in a high value for this property will not make the slider go
faster than it would with no value.
Lower_bound and These are the bounds of the slider scale. You can also change them by
Upper_bound dragging.
This property restricts the values the slider can have. For example, a
value of 1 restricts the slider value to integers, and a value of 0.1 restricts
the slider value to a precision of one-tenth.
Restrict_to_multiples_of To return the value to blank, clear the field by deleting its contents.
Note: This restriction takes precedence over the formula, so although the
formula value might be 1.23, if the property is 0.1, the slider will have a
value of 1.2.
Normally, the axis of a slider has a scale that increases to the right. You
Reverse_scale can reverse its scale by changing the value of the property from “false” to
“true”.

9.2.17 Meter Properties Panel

Each meter has its own inspector. Access it by double-clicking anywhere in the meter, or with the meter
selected, choose Object | Inspect Meter. See Work with Meters 151 for more details.

The first row in the panel contains the name of the meter, which is
Meter name editable. Of course, if you only want to change the meter’s name, you
don’t need the inspector for that; simply do it directly in the meter.
Lower_bound and These are the bounds of the meter scale. You can also change them by
Upper_bound dragging as in a slider.

9.2.18 Multiple Regression Cases Panel

The multiple regression model is unique among the statistical objects in having its own inspector (see
Multiple Regression 203 ). To discuss the Cases panel in this inspector, we’ll use the example of trying to
predict cost per hour (costph) for operating an airplane from speed and range. The multiple regression model
is shown below.

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With the model selected, choose Object | Inspect Linear

Model to show its inspector.

The Cases panel should look very familiar. It differs from the
collection’s Cases panel by having three additional attributes:
one for predicted values, one for residuals, and one for
standardized residuals. The formulas for these three attributes
are created by the model and are not editable.
The attributes in this panel are available for use in graphs or
summary tables.

9.3 Fathom Menus

This section describes the commands in Fathom’s menus. The menus File, Edit, Object, Collection,
Window, and Help are always available; the rest, Table, Graph, Summary, Estimate, Test, and Model
are available only when an appropriate object is selected. For example, to make the Graph menu appear in
the menu bar, select a graph.

Many command names change to reflect the selected object, such as the command for deleting the
selected object that appears in the menu as Delete Graph or Delete Slider. In this section, that
command is referred to as Delete [Object].

Other commands toggle, for example Show Text Palette and Hide Text Palette. In this section, they
are referred to as Show/Hide Text Palette.

On a Mac, Quit, Preferences, and About Fathom are in the Fathom menu. This menu is not covered
in this section, but the command locations are noted in the relevant subsections.

Subsections
File Menu 368
Edit Menu 372

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Object Menu 378

Collection Menu 380
Table Menu 385
Graph Menu 390
Slider Menu 400
Summary Menu 400
Estimate Menu 405
Test Menu 407
Model Menu 409
Window Menu 413
Help Menu 413
Context (Right-Click) Menus 413

9.3.1 File Menu

Use the File menu to create, save, and print documents and to import and export data.

Subsections
New 368
Open 368
Open Sample Document 369
Close 369
Save 369
Save As 369
Import 370
Export Collection 371
Revert Collection 371
Show Page Breaks 372
Print Preview (Win only) 372
Page Setup/Print Setup 372
Print 372
Exit/Quit 372

9.3.1.1 New
Brings up a new, blank Fathom document. A new document window appears on top of all other
windows and becomes the active window. The new document is untitled until you name it by saving it.
Shortcut: Win: Ctrl+N; Mac: z+ N

See also
Open 368

9.3.1.2 Open
Opens an existing Fathom document. When you choose Open, a dialog box appears showing files in
your current folder. (This folder depends on your platform and system settings. To open in Fathom’s

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Sample Documents folder, use Open Sample Document.)

1. Navigate to the folder containing the document you want to open.

2. Double-click the document you want. (Or select it and click Open.)
This method also works for opening TinkerPlots files (files with the extension .tp).
Fathom does not open other documents. To get data into Fathom, copy the data from their current
application and paste them into an empty Fathom collection, or save them as text in their current
application, and choose Import | Text File from within Fathom.

Shortcut: Win: Ctrl+O; Mac: z+O

See also
Import From File 370
Paste 374
Copy and Paste Data from Another Program 26

9.3.1.3 Open Sample Document

Results in an Open dialog box, open to the Sample Documents folder. This is handy for giving
instructions in a lab in which different computers have different default open locations.
9.3.1.4 Close
Closes the current document. This is the same as clicking the close box on the window. You’ll be
prompted to save any changes you’ve made since your last save. Close does not quit the Fathom
application.
Shortcut: Mac: z+W

See also
Exit/Quit 372

9.3.1.5 Save
Saves whatever changes have been made to the current document since the last time it was saved. If the
document is being saved for the first time, Save prompts you for a name and allows you to determine
where (in what folder) the file will be saved (see Save As 369 ).
This command is enabled only if you’ve made changes in the document since the last time you saved it.

Whenever you import, add, or change data, it’s especially important for you to save the data (by saving
the document). Because it’s easy to change data in Fathom (for example, by dragging data in a graph), you
may need to be able to use Revert Collection. This command is not available unless the data were saved
after being created or imported. Although you can Undo your way back to the original data, you also have
to undo everything, such as creating graphs and such. Revert is handier.

Shortcut: Win: Ctrl+S; Mac: z+S

9.3.1.6 Save As
Names and saves the active document in a location you specify.
When you choose Save As, a dialog box appears.
1. Locate the folder in which you want to save your document, or create a new folder, if needed.

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2. Edit the default name.

3. Click Save.
Note to Mac users: When you first save a document, Fathom suggests a filename ending with the extension
.ftm. While Macintosh doesn’t require file extensions, naming Fathom documents with this extension
makes it easier to share them with Windows users or over the Internet.
9.3.1.7 Import
Use the commands under this item to bring data into Fathom. Using one of these commands creates a
collection and imports the data from the specified place into the collection. If this command is disabled, it
is probably because you have something selected in your document; click in an empty place to enable
Import.

Subsections
Import From File 370
Import From URL 370
Import U.S. Census Data 371
9.3.1.7.1 Import From File

Imports data from a text file. Choosing this command gives you a dialog box, showing the contents of
your current folder.
1. Navigate to the folder that holds the text file you want to import.
2. Double-click the name of the file to import, or select the file and click Open.
Fathom creates a new collection that holds the data in the text file.
You should look at the data in a case table to see whether the import worked as planned. (With the
collection selected, make a new case table.)

Fathom imports text files. If your data are in some other format, export the data as a tab-delimited text
file before importing into Fathom.

See also
Import Data from a Text File 81
Copy and Paste Data from Another Program 26

9.3.1.7.2 Import From URL

Imports data from the Internet. This command is enabled when you have copied a URL.
Choosing this command invokes a dialog box into which you can type or paste a URL. (The URL must
be for the Web page that actually has the data on it.)
Dropping a URL from a browser into a Fathom document has the same effect as using this command.
(see Import Data from the Internet 88 .)
 You should look at the data in a case table to see whether the import worked as planned. (With the
collection selected, make a new case table.)
 You might want to check the collection’s comments; text that isn’t data might be stored here (such as
data source, explanations of attributes, and other notes).
 If the import didn’t work as well as expected, you could try copying the data from the Web page and
pasting it into an empty collection.

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See also
Copy and Paste Data from Another Program 26

9.3.1.7.3 Import U.S. Census Data

Import census microdata from the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series (IPUMS) Web site.

Choosing this command creates an empty collection and shows its inspector on the Microdata panel.
Use this panel to choose the sample (years and places) and the attributes you want to see.

See also
Import U.S. Census Microdata 30
Import Historical Data from IPUMS 87

9.3.1.8 Export Collection

Exports a collection to a tab-delimited text file. You must select a collection to make this command
active. This command brings up a window in which you can name and specify a place for the new text
document.

See also
Export Data to Other Programs 106

9.3.1.9 Revert Collection

Restores the data in the collection to the way it was when you last saved. Note that this is different from
closing and reopening the document: If you have made graphs or other analyses, they are not affected.

You must select a collection to make this active. (If you have entered or imported data without saving,
this command will not be available.)

This action is not undoable; a message appears to inform you of this and asks you to either go ahead or

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cancel the revert.

9.3.1.10 Show Page Breaks
Places dashed lines in the document to show where printing would break pages (at the current Page
Setup settings). This enables you to resize and move objects so they don’t split across multiple pages
when printed.

See also
Prepare to Print a Fathom Document 214
Print Preview (Win only) 372
Share Your Results: Presenting and Printing Fathom Results 211

9.3.1.11 Print Preview (Win only)

Shows what your document will look like printed. This is especially useful if you’re worried about where
the edge of the page is.

See also
Show Page Breaks 372

9.3.1.12 Page Setup/Print Setup

Sets up the page size, orientation, and other printing options for your document. This dialog box differs
depending on your operating system and the printer you’ve chosen as your default printer.
9.3.1.13 Print
Prints your document. This item brings up a standard Print dialog box where you specify how many
copies you want, and so on.
Shortcut: Win: Ctrl+P; Mac: z+P

See also
Prepare to Print a Fathom Document 214
Show Page Breaks 372
Print Preview (Win only) 372
Share Your Results: Presenting and Printing Fathom Results 211

9.3.1.14 Exit/Quit
Closes all open documents and exits Fathom. You’ll be prompted to save any unsaved work in open
documents before Fathom quits.
On Mac, this command appears in the Fathom menu.
Shortcut: Win: Alt-F4; Mac: z+Q
9.3.2 Edit Menu
The Edit menu has commands for deleting, copying, and pasting and for working with text in text
objects.

Subsections
Undo 373

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Redo 373
Cut 374
Copy 374
Copy As Picture 374
Paste 374
Delete 375
Select All 375
Edit Formula 375
Cut Formula 376
Copy Formula 376
Paste Formula 376
Clear Formula 376
Text Font 376
Text Size 376
Text Style 377
Show/Hide Text Palette 377
Preferences 377

9.3.2.1 Undo
The wording of this command changes to reflect your latest action. Choosing it undoes that action.

Fathom has unlimited Undo (and Redo); you can use it to undo your actions, one at a time, all the way
back to when you created or opened the document. Similarly, you can Redo those actions to restore the
document to the state it was in before you started undoing.

Unlimited Undo/Redo is helpful for correcting mistakes by undoing something you didn’t mean to do. It
is also helpful for diagnosing problems. If you don’t know why something happened on your screen, look
in Undo to see what your last action was. You can then Undo and Redo, toggling back and forth until
you understand what you did.

It’s also helpful for diagnosing student problems. Have the student Undo back to where they understood
what they had. Then have them Redo each step, explaining at each step what they were trying to do.
Shortcut: Win: Ctrl+Z; Mac: z+Z
9.3.2.2 Redo
This command redoes an action you have undone (its exact wording changes to reflect the action
available for redoing). If you’ve undone several steps, you can redo each of them, one by one. Redo is
available only immediately after using Undo. If you take any other action after undoing operations, you
can no longer redo the original operations.

Use Redo in combination with Undo to move backward and forward through your Fathom actions.
It’s also helpful for diagnosing student problems. Have the student Undo back to where they understood
what they had. Then have them Redo each step, explaining at each step what they were trying to do.
Shortcut: Win: Ctrl+R; Mac: z+R

See also

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Undo 373

9.3.2.3 Cut
This command changes to reflect what you have selected: cases, attributes, or text. Using it removes the
selection and puts it on the clipboard (which means you can then paste it somewhere else: into another
collection or text object in the current document, in another document, or in another application).

Cut differs from Copy in that it removes the selection rather than simply putting the selection on the
clipboard.

The keyboard shortcut also works when you are editing a formula (although the menu command is not
available when the formula editor is open).
Shortcut: Win: Ctrl+X; Mac: z+X
9.3.2.4 Copy
This command changes to reflect what you have selected: cases, attributes, a collection, or text. Using it
places the selection on the clipboard (which means you can then paste it somewhere else: into another
collection or text object in the current document, in another document, or in another application).

Copy differs from Cut in that it leaves the selection in place rather than removing it. Use the related
command Copy As Picture to copy an image for pasting in Fathom or another application.
Shortcut: Win: Ctrl+C; Mac: z+C
9.3.2.5 Copy As Picture
This places an image of the selected object on the clipboard, so it can then be pasted into a blank area of
a Fathom document or a document in another application. Pictures copied in Fathom are not dynamic
and thus do not update on changes to the object or the data. (Many of the graphics in Fathom Help were
made this way.)
Shortcut: Win: Ctrl+Shift+C; Mac: z+Shift+C
9.3.2.6 Paste
The wording of this command changes to reflect what is on the clipboard and what you have selected.
(For example, if you have copied a column of data in another program and selected a collection, the
command will read Paste Attribute.)

This command puts the contents of the clipboard (whatever you have cut or copied) into the active
document. To paste cases as cases or attributes as attributes in Fathom, you must have a collection or a case
table selected. To paste a picture of a Fathom object, you cannot have any object selected in Fathom
(click in a blank area first). To paste text, paste into a text object.

Pasting cases into a collection or case table pastes all of the attributes (and any formulas defining them)
for the selected cases. If there are any same-named attributes in the collection before the paste, Fathom
appends a 1 to the attribute name.

Pasting attributes pastes the attribute name and the case values into the selected collection or case table,
but does not paste formulas. Any formula-derived values are pasted as noncomputed values.

If you have an image on the clipboard, and you select a case in an open collection, this command changes
to Paste As Case Icon. The image will replace the current case image (by default, a gold ball). (This
command won’t work if the image property has a formula; clear the formula before pasting an image as a
case icon.)

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Shortcut: Win: Ctrl+V; Mac: z+V

9.3.2.7 Delete
The wording of this command changes, depending on what is selected. It applies to cases or attributes
and removes them from the collection. It differs from Cut in that it does not put a copy of the selected
cases or attributes on the clipboard, and therefore it should not be used as a prelude to paste.

To delete an entire object, choose Object | Delete [Object].

Shortcuts for this command include the Delete and Backspace keys.

See also
Cut 374
Delete [Object] 379

9.3.2.8 Select All

Selects all of the cases or text in the selected object. The command’s name and behavior change,
depending on what is currently selected.

When you have selected a(n) … The menu reads … And the command …

Collection, case table, or graph Select All Cases Selects all cases in the object

Text object Select All Text Selects all the text in the object

Selects all attributes in the

Attribute Select All Attributes
collection
Shortcut: Win: Ctrl+A; Mac: z+A
9.3.2.9 Edit Formula
Available when you have selected an attribute or a formula (for example, a function plotted on a graph or
a formula in a summary table) or a numeric field in a statistical object. Choosing it brings up a formula
editor. If there was no formula present, the editor is empty; otherwise, the existing formula appears in the
formula pane for editing.

Using this command is equivalent to double-clicking a formula or formula cell.

Warning: If an attribute that already has values is given a formula, the formula replaces the data with
computed values. To calculate values from existing attributes, create a new attribute and add the formula
to that.
Shortcut: Win: Ctrl+E; Mac: z+E

See also
Work with the Formula Editor 122
Plot a Line at a Given Value on a Graph 49

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Plot a Function on a Graph 53

Add or Remove a Summary Table’s Formulas 111

9.3.2.10 Cut Formula

Removes the selected formula and puts it on the clipboard. The formula can then be pasted into a
formula editor elsewhere.

This command is available when a formula is selected (for instance, in a summary table or on a graph) or
when an attribute defined by a formula is selected.

Cutting a formula from an attribute does not remove the values; instead it leaves them in place as
noncomputed values.

This command is not available from the menu when a formula editor is open, but you can select the
formula and use the keyboard shortcut Ctrl+X (Win) z+X (Mac).
9.3.2.11 Copy Formula
Places a copy of the selected formula on the clipboard. The copied formula can then be pasted into a
formula editor elsewhere.

This command is not available from the menu when a formula editor is open, but you can select the
formula and use the keyboard shortcut Ctrl+C (Win) z+C (Mac).
9.3.2.12 Paste Formula
Available when an attribute is selected and a formula is on the clipboard (from a Copy or Cut command).
Choosing this command gives the selected attribute the formula from the clipboard. If the attribute
already has data, they will be replaced with the values computed by formula.

This command is not available from the menu when a formula editor is open, but you can select the
formula and use the keyboard shortcut Ctrl+V (Win) z+V (Mac).
9.3.2.13 Clear Formula
Removes the selected formula. When the selected formula is for a plotted value or function on a graph,
clearing gets rid of the plotted line or curve. When the selected formula defines an attribute’s values, the
values stay in place but are not computed: They won’t update if the data they used to depend on changes,
and they are editable.
9.3.2.14 Text Font
Provides control over what font is used in a text object. (Font control for text in other objects isn’t
available in Fathom.) If used when text is selected, the change applies to the selected text; otherwise, the
change applies to text typed after invoking the command.
This item is identical to choosing a font from the text palette.

See also
Show/Hide Text Palette 377

9.3.2.15 Text Size

Provides control over font size in a text object. (Limited control over font size in other objects is
available through Preferences.) If used when text is selected, the change applies to the selected text;

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otherwise, the change applies to text typed after invoking the command.
This item is identical to changing font size via the text palette.

See also
Show/Hide Text Palette 377
Preferences 377

9.3.2.16 Text Style

Provides control over font styling and alignment in a text object. (Style control for text in other objects
isn’t available in Fathom.) If used when text is selected, the change applies to the selected text; otherwise,
the change applies to text typed after invoking the command.
This item is identical to choosing a style from the text palette.

See also
Show/Hide Text Palette 377

9.3.2.17 Show/Hide Text Palette

Makes the palette of control over text appear or disappear. When a text object is created, the palette
appears and the command becomes Hide Text Palette. Choosing this command is equivalent to clicking
the palette’s close box. If there is no text object, or if the palette has been closed or hidden, the command
reads Show Text Palette. Choosing it makes the text palette appear.

See also
Text Font 376
Text Size 376
Text Style 377

9.3.2.18 Preferences
Brings up a dialog box with Fathom’s preferences with five settings.

Font Size for Text in Objects: Use the pop-up menu to choose Largest to make Fathom more
readable, for example, when projecting Fathom onto a screen for a demonstration or talk. Affects all
objects but text objects (control the size of text in text objects using the text palette or Text Size menu).

Linear Equation Form offers two choices in its pop-up menu to control how equations of lines are
formatted: y=mx+b (default) or y=a+bx.
Give Audible User Feedback allows you to turn sounds on or off.

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Show Statistical Objects on the Shelf allows you to hide or show icons for the estimate, test, and
model objects in the object shelf.
New Statistical Objects are Verbose determines whether statistical objects (estimates, tests, and
models) are verbose or terse by default. (see Shorten the Output in Statistical Inference Objects 173 )
On Mac this command is in the Fathom menu.
9.3.3 Object Menu
The Object menu contains commands for actions that apply to objects in general, such as creating,
duplicating, or deleting. Actions that pertain to specific object types (for example, commands that apply
to graphs) are found in their object-specific menus (which appear when an object that uses them is
selected).

Subsections
New 378
Inspect [Object] 378
Duplicate [Object] 379
Delete [Object] 379
Add/Remove Filter 379
Hide [Object] 380
Show Hidden Object(s) 380
View In Window 380

9.3.3.1 New
Provides a submenu for creating new Fathom objects. Fathom places the new object in a blank space, if
possible, in the same area as you are viewing; if there is no blank space where you are in the document
window, Fathom places a new object below existing objects and scrolls so you can see it.

Using the commands from this menu differs from dragging objects from the shelf, in that when dragging
from the shelf, you decide where to place the object.

Most of these commands have keyboard shortcuts.

Object Windows shortcut Mac shortcut
Collection Ctrl+L z+L
Case table Ctrl+T z+T
Graph Ctrl+G z+G
Summary table Ctrl+U z+U
Slider Ctrl+Shift+D z+Shift+D
Text object Ctrl+Shift+T z+Shift+T
Note: If you don’t see a new object appear after using one of these commands or shortcuts, the object
might be hiding behind an inspector window.
9.3.3.2 Inspect [Object]
If an inspector is already showing in the document, this command changes its focus (what object it
targets) to the selected object; if not, it shows an inspector for the chosen object. The name of the

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command changes, depending on the object whose inspector you will be showing.

Collection Inspect Collection

Case table with no cases selected Inspect Collection
Case table when one case is selected Inspect Case
Case table when more than one case is selected Inspect Cases
Graph Inspect Graph
Slider Inspect Slider
Multiple Regression Model object Inspect Linear Model
Using this command is equivalent to double-clicking the object you want to inspect.
Shortcut: Win: Ctrl+I; Mac: z+I

See also
Inspectors 336
Inspector Panels 353

9.3.3.3 Duplicate [Object]

Duplicates the selected object. This is handy, for example, if you have a graph with several values or
functions plotted on it and you want another graph just like it.
Shortcut: Win: Ctrl+D; Mac: z+D
9.3.3.4 Delete [Object]
Deletes the selected object. Do not delete a collection unless you want to lose its data (see Where Are the
Data? 328 ).
Note: This command deletes the selected object; it does not, for example, delete selected cases or
attributes or formulas. The commands for these are in the Edit menu.

When text is selected, the Delete key will delete the selected text. To delete the containing object, deselect
the text by clicking the object’s frame.
Shortcut: Delete

See also
Objects and Windows 333

9.3.3.5 Add/Remove Filter

When the selected object has no filter, this adds a filter to the selected object and shows the formula
editor, where you can specify which cases pass through the filter. When the selected object has a filter, the
command changes to Remove Filter and takes off the existing filter. Re-selecting Add Filter when a
filter was removed puts the previous filter back. (Use this for toggling back and forth between the filtered
and unfiltered state. If you want to change an existing filter, double-click it (it sits below the filtered
object) to show a formula editor.)

A filter is a Boolean expression (an expression that results in true or false values, such as sex = “female”
or age > 21) applied to an object to restrict the cases that object displays. Only cases for which the
expression is true are displayed (see Make Boolean Expressions 130 ).

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To filter one object, such as a graph, apply the filter to that object; to filter all objects connected to a
collection, add the filter to the collection.
Shortcut: Win: Ctrl+F; Mac: z+F

See also
Write a Filter 121
Restrict the Cases You See by Filtering Data 96

9.3.3.6 Hide [Object]

Hides the selected object. This removes the object from view without deleting it. Thus, any objects that
depend on the hidden object are still linked to it. (Hiding a collection, unlike deleting a collection, does
not get rid of all the data, and so leaves graphs and other linked objects unchanged.)

One use for this command is to set up something hooked to a slider, but hide the slider, requiring the
user of the file to try to figure out what the slider’s value might be.
Shortcut: Win: Ctrl+Shift+H; Mac: z+Shift+H

See also
Show Hidden Object(s) 380
Delete [Object] 379

9.3.3.7 Show Hidden Object(s)

Shows all objects that have been hidden. It is disabled unless at least one object has been hidden.

See also
Hide [Object] 380

9.3.3.8 View In Window

Creates a window for viewing the selected object. Drag a corner or edge to enlarge (or shrink) the
window. Anything you can do to the object, you can do in this window, and the underlying object will
change accordingly.

The window can take up the entire screen space (covering the object shelf and document scroll bars, thus
enabling you to make it as big as your screen, though you may want to leave the status area of Fathom’s
window uncovered).

Click the window’s close box to get rid of the window (the object will remain).
Tip: If you are presenting findings and have a series of graphs, you can iconify the graphs. When
presenting, instead of enlarging each graph, use View In Window to quickly make it fill the screen; when
through with it, a simple click of the close bar gets rid of it.
Shortcut: Win: Alt+V; Mac: z+Option+V

See also
Share Your Results: Presenting and Printing Fathom Results 211

9.3.4 Collection Menu

Usually, the most important object in a Fathom document is the collection, because the collection is
where the data live. The Collection menu has commands for acting on the collection. Many of these

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commands are available only when a collection is selected. Because case tables, and sometimes other
objects, provide ways of changing the collection they are connected to, some commands in the
Collection menu are enabled when objects connected to a collection are selected.

The Collection menu includes commands for creating and running simulations, such as building up
sampling distributions.

Subsections
Rerandomize/Sample More Cases/Scramble Again/Collect More Measures 381
New Cases 382
Prevent Changing Values in Graphs 382
Rename Collection 382
Sample Cases 382
Scramble Attribute Values 383
Collect Measures 383
Stack Attributes 384

9.3.4.1 Rerandomize/Sample More Cases/Scramble Again/Collect More Measures

This command changes to reflect its behavior, depending on which type of collection is selected. When a
collection with randomly generated values is selected, this rerandomizes the collection; when a sample
collection is selected, it collects another sample; when a measures collection is selected, this collects more
measures; a scrambled collection will scramble again.

The command
With this selected … and does this…
becomes …
Collection with at least
Rerandomizes any values determined by random
one randomly generated Rerandomize
functions in the active object.
attribute
Takes another sample from the source collection,
Sample More
Sample collection according to the settings in the Sample Cases panel
Cases
in its collection.
Randomly permutes values in the attribute chosen in
Scrambled collection Scramble Again
the Scramble panel of its inspector.
Rerandomizes or resamples the source collection, and
Collect More collects a new set of measures, according to the
Measures collection
Measures settings in the Collect Measures panel of its
inspector.

Each collection has a button, visible when the collection is open; pressing the button is equivalent to
using these commands.

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Fathom 2 Help

Shortcut: Win: Ctrl+Y; Mac: z+Y

See also
Create Simulations 156

9.3.4.2 New Cases

Available when an object that has cases in it (a collection or a graph, for example) is selected. This
command shows a dialog box, allowing you to specify how many cases to add to the selected collection
(1, by default).

This is usually the method you use to add cases to a randomly generated collection. The acts of typing or
importing data automatically create cases for you.
9.3.4.3 Prevent Changing Values in Graphs
Available when a collection, or another object connected to a collection, is selected. This command
prevents data from being dragged in graphs (which changes their values).

When the selected collection is locked, this command toggles to Enable Changing Values in Graphs.

See also
Drag Data in a Graph 39

9.3.4.4 Rename Collection

Available when a collection, or an object connected to a collection, is selected. This command shows a
dialog box, allowing you to type a new name for the collection.

Another way to rename a collection is to double-click its name, type a new name, and press Enter or
Return.
9.3.4.5 Sample Cases

Available when a collection is selected.

This command creates a new collection, a sample collection, which contains ten cases randomly chosen
with replacement, from the selected (source) collection. (An animation illustrates the sampling: A blue

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 Reference

ball flies from the source to the sample collection.)Inspect the sample collection to change the default
settings (to change sample size or to sample without replacement, for example).

Using this command is equivalent to dropping a (source) collection’s name onto an empty collection.

See also
Create Simulations 156

9.3.4.6 Scramble Attribute Values

Available when a collection is selected.

This command creates a new, scrambled collection. By default, the first attribute of the collection has
been scrambled, that is, the values have been randomly moved around (all other attribute values are left in
place).

Scrambled Students

Change the scrambled attribute in the pop-up menu in the scrambled collection’s inspector.

This command is useful for building a simulation to test for independence of two attributes.

See also
Use Scrambling to Test for Independence 162

9.3.4.7 Collect Measures

Available when a collection with measures defined has been selected.

This command creates a new (measures) collection of five cases whose attributes are the measures from
the source collection. (This command forces the source to rerandomize, resample, or rescramble each
time a set of measures are collected.) The attributes from this collection can be dropped into graphs and
other Fathom objects in the same way as from any other collection.

Measures from Sample of Boston

This is the command you need when you want to build up a sampling distribution of a statistic (measure).

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Fathom 2 Help

Inspect the collection to change the default settings.

Using this command is equivalent to dropping a source collection’s measure onto an empty collection.

See also
Measures 333
Create Simulations 156

9.3.4.8 Stack Attributes

Creates a new collection that will convert multiple attributes into two by “stacking” the cases on top of
one another.

Stacked students

For example, if you have students’ heights in two attributes, one for girls’ heights, the other for boys’,
stacking will produce a collection with sex in one attribute and height in the other. (When the data do not
consist of matched pairs, then arbitrarily matching them produces cases, no meaning and prevents
analysis of them as unmatched pairs.)

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9.3.5 Table Menu

The Table menu has commands for working with case tables. It is available when a case table is selected.

Subsections
New Attribute 385
Rename Attribute 385
Hide Attribute(s) 385
Show Hidden Attributes 386
Number Format 386
Autofit Column Widths 387
Show/Hide Units 388
Show/Hide Formulas 388
Sort Ascending 389
Sort Descending 389
Use As Caption 389

9.3.5.1 New Attribute

Shows a dialog box that asks you to type the new attribute’s name. If no attributes are selected when the
command is chosen, the new attribute will appear at the end of the case table, on the far right. If an
attribute is selected, the new attribute will be added just to the left of the selected attribute.

When no attributes are selected, this command has the same effect as clicking the <new> attribute
prompt, typing a name, and pressing Enter or Return.

See also
Add Attributes in a Case Table 68
Add an Attribute to a Collection 91

9.3.5.2 Rename Attribute

Shows a dialog box in which you can type a new name for the selected attribute.
Using this command is the same as double-clicking an attribute name, typing a new name, and pressing
Enter or Return.

See also
Rename an Attribute in a Case Table 69

9.3.5.3 Hide Attribute(s)

Removes the selected attribute(s) from view in the selected case table, without deleting the data. (To
delete one or more attributes, select the unwanted attributes and choose Edit | Delete Attributes.)

Use the Shift key in conjunction with clicking to select more than one attribute.
Make hidden attributes visible using Show Hidden Attributes.

See also
Hide/Show Attributes 75

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Fathom 2 Help

Show Hidden Attributes 386

9.3.5.4 Show Hidden Attributes

Makes any previously hidden attributes reappear in the selected case table.

See also
Hide/Show Attributes 75

Hide Attribute(s) 385

9.3.5.5 Format Attribute

Gives you control over how selected attributes display their numeric values in the selected case table.

Dynamic
The default numeric format, Dynamic, is a good general-purpose format. It displays up to six significant
digits with a decimal point unless the number is too big or too small, in which case it displays scientific
notation with six significant digits.

Fixed Decimal
All numbers will have the same number of digits after the decimal point as specified by the Decimal
Places field.

Scientific Notation
A number expressed in scientific notation has one digit to the left of the decimal point, as many digits as
are specified in the Significant Digits field, and an exponent that specifies by what power of ten to
multiply.

Engineering Notation
In engineering notation, the number of digits to the left of the decimal point is either one, two, or three,
adjusted so that the power of ten will always be a multiple of three.

The chart below gives some examples, all with six digits specified in the Number Format dialog box.

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 Reference

Date and Time Formatting

DateTime values can be formatted to honor different date and time formats. There are 3 drop down
menus that let you format the date and the time separately and determine in what order they are
displayed.
The table below gives some examples of date time formats.

9.3.5.6 Autofit Column Widths

Resizes all columns in the selected case table to fit the attribute name and data. If you have attribute
names or values too long to be visible, this increases column width so contents can be seen. If you have
short attribute names and values, this makes each column as skinny as it can be while fully showing its
contents.
Using this command is a shortcut for double-clicking each column’s left boundary.

See also
Adjust Column Width 74

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Fathom 2 Help

9.3.5.7 Show/Hide Units

Shows or hides the units row of a case table.
students students
he ight footLngth <ne w > he ight footLngth <ne w >
units

The units row (when showing) appears just below the attribute names. In it, you can apply, convert, or get
rid of units for numeric attributes. If any attributes have been assigned units, the unit names appear here.

Typing a name (or recognized abbreviation) of a unit in the units row applies that unit to all values in the
attribute. Deleting the unit removes the unit from all values. Editing the unit from one to another unit in
the same dimension (of the same type, such as length or time) converts all values in the attribute from the
old to the new.

See also
Units 435
Manage Units in a Case Table 77
Manage Units in the Collection’s Inspector 92

9.3.5.8 Show/Hide Formulas

Shows or hides the formula row in the selected case table. The formula row appears just below the units
row (if any) or just below the attribute names. The formula cell for an attribute with a formula will show
that formula (though you may need to drag the row down or the right boundary to the right to see a long
or multiline formula.)
RubberBandBallMeasurements
Group Diam e te r D_cubed <ne w >
1 First 3.075 29.076
2 First 3.032 27.8732
3 First 2.951 25.6985
4 First 3.007 27.1894
5 Second 3.18 32.1574
6 Third 3.16 31.5545

RubberBandBallMeasurements
Group Diam e te r D_cubed <ne w >
= 
Diameter
1 First 3.075 29.076
2 First 3.032 27.8732
3 First 2.951 25.6985
4 First 3.007 27.1894
5 Second 3.18 32.1574

Cells for computed values have background color.

Double-clicking in a formula cell shows the formula editor (for creating new or editing existing formulas).
Double-clicking in a cell that is computed by formula shows the formula editor for that formula.

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See also
Work with Formulas in a Case Table 72

Work with Formulas 120

9.3.5.9 Sort Ascending

Sorts cases according to the selected attribute’s values, from lowest to highest or a to z. The cases
themselves are preserved (you are sorting the collection, not just this attribute).
Using this command will change the order of cases in the underlying collection.

See also
Sort Data in a Case Table 74
Sort Data in a Graph 61
Sort Categories in a Summary Table 112

9.3.5.10 Sort Descending

Sorts cases according to the selected attribute’s values, from highest to lowest or z to a. The cases
themselves are preserved (you are sorting the collection, not just this attribute).
Using this command will change the order of cases in the underlying collection.

See also
Sort Data in a Case Table 74
Sort Data in a Graph 61
Sort Categories in a Summary Table 112

9.3.5.11 Use As Caption

Available when one or more attributes are selected in the selected case table. This command gives the
collection’s cases a caption formula formed by concatenating the selected attribute values (separated by
spaces).

Captions appear under each case in an open collection and in the status bar when a case is pointed at with
the cursor.

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Fathom 2 Help

This command is a shortcut for creating a caption formula in the collection’s Display panel.

See also
Change the Appearance of Cases in a Collection 106
Display Panel 356

9.3.6 Graph Menu

Available when a graph is selected. Some commands, such as Least-Squares Line, toggle the feature on
and off, adding or removing a checkmark in the menu to reflect that graph’s state.

Subsections
Remove X Attribute: [AttributeName] 391
Remove Y Attribute: [AttributeName] 391
Remove Legend Attribute: [AttributeName] 391
Show/Hide Axis Links 391
Rescale Graph Axes 392

390
 Reference

Unlink [X/Y] Axis 392

Stack Dots 392
Scale 393
Least-Squares Line 394
Median-Median Line 394
Add Movable Line 395
Remove Movable Line 395
Show Squares 396
Make Residual Plot 396
Lock Intercept at Zero 397
Plot Value 397
Plot Function 398
Sort Bars 399
Sort By Plotted Value 399
Format Value 400

9.3.6.1 Remove X Attribute: [AttributeName]

When a graph is selected, the Graph menu lists all of its attributes in a series of Remove commands.
Choose one to remove that attribute from the graph.
9.3.6.2 Remove Y Attribute: [AttributeName]
When a graph is selected, the Graph menu lists all of its attributes in a series of Remove commands.
Choose one to remove that attribute from the graph.
9.3.6.3 Remove Legend Attribute: [AttributeName]
When a graph is selected, the Graph menu lists all of its attributes in a series of Remove commands.
Choose one to remove that attribute from the graph.
9.3.6.4 Show/Hide Axis Links
Shows or hides axis link icons. Drop a link on another axis to force them to have the same scale;
changing the scale for one axis in a linked set automatically keeps the other axis linked. In the case shown
here, the two axes of a single graph have been linked; you can link axes between graphs as well.

The link icons are closed for linked axes.

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Fathom 2 Help

Disconnect the axes by selecting a closed link and choosing Graph | Unlink [X/Y] Axis.

See also
Dynamically Link Axes to Each Other 43
Prevent Graph Axes from Automatically Rescaling 45

Change Axis Scales 40

9.3.6.5 Unlink [X/Y] Axis

Available when a closed axis link is selected. Disconnects the linked axis from the axis or axes to which it
is linked. The link icon appears broken, and the formerly linked axes can be rescaled independently.

See also
Dynamically Link Axes to Each Other 43
Prevent Graph Axes from Automatically Rescaling 45

Change Axis Scales 40

9.3.6.6 Rescale Graph Axes

Resets the selected graph’s axes to the default “show all the data” state. Use this, for example, when after
zooming in on an area of a graph, you want to see all of the data again.

Using this command is equivalent to reselecting the graph type from the graph’s pop-up menu (for
example, re-selecting Histogram).

This command works even when the graph’s auto rescaling has been turned off.

See also
Change Axis Scales 40
Zoom In or Out in a Graph 41
Prevent Graph Axes from Automatically Rescaling 45

9.3.6.7 Stack Dots

Available only for dot plots; on (checked) by default.
By default, Fathom’s dot plots stack the dots, building little towers of dots from the axis up. When more
than one case shares a value, the dots stack, so you can see how many cases share each value.

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 Reference

When Stack Dots is unchecked, Fathom puts cases, the same value on top of each other.

See also
Dot Plot 343

9.3.6.8 Scale
Available when a histogram is selected. Changes the nature of the scale of the vertical axis. Choose
Frequency, Relative Frequency, Relative Percentage, or Density.

See also
Histogram 345
Plot a Distribution Over a Histogram 52

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Fathom 2 Help

9.3.6.9 Least-Squares Line

Available for scatter plots and line scatter plots. Adds a least-squares line to the selected graph, in pale
blue; the equation for the line and r2 value are reported below the plot. The equation and r2 value
dynamically update when the data are changed (for example, by dragging one or more data points).

When you have more than one attribute on an axis, each gets its own least-squares line.
Radiosonde Scatter Plot

12.0
11.0
10.0
9.0
0 200 400 600 800
he ight
tempC = 0.00110height + 11.1; r 2 = 0.54
dew pointC = 0.00195height + 9.2; r 2 = 0.65

tempC dew pointC

Re-selecting this command (unchecking it) removes the least-squares line(s) and equation(s).

See also
Make Residual Plot 396
Lock Intercept at Zero 397
Add Fitted Lines to a Graph 53
Show Squares 396
Trace on a Function or Fitted Line 56

9.3.6.10 Median-Median Line

Available for scatter plots and line scatter plots. Adds a median-median line to the selected graph, in
purple; the equation for the line is reported below the plot. The equation of the line dynamically updates
when the data are changed (for example, by dragging one or more data points).

When you have more than one attribute on an axis, each gets its own median-median line.
Radiosonde Scatter Plot Radiosonde Scatter Plot
12.5
12.0
12.0
11.5 11.0
11.0 10.0
10.5 9.0
10.0
0 200 400 600 800
9.5
he ight
9.0
dew pointC = 0.00228height + 9.1
0 200 400 600 800 tempC = 0.000913height + 11.2
he ight
dew pointC = 0.00228height + 9.1 dew pointC tempC
Re-selecting this command (unchecking it) removes the median-median line and its equation.

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See also
Make Residual Plot 396
Lock Intercept at Zero 397
Trace on a Function or Fitted Line 56

What Is a Median-Median Line? 395

9.3.6.10.1 What Is a Median-Median Line?

The median-median line, like the least-squares line, is a line calculated to fit a collection of data. It differs
from the least-squares line in being more resistant to outliers and being easier to calculate. Here’s how it’s
found: Divide the data along the horizontal axis into three equally sized groups. Find the median x- and y-
values for each group (A, B, and C). Draw a line from A to C; this gives the slope of the median-median
line. Determine how far point B is from the line, and shift the line one-third of the way toward point B.
This determines the line’s location or intercept.

See also
Add Fitted Lines to a Graph 53

Median-Median Line 394

9.3.6.11 Add Movable Line

Adds a brown movable line to the selected graph; the equation for the line is reported below the plot.
The equation of the line dynamically updates as the line is moved.

Dragging near an end rotates the line, dragging near the middle moves it up or down (without changing
its slope). In a univariate plot, the line can be moved left or right (up or down, if the attribute is on the
vertical axis). The cursor changes shape to suggest what dragging will do at any given moment.

You can re-select this command to add another movable line.

See also
Remove Movable Line 395
Add a Movable Line to a Graph 395
Make Residual Plot 396
Lock Intercept at Zero 397
Show Squares 57
Show Squares 396

9.3.6.12 Remove Movable Line

Removes the movable line from the selected graph. When there is more than one movable line, the
command is disabled until you select a line to remove. Select a line by clicking it or its equation.

See also
Add Movable Line 395
Add a Movable Line to a Graph 48

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Fathom 2 Help

9.3.6.13 Show Squares

Available when the selected graph has a computed line, a movable line, or a plotted value or function.

Fathom constructs a vertical line from each point to each line on the graph, then makes those segments
into sides of squares; the sum of the areas of these squares is computed and reported below the plot area.

This feature is great for demonstrating the meaning of the least-squares line (the line that minimizes the
sum of the squares of the residuals).

The squares and their total area dynamically update when the data change or a line is moved. (This can be
from moving a movable line, or changing a computed line by changing the data, or changing a function
using a slider.)

See also
Add Lines and Functions to Graphs 48

Show Squares 57
Make a Residual Plot 58
Make Residual Plot 396

9.3.6.14 Make Residual Plot

Available when a scatter plot with a line or plotted function is present or is selected. Adds a new plot to
the selected graph, below the main plot, which shows each point’s vertical distance from the line or
function on the plot.

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If you have more than one line or curve plotted on the graph, you must first specify for which line or
function you want residuals plotted by selecting the equation of the function you want used. Once the
residual plot is made, you can change its focus by selecting a different line or curve.

Data points in a residual plot can be dragged around, just like data points in the main plot. When data are
dragged, the entire graph updates dynamically. For example, if the residual plot is based on a least-squares
line, dragging a point may influence the line, and therefore the rest of the points in the residual plot will
move to reflect their residuals with respect to the (now moving) least-squares line.

See also
Make a Residual Plot 58

9.3.6.15 Lock Intercept at Zero

Forces a movable or least-squares line to go through (0, 0). (You may not see the origin on the graph
unless you rescale.) Re-select the command to turn this feature off.
9.3.6.16 Plot Value

Plots a line at a value on the horizontal axis, determined by formula. This command shows a formula
editor into which you can put a numeric value, a slider name, or a function (such as median). A line
appears in the plot, and the formula determining it appears below the plot area (color-coded to match the
line).

In this example, three values have been plotted (one at a time): the mean and the mean plus and minus
one sample standard deviation.

Clearing or cutting a formula removes its plotted value.

See also
Plot Function 398
Show Measures of Spread in a Graph 51

397
Fathom 2 Help

9.3.6.17 Plot Function

Plots a function determined by formula on a bivariate graph. This command shows a formula editor into
which you can enter a function or distribution. (For example, entering only the name of the x-axis
attribute gives the line y = x.)

You can plot as many functions on a graph as you want. Clearing or cutting a function’s formula removes
that function from the graph.

See also
Plot Value 397
Plot a Function on a Graph 53
Plot a Distribution Over a Histogram 52

Remove a Function from a Graph 57

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9.3.6.18 Sort Bars

Available for bar charts. Reorders the categories in a bar chart, arranging the bars from tallest to shortest.
Boston Bar Chart
1 to 3 years of college
4+ years of college
Grade 1, 2, 3, or 4
Grade 10
Grade 11
Grade 12
Grade 5, 6, 7, or 8
Grade 9
N/A
None or preschool
10 20 30 40 50 60
Frequency of EducAttainm nt
count  

Boston Bar Chart

Grade 9
Grade 10
Grade 1, 2, 3, or 4
N/A
Grade 11
Grade 5, 6, 7, or 8
None or preschool
4+ years of college
1 to 3 years of college
Grade 12
10 20 30 40 50 60
Frequency of EducAttainm nt
count  

Using this command changes the order of categories in the category set (if any) applied to the attribute.

See also
Sort By Plotted Value 399
Reorder Categories in a Category Set 101

9.3.6.19 Sort By Plotted Value

Available for split numeric plots with a value plotted. Sorts the categories from lowest plotted value to
highest.

399
Fathom 2 Help

If you have more than one value plotted, select the one you want to sort by clicking its formula below the
plot area to enable the command.

See also
Sort Bars 399

9.3.6.20 Format Value

This command gives you control over how the graph axes display a numeric or a date/time value. The
functionality is similar to that of the Format Attribute command from the Case Table menu (see
Format Attributes in a Case Table 386 .
9.3.7 Slider Menu
The Slider menu has commands for working with sliders. It is available when a slider is selected.

Subsections
Format Value 400
9.3.7.1 Format Value
This command gives you control over how the slider displays a numeric or a date/time value. The
functionality is similar to that of the Format Attribute command from the Case Table menu (see
Format Attribute 386 ).
9.3.8 Summary Menu
The Summary menu has commands for working with summary tables. It is available when a summary
table is selected.

Subsections
Add Formula 401
Add Basic Statistics 402
Add Five-Number Summary 402
Remove Attribute 404
Sort Categories by Formula Value 404
Create Collection From Cells 404
Format Value 405

400
 Reference

9.3.8.1 Add Formula

This command adds a formula to the selected summary table, and shows the formula editor, which allows
you to enter a formula to compute a summary statistic.

Boston
Total_pe rs onal_incom e
Boston 19223.189
Total_pe rs onal_incom e Female
10020
Sex
Female 19223.189 32688.097
Sex Male
Male 32688.097 22700
Column Summary 25400.853 Column Summary 25400.853
S1 = mean   16000
S1 = mean  
S2 = median  

Selecting a formula below the table highlights that formula’s results in the table’s cells.
Boston
Total_pe rs onal_incom e
19223.189
Female
10020
Sex
32688.097
Male
22700
Column Summary 25400.853
16000
S1 = mean  
S2 = median  

Remove a formula by choosing Edit | Clear Formula.

The formulas present in a summary table control the attributes in the collection you get when you create a
collection from its cells.

See also
Add Basic Statistics 402
Add Five-Number Summary 402
Sort Categories by Formula Value 404
Create Collection From Cells 404

401
Fathom 2 Help

9.3.8.2 Add Basic Statistics

Available when a summary table containing at least one numeric attribute is selected. Adds the following
formulas to the summary table: mean, count, sample standard deviation, missing values, and standard
error. (This command is a shortcut for repeatedly using the Add Formula command and specifying each
formula.)

Selecting a formula below the table highlights that formula’s results in the table’s cells.
Boston
TotalIncom e
19550.605
200
27517.786
1945.8013
0
S1 = mean  
S2 = count  
S3 = stdDev  
S4 = stdError  
S5 = count  missing   

Remove a formula by choosing Edit | Clear Formula.

The formulas present in a summary table control the attributes in the collection you get when you create a
collection from its cells.

See also
Add Formula 401
Add Five-Number Summary 402
Sort Categories by Formula Value 404
Create Collection From Cells 404
Work with Summary Tables 108

9.3.8.3 Add Five-Number Summary

Available when a summary table containing at least one numeric attribute is selected. Adds the following
formulas to the selected summary table: min, Q1, median, Q3, and max. (This command is a shortcut for
repeatedly using the Add Formula command and specifying each formula.)

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 Reference

Boston
Total_pe rs onal_incom e
25400.853
0
4000
16000
34200
321000
S1 = mean  
S2 = min  
S3 = Q1  
S4 = median  
S5 = Q3  
S6 = max  

Selecting a formula below the table highlights that formula’s results in the table’s cells.
Boston
Total_pe rs onal_incom e
25400.853
0
4000
16000
34200
321000
S1 = mean  
S2 = min  
S3 = Q1  
S4 = median  
S5 = Q3  
S6 = max  

Remove a formula by choosing Edit | Clear Formula.

The formulas present in a summary table control the attributes in the collection you get when you create a
collection from its cells.

See also
Add Formula 401
Add Basic Statistics 402
Create Collection From Cells 404
Work with Summary Tables 108

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9.3.8.4 Remove Attribute

Removes the selected attribute from the summary table.
Boston Boston

Total_pe rs onal_incom e 25400.853 Total_pe rs onal_incom e 25400.853

Wage_and_salary_incom e 22682.098 S1 = mean  
S1 = mean  

See also
Work with Summary Tables 108

9.3.8.5 Sort Categories by Formula Value

Sorts the cells in a summary table according to the values of the formula.
New York City New York City

American Indian 2 American Indian 2

Black/Negro 60 Japanese 2
Chinese 14 Tw o or more major races 4
Filipino 11 Filipino 11
Race__General Race__General
Japanese 2 Chinese 14
Other race, nec 22 Other race, nec 22
Tw o or more major races 4 Black/Negro 60
White 188 White 188
Column Summary 303 Column Summary 303
S1 = count   S1 = count  

When more than one categorical attribute or more than one formula is present, the command is ghosted.
Enable it by first selecting the attribute you want to sort or the formula by which you want to sort.

See also
Sort Categories in a Summary Table 112
Work with Summary Tables 108

9.3.8.6 Create Collection From Cells

Creates a new derived collection named Cells from [Collection Name] Table containing the summary
table’s data. Each cell in the table becomes a case in this new collection; each formula becomes an
attribute.

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 Reference

Boston
Total_pe rs onal_incom e
19223.189
243
Female
24848.422
1594.027
Sex
32688.097
206
Male
40477.813
2820.2228
Column Summary 25400.853
449
33591.478
1585.2798
S1 = mean  
S2 = count  
S3 = stdDev  
S4 = stdError  

See also
Create a Collection from the Cells of a Summary Table 161

9.3.8.7 Format Value

Gives you control over how the summary table cells display a numeric or a date/time value. The
functionality is similar to that of the Format Attribute command from the Case Table menu (see
Format Attributes in Case Tables 386 )
9.3.9 Estimate Menu
The Estimate menu contains commands for working with the selected interval estimate.

Subsections
Verbose 405
Remove Attribute 406
Collect Results As Measures 406

9.3.9.1 Verbose
Estimates have verbose mode turned on or off according to the setting in Preferences. Whichever
setting you use, you can change the selected object’s output form using this command. Verbose mode
explains the estimate and confidence interval in common English. To better approximate other programs’
statistical output, uncheck the Verbose command.

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Estimate of Boston Estimate Mean Estimate of Boston Estimate Mean

Attribute (numeric): Age Attribute (numeric): Age
Interval estimate for population mean of Age Interval estimate for population mean of Age

Sample count: 200 Count: 200

Sample mean: 35.01 Mean: 35.01
Standard deviation: 22.1166 Std dev: 22.1166
Standard error: 1.56388 Std error: 1.56388
Confidence level: 95.0 %
Based on the sample, the 95.0 % confidence interval Estimate: 35.01 +/- 3.08391
for the population mean of Age is 35.01 plus or minus Range: 31.9261 to 38.0939
3.08391, ranging from 31.9261 to 38.0939.

If the sampling process w ere performed repeatedly,

the confidence intervals generated w ould capture the
population mean 95.0 % of the time.

See also
Shorten the Output in Statistical Inference Objects 173

9.3.9.2 Remove Attribute

Removes the selected attribute from the estimate. This command is disabled if no attribute is selected.
Select an attribute by clicking its name in the top of the object.

9.3.9.3 Collect Results As Measures

Creates a derived collection, called Measures from [source name], containing results of the selected
estimate.

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Estimate of Boston Estimate Mean

Attribute (numeric): Age
Interval estimate for population mean of Age

Sample count: 200

Sample mean: 35.01
Standard deviation: 22.1166
Standard error: 1.56388

Based on the sample, the 95.0 % confidence

interval for the population mean of Age is Measures from Estimate of Boston
35.01 plus or minus 3.08391, ranging from
31.9261 to 38.0939.

If the sampling process w ere performed

repeatedly, the confidence intervals
generated w ould capture the population
mean 95.0 % of the time.

You get five identical cases (the default for collecting measures). Control the collection process in the
inspector’s Collect Measures panel. By using one or more sliders in the statistical object, you can
explore statistical concepts, such as the effect of change in the data’s spread on the width of a confidence
interval.

See also
Collect Results from Statistical Objects 161

9.3.10 Test Menu

The Test menu contains commands for working with the selected hypothesis test.

Subsections
Verbose 407
Remove Attribute 408
Collect Results As Measures 408
Show Test Statistic Distribution/Show p_hat Distribution 409

9.3.10.1 Verbose
Hypothesis tests have verbose mode turned on by default, unless you have changed this in Preferences.
Verbose mode explains the test’s results in common English. To better approximate other program’s
statistical output, uncheck Verbose.

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Test of Boston Test Mean

Attribute (numeric): Age

Attribute: Age
Sample count: 485 Test of Boston Test Mean
Sample mean: 37.5196
Attribute (numeric): Age
Standard deviation: 22.4647
Standard error: 1.02007 Ho: population mean of Age equals 35
Alternative hypothesis: The population mean of Ha: population mean of Age is not equal to 35
Age is not equal to 35
Count: 485
The test statistic, Student's t, is 2.47. There are Mean: 37.5196
484 degrees of freedom (one less than the Std dev: 22.4647
sample size). Std error: 1.02007
Student's t: 2.47
If it w ere true that the population mean of Age DF: 484
w ere equal to 35 (the null hypothesis), and the P-value: 0.014
sampling process w ere performed repeatedly, the
probability of getting a value for Student's t w ith
an absolute value this great or greater
w ould be 0.014.

See also
Preferences 377

9.3.10.2 Remove Attribute

Removes the selected attribute from the test. This command is disabled if no attribute is selected. Select
an attribute by clicking its name in the top of the object.

9.3.10.3 Collect Results As Measures

Creates a derived collection, called Measures from [source name], containing results of the selected
hypothesis test.

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Test of Boston Test Mean

Attribute (numeric): Age

Ho: population mean of Age equals 35
Ha: population mean of Age is not equal to 35

Count: 485
Mean: 37.5196
Std dev: 22.4647 Measures from Test of Boston
Std error: 1.02007
Student's t: 2.47
DF: 484
P-value: 0.014

You get five identical cases (the default for collecting measures). Control the collection process in the
inspector’s Collect Measures panel. By using one or more sliders in the statistical object, you can
explore statistical concepts, such as the effect of change in the data’s spread on statistical results.

See also
Use Sliders to Vary Summary Information in a Statistical Object 173
Collect Measures from a Test or Estimate 210

9.3.10.4 Show Test Statistic Distribution/Show p_hat Distribution

Creates a function plot of the theoretical distribution of the relevant statistic for your test, with a shaded
portion showing the relevant region.

9.3.11 Model Menu

The Model menu contains commands for working with the selected linear model. The last three
commands apply only to multiple regression models.

Subsections
Verbose 410
Remove Attribute 410
Collect Results As Measures 411

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Hide/Show Sequential Contributions Chart 411

Hide/Show ANOVA Table 412
Show/Hide Predictors in ANOVA Table 412

9.3.11.1 Verbose
Model objects have verbose mode turned on by default, unless you change this behavior in Preferences.
Verbose mode explains the model’s results in common English. To better approximate other program’s
statistical output, uncheck the Verbose command.
Model of Cars Simple Regression Model of Cars Simple Regression

Response attribute (numeric): Hghw yMPG Response attribute (numeric): Hghw yMPG
Predictor attribute (numeric): NumCylinders Predictor attribute (numeric): NumCylinders
Sample count: 92 Sample count: 92
Equation: HghwyMPG = -2.60557
Equation of least-squares regression line: NumCylinders + 42.073
Hghw yMPG = -2.60557 Num Cylinde rs + r: -0.636174
42.073 r-squared: 0.40472
Correlation coefficient, r = -0.636174 Slope: -2.60557 +/- 0.661751
r-squared = 0.40472, indicating that 40.472% of SE Slope: 0.333095
the variation in Hghw yMPG is accounted for by Confidence level: 95 %
Num Cylinde rs.
When Num Cylinde rs = 0 , the predicted value for a future
The best estimate for the slope is -2.60557 +/- observation of Hghw yMPG is 42.0733 +/- 8.90936
0.661751 at a 95 % confidence level. (The
standard error of the slope is 0.333095.)

See also
Shorten the Output in Statistical Inference Objects 173

9.3.11.2 Remove Attribute

Removes the selected attribute from the model. This command is disabled if no attribute is selected.
Select an attribute by clicking its name in the top of the object.

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9.3.11.3 Collect Results As Measures

Creates a derived collection, called Measures from [source name], containing results of the selected
statistical object.
Model of Cars Simple Regression
Response attribute (numeric): Hghw yMPG
Predictor attribute (numeric): NumCylinders
Sample count: 92

Equation of least-squares regression line:

Hghw yMPG = -2.60557 Num Cylinde rs +
42.073
Correlation coefficient, r = -0.636174
r-squared = 0.40472, indicating that 40.472% of
the variation in Hghw yMPG is accounted for by
Measures from Model of Cars
Num Cylinde rs.

The best estimate for the slope is -2.60557 +/-

0.661751 at a 95 % confidence level. (The
standard error of the slope is 0.333095.)

When Num Cylinde rs = 0 , the predicted value

for a future observation of Hghw yMPG is
42.0733 +/- 8.90936.

You get five identical cases (the default for collecting measures). Control the collection process in the
inspector’s Collect Measures panel. By using one or more sliders in the model, you can explore
statistical concepts.
9.3.11.4 Hide/Show Sequential Contributions Chart
Available only for multiple regression. Hides the ribbon chart shown by default in the multiple regression
model object.
Model of Airplanes Multiple Regression

Response attribute (numeric): costph

Std t P Multiple Regression

Model of Airplanes
Pr e dictor Coe fficie nt Error Statistic V alue  R2 Response attribute (numeric): costph
Cons tant -5692.0978 2762.7173 -2.060 0.0541
Std t P
s pe e d 18.3048 6.9198 2.645 0.0165 0.0785
Pr e dictor Coe fficie nt Error Statistic V alue  R2
r ange 0.5470 0.3195 1.712 0.1041 0.0329
Cons tant -5692.0978 2762.7173 -2.060 0.0541
Regression Equation: costph =   + speed + range s pe e d 18.3048 6.9198 2.645 0.0165 0.0785
r ange 0.5470 0.3195 1.712 0.1041 0.0329

Regression Equation: costph =   + speed + range

20 40 60 80 100 Degrees of Sum of M e an F P
speed range Residual Sour ce Fr e e dom Squar e s Squar e Statistic V alue  R2
Sequential Contributions Re gr e s s ion 2 5.2359e+07 2.61795e+07 35.544 0.0000 0.7980
Degrees of Sum of M e an F P Residual 18 1.32578e+07 736547
Sour ce Fr e e dom Squar e s Squar e Statistic V alue  R2
Total 20 6.56168e+07
Re gr e s s ion 2 5.2359e+07 2.61795e+07 35.544 0.0000 0.7980
R-Squared: 0.797951
Residual 18 1.32578e+07 736547 Adjusted R-Squared: 0.775501
Total 20 6.56168e+07 Standard Deviation of the Error: 858.223
R-Squared: 0.797951
Adjusted R-Squared: 0.775501
Standard Deviation of the Error: 858.223

See also
Multiple Regression 203

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9.3.11.5 Hide/Show ANOVA Table

Available only for multiple regression. Hides or shows the ANOVA table in the bottom of the multiple
regression object.
Model of Airplanes Multiple Regression

Response attribute (numeric): costph

Std t P Multiple Regression

Model of Airplanes
Pr e dictor Coe fficie nt Error Statistic V alue  R2 Response attribute (numeric): costph
Cons tant -5692.0978 2762.7173 -2.060 0.0541
Std t P
s pe e d 18.3048 6.9198 2.645 0.0165 0.0785
Pr e dictor Coe fficie nt Error Statistic V alue  R2
r ange 0.5470 0.3195 1.712 0.1041 0.0329
Cons tant -5692.0978 2762.7173 -2.060 0.0541
Regression Equation: costph =   + speed + range s pe e d 18.3048 6.9198 2.645 0.0165 0.0785
r ange 0.5470 0.3195 1.712 0.1041 0.0329

Regression Equation: costph =   + speed + range

20 40 60 80 100
speed range Residual
Sequential Contributions

Degrees of Sum of M e an F P 20 40 60 80 100

Sour ce Fr e e dom Squar e s Squar e Statistic V alue  R2 speed range Residual
Re gr e s s ion 2 5.2359e+07 2.61795e+07 35.544 0.0000 0.7980 Sequential Contributions
R-Squared: 0.797951
Residual 18 1.32578e+07 736547 Adjusted R-Squared: 0.775501
Total 20 6.56168e+07 Standard Deviation of the Error: 858.223
R-Squared: 0.797951
Adjusted R-Squared: 0.775501
Standard Deviation of the Error: 858.223

See also
Multiple Regression 203

9.3.11.6 Show/Hide Predictors in ANOVA Table

Available only for multiple regression, when the ANOVA table is shown. Shows or hides the
contribution of each predictor in the model.
Model of Airplanes Multiple Regression
Model of Airplanes Multiple Regression
Response attribute (numeric): costph
Response attribute (numeric): costph
Std t P
Std t P
Pr e dictor Coe fficie nt Error Statistic V alue  R2
Pr e dictor Coe fficie nt Error Statistic V alue  R2
Cons tant -5692.0978 2762.7173 -2.060 0.0541
Cons tant -5692.0978 2762.7173 -2.060 0.0541
s pe e d 18.3048 6.9198 2.645 0.0165 0.0785
s pe e d 18.3048 6.9198 2.645 0.0165 0.0785
r ange 0.5470 0.3195 1.712 0.1041 0.0329
r ange 0.5470 0.3195 1.712 0.1041 0.0329
Regression Equation: costph =   + speed + range
Regression Equation: costph =   + speed + range

20 40 60 80 100
20 40 60 80 100 speed range Residual
speed range Residual
Sequential Contributions
Sequential Contributions
Degrees of Sum of M e an F P
Degrees of Sum of M e an F P Sour ce Fr e e dom Squar e s Squar e Statistic V alue  R2
Sour ce Fr e e dom Squar e s Squar e Statistic V alue  R2
s pe e d 1 5.02001e+07 5.02001e+07 61.868 0.0000 0.7650
Re gr e s s ion 2 5.2359e+07 2.61795e+07 35.544 0.0000 0.7980
r ange 1 2.15892e+06 2.15892e+06 2.931 0.1041 0.0329
Residual 18 1.32578e+07 736547
Residual 18 1.32578e+07 736547
Total 20 6.56168e+07
Total 20 6.56168e+07
R-Squared: 0.797951
Adjusted R-Squared: 0.775501 R-Squared: 0.797951
Standard Deviation of the Error: 858.223 Adjusted R-Squared: 0.775501
Standard Deviation of the Error: 858.223

See also
Multiple Regression 203

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9.3.12 Window Menu

Use the Window menu to choose among the current windows.

Subsection
Cascade (Win only) 413
[Documents] 413

9.3.12.1 Cascade (Win only)

Lays out the windows of all of your currently open Fathom documents, so that you can see all their title
bars. (Available in Windows only.)
9.3.12.2 [Documents]
All of your currently open Fathom documents are listed in the Windows menu; choose one to bring it to
the front and make it the active window.
9.3.13 Help Menu
Use the Help menu to invoke Help. This launches your Web browser and opens Fathom Help on the
introductory page. Fathom Movies takes you to the page of Help that lists the short movies provided
with Fathom, illustrating how to accomplish various tasks. (You need QuickTime to watch the movies.)
Sample Documents takes you to the page of Help that lists all of the sample documents that come with
Fathom. Troubleshooting takes you to the introductory page of the troubleshooting section of Help.

It also has commands that will take you to the Fathom Resource Center on the Web: Fathom Resource
Center takes you to the home page. Check For Updates takes you to the Web page where you can find
out what the latest version of Fathom is and download an upgrade, if necessary. Technical Support
takes you to the Web page that has a tech support form in which you can ask Key’s tech support team for
help.

On Windows computers, there is also the About Fathom splash screen in which you can see what
version of Fathom you are running. On Mac, this is found in the Fathom menu.
9.3.14 Context (Right-Click) Menus
For those of you who like to right-click, Fathom also provides context or shortcut menus. On Windows
computers, click the button on the right side of the mouse; on Macintosh computers, hold down Ctrl and
click objects to invoke these menus. This brings up a menu of items relevant to that object, collected
from many of the menu-bar menus.

For example, if you show the context menu for a graph, you’ll get many items from the Graph menu and
also items from the Collection menu, such as New Cases.

9.4 Fathom Operators, Functions, and Units

This section of Fathom Help gives a comprehensive list of all operators, functions, “special values,” and
units available in Fathom. You can also read details about a given function by selecting it in the formula
editor and reading the help pane below the attribute and function list.

Subsections
Operators 414

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Arithmetic Functions 415

Trigonometric Functions 416
Statistics Functions 417
Random Functions 421
Distribution Functions 423
Logical Functions 430
Conditional Functions 431
Text Functions 431
Other 433
Special Values 434
Special Values for Summary Table 434
Special Value for Histogram 435
Special Value for Ntigram 435
Units 435

9.4.1 Operators
Arithmetic operators: +, -, × , ÷, ^, !
Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, raise to a power, and factorial. These operators obey
normal algebraic precedence, but you should use parentheses when in doubt. All of these except ! are
available from the formula editor’s keypad. You can also use the computer’s keyboard: * for
multiplication, / for division,
^ (Shift+6) to raise to a power.

Logical operators (Boolean operators): and, or, not

Use the keypad buttons on the screen to enter and and or. You may also type them, but be careful to use
parentheses around sub-expressions. Use & (Shift+7) as a shortcut for and. Use Ctrl+Shift+O (Win)
Option+Shift+O (Mac) as a shortcut for or. Use ~ as a shortcut for not, which will show up as .
See Work with Formulas 120 .

Comparison operators: <, >, =, ≤, ≥, and ≠.

To use the last three, press Ctrl (Win) Option (Mac) and click the key on the keypad. You can also type
them from the computer keyboard, holding down Ctrl (Win) Option (Mac) to get the last three.
Fraction inversion: If nothing is selected, this key makes a fraction, with 1 in the numerator
and a blinking caret in the denominator. If something is selected, it takes the selection and
puts it in the denominator of a fraction, with 1 in the numerator.
Square root: If nothing is selected, this key makes the square root symbol and places the
caret inside it. If something is selected, it places the selection inside the square root. The
keyboard shortcut is Ctrl+Shift+R (Win) Option+Shift+R (Mac).
Parentheses: This key surrounds the selection (or caret) with parentheses. You always get a
pair, never just one. From the keyboard, type only the left parenthesis to get the pair. Type a
right parenthesis to move the caret outside the parentheses, no matter where you are in
them.
Absolute value: This key surrounds the selection (or caret) with the vertical bars that
represent the absolute value operator. You can also enter this operator with the vertical bar
key on your computer keyboard.

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Left and right arrows: Either on the keypad or on the computer keyboard, the arrow keys
move the caret left and right. Of course, because algebraic expressions are more complicated
than normal text, sometimes an arrow key will move the caret up or down to the preceding
or next part of the expression.
Up and down arrows: Either on the keypad or computer keyboard, the up arrow selects
more of the expression and the down arrow selects less of the selection. These, in combination
with the left and right arrows and Tab, provide a quick way to move around a complicated
expression.
Comma: Many functions use a comma to separate multiple arguments. For example, modulo
(7,3) will give 7 mod 3. You can enter the comma from the keypad, by holding down Ctrl
(Win) Option (Mac) and clicking the button, or directly from the computer keyboard.
Tab: The Tab key on the computer keyboard moves the selection to the next entry location,
for example, the next number or argument to a function. When you reach the last one, it
wraps around to the first. Shift+Tab moves in the opposite direction.

9.4.2 Arithmetic Functions

Computes the absolute value of its argument. This is
abs Absolute value completely equivalent to using the absolute value
bars. So, abs(3-7) = |3 – 7|=4.

ceiling (opposite of Returns the closest integer greater than or equal to

ceiling
“floor)” its argument: ceiling (7.3) returns 8.
combinations(n, k)
Returns the number of combinations of n things
combinations taken k at a time. For example, combinations(5,2) is
10.

Raises e, the base of the natural logarithms, to a

Exponential function (“e
exp power: exp(2) is about 7.34; exp(1)is e, which is
to the…”)
2.718….

Sometimes written using

, where x is the Returns the closest integer less than or equal to its
floor
number whose floor you argument: floor(3.98) is 3; floor(–3.98) is –4.
want
Returns the number, which, used as the power of e,
ln Natural logarithm gives the argument. For example, ln(12) is about
2.485 because e^2.485 is about 12.
Returns the number, which, used as the power of 10
log Common logarithm gives the argument. For example, log(1000) is 3
because 10^3 is 1000.

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Returns, roughly, the logRelativeError(expected, actual) is defined as -log(|

number of digits in actual-expected|/expected). With the arguments 1.0
logRelativeError
agreement between the and 1.01, the result is 2 because there are two digits
two arguments in common.
Returns the modulus, the remainder after one number
Often written as “mod” is divided by another: modulo(11, 4) is 3. The
modulo
as in 7 mod 3 = 1 numbers need not be integers: modulo(12.1,1.5) is
0.1.
This function has an optional, second argument that
Rounds to the nearest specifies how many decimals to round to: round
round
integer (3.14) is 3, round(ð, 4) is 3.1416, and round(1234, –
2) is 1200.

Takes a quantity (number Use this when you need to get rid of the units: scalar
scalar with units) and returns (7s) is 7. Be aware that changing units of an attribute
just the number will affect the value that scalar returns.
Returns +1 for arguments > 0; –1 for arguments <
sgn Signum function
0; 0 for arguments = 0.

sqrt Square root function Examples: sqrt(4) returns 2; sqrt(9m^2) returns 3 m.

Returns the integer part of the argument: trunc

trunc Truncation function
(3.1415) returns 3; trunc(-1.234) returns –1.

Returns a quantity with

the numeric value of 1 Examples: unitOf(8years) returns 1 year; unitOf(3m/s *
unitOf
and the units of its 2s) returns 1 m.
argument

9.4.3 Trigonometric Functions

Fathom knows about the six regular trigonometric functions and their inverses. It also knows about the
six hyperbolic trig functions and their inverses, even though they are not listed in the formula editor.

Arguments for trig functions are assumed to be in radians if they don’t have units, but units may be
explicitly specified, for example, sin(90deg) is 1. The inverse functions return radians, which may be
converted to degrees: asin(1) is 1.57, and asin(1)*360deg/2ð is 90 degrees.

Regular trig functions: sin, cos, tan, sec, csc, cot. The argument is in radians and the returned value has
no units.
Inverses of regular trig functions: asin, acos, atan, asec, acsc, acot. The argument has no units and the
returned values are in radians.
Hyperbolic trig functions: sinh, cosh, tanh, sech, csch, coth. The argument is in radians and the returned
value has no units.
Inverse hyperbolic trig functions: asinh, acosh, atanh, asech, acsch, acoth. The argument has no units and
the returned values are in radians.

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Arctangent Returns the angle in radians whose tangent is the second argument
with two divided by the first where the signs of the two arguments determine
atan2
numeric which quadrant the angle is in: atan2(0.5,-1) is –1.107 radians;
arguments atan2(-1,1)*360deg/2ð is 135 degrees.

9.4.4 Statistics Functions

These functions are all for use with attributes in collections. For example, with a collection People and an
attribute height, mean(height) might be 67 inches. But mean(12) results in an evaluation error.

All of these functions have an optional final argument that is a filter specifying on which cases the
function should act. For example, mean(height, Sex="male") returns the mean height of the males in the
collection.

Subsections
One Attribute Statistics Functions 417
Transformations 419
Two Attributes 420

9.4.4.1 One Attribute Statistics Functions

With no arguments, this returns the number of cases in the collection. An optional
argument serves as a filter for the cases that will be counted. For example, count
(NumberOfPets > 0) will return the number of cases for which NumberOfPets is
count
greater than zero. Similarly, count(exists(Gender)) will return the number of cases
for which the attribute Gender is defined, and count(missing(Height)) counts the
number of cases for which a value for the attribute Height is missing.
Returns the first value in the collection for the given attribute; for example, first
first (height) would be 61 inches for a collection of people in which the first person’s
height is 61 inches.
Interquartile range, for example, iqr(blood_pressure). This function returns the
iqr
value at the 75th percentile minus the value at the 25th percentile.

Returns the last value in the collection for the given attribute; for example, last
last (name) would be Zelda for a collection of ducks in which the last duck’s name is
Zelda.

max Maximum value; for example, max(age).

mean The arithmetic mean; for example, mean(height).

The median; for example, median(speed). Half the values of the attribute will be
median
above this and half will be below.

min Minimum value; for example, min(salary).

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Takes two arguments, the first being the desired percentile and the second the
attribute for which the percentile will be computed. For example, percentile(50,
speed) is another way to compute the median. Or percentile(95,score) will return
percentile
the score corresponding to the 95th percentile. The first argument should be a
constant, not an attribute. If it is an attribute, the value of that attribute for the
first case will be used.

The population standard deviation of an attribute computed using the formula

popStdDev (x  x)2
 n
The population variance of the values computed using the formula
(x-x) 2
popVariance
 n- 1

Computes the product of numeric values for an attribute. An option filter as a

second parameter can limit the computation to certain cases. If there are no cases,
product it returns 1. Example: product(flags) would compute the product of all values of the
attribute flags. This might be useful if the values were all 0 or 1, because it would
tell you if there were any zeros.

Gives the proportion of cases for which the argument is true. For example, if 12
proportion out of 24 people are over 12 years old, proportion(age > 12) will yield 0.5. When
used without an argument, this will return 1.
The value that lies at the 25th percentile; for example, the first quartile. 25% of the
Q1 values will be lower than this number and 75% will be higher. Q1(score) might give
45.

The value that lies at the 75th percentile; for example, the third quartile. 75% of
Q3 the values will be lower than this number and 25% will be higher. Q3(height) might
give 69 in.
Each of these computes the sample standard deviation according to the formula
(x-x) 2
s
sampleStdDev
 n- 1
stdDev
The result is an estimate of the population standard deviation for a sample of size
N. For example, s(pressure) computes the sample standard deviation of the
attribute pressure.
Computes the square of the sample standard deviation according to the formula
(x  x)2
sampleVariance  n 1
. For example, sampleVariance(voltage) would compute the sample
variance of the attribute voltage.

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 Reference

Returns the standard error; for example, stdError(score). The formula used is
stdError s
n where s is the sample standard deviation and n is the number of cases.
Returns the sum of the values over all the cases. For example, sum(time)/count
sum
(isNumber(Time)) is another way to compute the mean of the attribute Time.

The number of unique values that an attribute has in the collection. For example,
uniqueValues uniqueValues(sex) will be 2 if there are only two values ("male" and "female") for
sex. (Missing values are ignored.)

Computes the variance of an attribute, that is, the square of the standard deviation,
according to the formula
(x  x)2
variance  n
For example, variance(before–after) computes the variance of the difference of the
two attributes before and after.

9.4.4.2 Transformations
This function helps recode numeric data to categorical by allowing you to define
histogram-like bins into which numeric values will be recoded. It takes the form bin
(a, bin, min, max) where a = attribute, bin = bin width, min = start of bin 1, and max
bin
= end. bin gives you a string (category value) for a—its “bin” as defined by the other
arguments. For example, bin(3.14, 2, 0, 10) gives “b02” because the value (3.14) is in
bin #2 in [0, 10] with bins of width 2. (The last two arguments are optional.)

The value for the next case. If this is the last case, next returns 0. For example, next
(year) returns, for each case, the value of the next year. As with prev (see below),
next next takes an optional second argument that specifies the value to be returned for
the last case. If a third argument is present, it is treated as a filter; for example, next
(height,0,Sex="f") returns the height of the next female, 0 if none.

Returns the number of population standard deviations a value is from the mean. For
popZScore example, popZScore(finalExam) computes a standard score for each value of the
attribute finalExam.
The value for the previous case. If this case is the first case, prev returns 0. For
example, prev(year) returns, for each case, the value of the previous year. A second,
optional argument allows you to specify the value that prev should take if there is no
prev previous case. For example, prev(Factor, 1) will return the previous value of Factor
for all cases except the first, for which it returns 1. If a third argument is present, it
is treated as a filter; for example, prev(numberInLine,0,Flavor="strawberry") returns the
closest previous value of numberInLine for which Flavor has the value “strawberry”.

Returns the position of the value when cases are ordered from lowest to highest.
For example, rank(Population) used as an attribute in a collection of states assigns to
rank
each state its rank according to population. Note that if there are duplicate values,
the rank will be fractional and the same for all the values. See also uniqueRank 420 .

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Fathom 2 Help

Gives the number of identical values immediately prior to and including the current
value. For example, if flip contained {H, H, H, T, H, T, T}, this example would
runLength
return {1, 2, 3, 1, 1, 1, 2}. You could use max(runLength(flip)) to compute the
longest streak of heads or tails in a coin-flipping simulation.
Returns the number of sample standard deviations a value is from the mean. For
example, sampleZScore(height) computes a standard score for each value of the
sampleZScore attribute height. Use this function in preference to popZScore when you are working
zScore
with a sample of a population and do not know the true population standard
deviation.

Returns the unique position of a value in a list of values sorted from smallest to
largest. Each value in the list gets assigned a different rank, even if there are
uniqueRank duplicate values. For example, if attribute N contains the values {1, 2, 3, 2}, an
attribute using the expression uniqueRank(N) will have values {1, 2, 4, 3}. See also
rank.

9.4.4.3 Two Attributes

All of the following functions take two attributes for arguments. For the linear regression functions, the
first argument is the predictor, or independent, variable; the second argument is the response, or
dependent, variable.
Returns the correlation coefficient for two numeric attributes. For example,
correlation(stories, height) will return the correlation coefficient for stories and
correlation
height. This value will be between –1 and +1 and is a measure of how closely the
values of one attribute follow those of the other.
Returns the average of the products of the deviations of each of two attributes
from the mean. For example, one use would be to compute covariance(hp,
covariance
mpg)/variance(hp), which would give the slope of the least-squares regression
line for mpg versus hp.
Linear regression intercept. Returns the intercept of the least-squares regression
line with the first attribute as a predictor and the second attribute as a response.
linRegrIntercept Example: linRegrIntercept(stories, height) would return the height when there are
zero stories according to the least-squares regression fit of the attributes stories
and height.
Linear regression predicted. Takes two attribute arguments, the first a predictor
attribute and the second a response attribute. For each value of the predictor
attribute, this returns the value predicted by a least-squares regression using the
linRegrPredicted two attributes.
Example: linRegrPredicted(horsepower, mpg) could be used as the formula for an
attribute that contains the predicted value of mpg for each actual value of
horsepower.
Linear regression residual. Like linRegrPredicted, this is used as a formula for an
attribute.
linRegrResidual
Example: linRegrResidual(Ht_Husband, Ht_Wife) returns, for each case, the
difference between the actual value for Ht_Wife and the predicted value.

420
 Reference

Linear regression standard error of the slope. The returned value estimates the
width of the distribution of values for slope that would be obtained through
repeated sampling from the population from which the predictor and response
linRegrSESlope attributes are drawn.
Example: linRegrSESlope(Ht_Husband, Ht_Wife) returns the standard error of
the slope of the regression line that has Ht_Husband as the predictor and
Ht_Wife as the response.
Linear regression slope. Returns the slope of the least-squares regression line
linRegrSlope
with x as the independent attribute and y as the dependent attribute.
Computes the population mean of the product of the deviations of two
popCovariance random variables from their respective means. An optional filter as a third
parameter can limit the computation to certain cases.
The square of the correlation coefficient for two attributes. covariance(x, y)
rSquared represents the proportion of the variation of y that is accounted for by the
variation in x. It takes on values between 0 and 1.
Computes the sample mean of the product of the deviations of two random
sampleCovariance variables from their respective means. An optional filter as a third parameter
can limit the computation to certain cases.

9.4.5 Random Functions

random( )
random(max)
random(min, max)
randomInteger(min, max)
randomPick(a1, a2, … )
randomBinomial(n, p)
n = number of trials
p = probability of success
A random number between 0 and 1 drawn from a uniform
distribution.
A random (real) number between 0 and max drawn from a uniform
distribution.
A random (real) number between min and max drawn from a uniform
distribution: random(-10, 10) returns a number between –10 and 10.
A random integer between its two arguments, inclusive. With no
arguments, it returns either 0 or 1 with equal probability. With one
argument, it returns an integer between 0 and the value of the
argument: randomInteger(1, 6) gives 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6, chosen at
random, such that each integer has equal probability.
Gives an element randomly chosen from a list of any number of
arguments:
randomPick(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) makes a die.
randomPick("heads", "tails") makes a coin.
randomPick("Male", "Male", "Female") gives you a population that is
two-thirds male.
Gives a random integer from a binomial distribution: randomBinomial
(20, 0.5) gives the number of heads in 20 tosses of a fair coin.
Two optional arguments provide a minimum and maximum value:
randomBinomial(5,0.5,1,2) draws numbers from a binomial distribution
and scales them so that the possible results are 1.0, 1.2, 1.4, 1.6, 1.8,
and 2.0.

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randomNormal(mu, sd)
mu = the mean
sd = standard deviation
randomGeometric(p)
p = the probability of
a “catch.”
Must be between 0 and 1.
randomExponential(mu)
mu = the mean
and must be positive.
A random real number pulled from a normal distribution. For
example, randomNormal(0, 1) gives a number from a distribution with a
mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.
A random nonnegative integer from a geometric distribution. Think
of the result as the number of repetitions of some event before the
result is positive given that the probability of that positive outcome is
p.
Example: randomGeometric(0.5) generates the distribution of additional
flips of a coin necessary to get a head. Two additional parameters to
the function help here. randomGeometric(p, scale, min) has possible
values min, min + scale, min + 2*scale, and so on.
So, randomGeometric(0.5, 1, 1) generates the distribution of the
number of coin flips needed to get a head.
A random real number greater than zero, pulled from a distribution
that declines exponentially (so there are more near zero, just as in the
geometric distribution): randomExponential(5)min would be for
simulating times between customers when the average time between
customers is known to be 5 minutes.
A second, optional argument specifies the minimum value returned.
randomExponential(mu, min) will have a mean of mu + min.

Other Random Number Functions

Fathom has a number of less commonly encountered random number functions, each of which returns
numbers from a different distribution. These include randomBeta, randomCauchy, randomChiSquare,
randomF, randomGamma, randomHyperGeometric, randomPoisson, and randomT, randomUniform, and
randomUniformLattice. The help pane that appears at the bottom of the formula editor will provide some
guidance for using these functions.
9.4.6 Date/Time Functions
Takes its three arguments and returns a date. The month and day
date( year, month, day)
arguments are optional. Example: date( 1777, 4, 7) returns April 7,
1777.

dayOfMonth (date) Returns the day of the month corresponding to the given date.
Example: If date is Aug, 31, 2005, dayOfMonth( date) returns 31.

Returns the day of the week (as a number) corresponding to the given
dayOfWeek( date)
date.Example: If date is Aug, 31, 2005, dayOfWeek( date) returns 4
because August 31, 2005 is a Wednesday

Returns the short name of the day of the week corresponding to the
dayOfWeekName( date)
given date.Example: If date is Aug, 31, 2005, dayOfWeekName( date)
returns "Wed".

Returns the day of the year corresponding to the given date. Example:
dayOfYear( date)
If date is Aug, 31, 2005, dayOfYear( date) returns 243 because Aug 31
is the 243rd day of 2005.

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Returns the hour (in 24 hour time) corresponding to the given

hour( date_time)
date_time.Example: If date_time is 3:30 PM on Aug, 31, 2005, hour
( date_time) returns 15.

Returns the minute corresponding to the given date_time. Example: If

minute( date_time)
date_time is 3:30 PM on Aug, 31, 2005, minute( date_time) returns 30.

Returns the number of the month corresponding to the given date.

month( date)
Example: If date is Aug, 31, 2005, month( date) returns 8.

Returns the short name of the month corresponding to the given date.
monthName( date)
Example: If date is Aug, 31, 2005, dayOfMonth( date) returns
"August".
now( )
Returns the current date and time as determined by the computer.

Returns the second corresponding to the given date_time. Example: If

second( date_time)
date_time is 3:30:05 PM on Aug, 31, 2005, second( date_time) returns
5.

stringToDateTime( date-time- Attempts to form a date-time from the given string as though it were
string)
typed in.

Attempts to form a time duration from the given string as though it

stringToTimeDuration( time-
duration-string)
were typed in. Example: stringToTimeDuration("3:30:05") returns
3.50139 hours.
It is not required to include seconds, so stringToTimeDuration
("3:30") returns 3.5 hours.

ticks( ) Returns the current number of 60ths of a second since the computer
was last turned on.

today( ) Returns the current date as determined by the computer

Returns the year corresponding to the given date. Example: If date is

year( date) Aug, 31, 2005, year( date) returns 2005.

9.4.7 Distribution Functions

Distribution functions give you access to statistical distributions. You can use distribution functions as
part of case functions or as part of aggregate functions. Each distribution has three functions associated
with it:
A cumulative function returns the integral of the probability distribution from its lower bound up to a
given value, x. This function is typically used to determine the likelihood that a value as extreme as, or
more extreme than, some observed value would occur.

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no data Function Plot

0.8

0.4

0.0

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
x
y = normalCumulative  x 

A density function returns the probability density of the distribution at a given value, x. You can plot
this function to see the shape of the distribution.
no data Function Plot
0.4

0.2

0.0

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
x
y = normalDensity  x 

A quantile function returns the value whose cumulative probability is equal to a given value, c. You can
use this function to, for example, determine the critical value for a test statistic. You can think about it
with reference to a standardized test in which you are interested in the score on the test corresponding to
some percentile. A quantile function returns the score.
no data Function Plot
6
4
2
0
-2
-4
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
x
y = normalQuantile  x 

See also
Plot a Distribution Over a Histogram 52

Subsections
Binomial Distribution 425
Chi-Square Distribution 425
Exponential Distribution 426
F-Distribution 427
Geometric Distribution 428
Normal Distribution 428

424
 Reference

Other Distributions 429

9.4.7.1 Binomial Distribution

Think of this distribution in terms of coin flips. You have a certain number of coins, n, and a certain
probability of getting heads, p. This distribution deals with the probability of getting x heads. The
possibilities are 0 heads, 1 head, 2 heads, …, n heads.

Instead of going from 0 to n, you can use the min and max parameters to go from min to max in intervals
of (max – min)/n.
A plot of the cumulative distribution function when p = 0.45
The binomial cumulative distribution function computes the cumulative
binomialCumulative (x,
n, p, min, max)
probability, Pr(X ≤ x), where X is a random variable having a binomial
distribution of n choices and the probability of success equal to p.
binomialProbability (x, This probability function computes the probability that X = x, where X is
n, p, min, max) a random variable chosen from the set of possible values.
binomialQuantile (c, The binomial quantile function computes the value x, such that Pr(X ≤ x)
n, p, min, max) = c.

9.4.7.2 Chi-Square Distribution

The chi-square distribution is used in Fathom when you are testing for goodness of fit or independence
of two categorical attributes. The distribution has a degrees of freedom parameter, df, that determines its
shape and that must be a positive integer. In a goodness of fit test, for example, the number of degrees of
freedom is one less than the number of categories.

These functions take optional parameters that determine a minimum value and a scale so that Pr(X ≤ x),
where X = min + scale× C and C is a random variable from a chi-square distribution with df degrees of
freedom. Scale defaults to 1. Min defaults to 0.

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Fathom 2 Help

no data Function Plot

0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
-0.1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
x
y = chiSquareDensity  x  
y = chiSquareDensity  x   

A plot of two chi-square probability densities, one with three and the other with five degrees of freedom
chiSquareCumulative (x, The cumulative chi-square distribution function calculates the cumulative
df, scale, min) probability, Pr(X ≤ x).
chiSquareDensity (x, The chi-square density function calculates the probability density, (d/dx)Pr
df, scale, min) (X ≤ x).
chiSquareQuantile (c, The chi-square quantile function computes the value x, such that Pr(X ≤ x)
df, scale, min) = c.

9.4.7.3 Exponential Distribution

For the default values of scale and min (see below), the density function for an exponential distribution is
1
ex . This means that random values that come from such an exponential distribution are concentrated in
the smaller values.

The exponential functions described below take two optional parameters, scale, which defaults to 1, and
min, which defaults to 0. The standard deviation of exponentially distributed numbers equals the scale,
and the mean equals the sum of the minimum and the scale. We let E represent a random variable having
an exponential distribution.

A plot of both an exponential density and its cumulative probability.

exponentialCumulative (x, This function computes the cumulative probability, Pr(X ≤ x), where
scale, min) X = min + scale × E.
The exponential probability density function is given by
x min
exponentialDensity (x,
e s ca le
scale, min)
s ca le

426
 Reference

exponentialQuantile (c, The exponential quantile function computes the value x, such that Pr
scale, min) (X ≤ x) = c. It is the inverse of exponentialCumulative.

9.4.7.4 F-Distribution

The F-distribution is used to compute p-values in a one-way analysis of variance. Under the null
hypothesis, the test statistic in this analysis (called, appropriately enough, the F-ratio) is a random variable
from an F-distribution.

The ratio referred to is the ratio of the mean square for treatments and the mean square for error. Each
of these has associated with it a number of degrees of freedom. There is a different F-distribution for
each distinct pair of degrees of freedom. These are labeled numDf and denomDf in the list that follows,
corresponding to numerator and denominator. The function plot here shows a plot of both the density
and the cumulative probability for the F-distribution, where sliders have been used to make it easy to
explore the effect of the two parameters on the shape of the distribution.

F-distribution functions also take two optional parameters: scale, which defaults to 1, and min, which
defaults to 0.
This function computes the cumulative probability, Pr(X ≤ x), where X
fCumulative(x, numDf,
denomDf, scale, min) = min + scale*F, where F is a random variable drawn from an F-
distribution with the given pair of degrees of freedom.
fDensity(x, numDf, This function calculates the probability density, (d/dx)Pr(X ≤ x).
denomDf, scale, min)
fQuantile(c, numDf, This function computes the value x, such that Pr(X ≤ x) = c.
denomDf, scale, min)

427
Fathom 2 Help

9.4.7.5 Geometric Distribution

The geometric distribution can be no data Function Plot

used to explore how long you
1.2
have to wait for a given event to
occur, given the probability of 0.8
Shows three different
that event. The probability, p, 0.4 probabilities comparing how
defaults to 0.5. We speak of X
0.0 long, on average, you have to
being randomly chosen with
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 wait for success
geometric probability from the
set of values {min, min + scale, min x
+ 2scale, …, } where min and y = geometricCumulative  x   
scale default to 0 and 1. y = geometricCumulative  x   
y = geometricCumulative  x   

This function computes the cumulative probability, Pr(X ≤ x),

geometricCumulative(x, p,
scale, min)
where X is randomly chosen as described above and where p is
the probability of success on a given trial.
geometricProbability(x, p, The geometric probability function calculates the probability, P(X
scale, min) = x).
geometricQuantile(c, p, The geometric quantile function computes the value x, such that
scale, min) Pr(X ≤ x) = c.

9.4.7.6 Normal Distribution

no data Function Plot

0.8
0.6
The normal distribution has the familiar 0.4
bell-shaped curve as its density function, 0.2
coming from 0.0
(( x  ) /  ) 2
1 
2 -4 -2 0 2 4
e
2 x
where m is the mean and s is the standard y = normalDensity  x    
deviation of the distribution. y = normalDensity  x    
y = normalDensity  x    
Shows how the standard deviation parameter of a normal
density plot increases as the spread increases

This function computes the cumulative probability, Pr(X ≤ x),

normalCumulative(x, mu, sigma)
normalDensity(x, mu, sigma)
normalQuantile(c, mu, sigma)
where X is a normally distributed random variable whose mean is
mu and standard deviation is sigma.
This function calculates the derivative of Pr(X ≤ x). It produces
the normal curve with a mean mu and standard deviation sigma.
The normal quantile function computes the value x, such that Pr
(X ≤ x) = c.

428

9.4.7.7 Other Distributions
Fathom provides functions to compute a number of distributions in addition to the ones described,
including beta, Cauchy, gamma, hypergeometric, Poisson, t-, uniform, and uniform lattice.
9.4.8 List Functions
firstItem(list, delimiters)
itemCount(list, delimiters)
lastItem(list, delimiters)
matchCount(list, match,
delimiters )
Reference
Returns the first item in the list passed as its first argument, using the
characters in its optional second argument as delimiters. The delimiter
defaults to the list separator for the current region, usually comma.
Examples: firstItem("a,b,c") returns "a" when comma is the regional
list separator; firstItem("Jane Doe", " ") returns "Jane";
firstItem("HTHHT", "") returns "H" because all characters are items
when there are no delimiters.
Returns the number of items in the list passed as its first argument,
using the characters in its optional second argument as delimiters. The
delimiter defaults to the list separator for the current region, usually
comma.
Examples: itemCount("a,b,c") returns 3 when comma is the regional
list separator; itemCount("JAN-1-2006", "-") returns 3;
itemCount("HTHHT", "") returns 5, because all characters are items
when there are no delimiters.
Returns the last item in the list passed as its first argument, using the
characters in its optional second argument as delimiters. The delimiter
defaults to the list separator for the current region, usually comma.
Examples: lastItem("a,b,c") returns "c" when comma is the regional
list separator; lastItem("Jane Doe", ".") returns "Doe";
lastItem("HTHHT", "") returns "T" because all characters are items
when there are no delimiters.
Returns the number of items matching its second argument in the list
passed as its first argument, using the characters in its optional third
argument as delimiters. The delimiter defaults to the list separator for
the current region, usually comma.
Examples: matchCount("2,6,3,4,3", 3) returns 2 when comma is the
regional list separator; matchCount("T;H;T;T;H", "H", ";") returns 2;
matchCount("HTHHT", "H", "") returns 3, because all characters are
items when there are no delimiters.
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Fathom 2 Help

Returns the item at index n in the list passed as its first argument,
using the characters in its optional third argument as delimiters. The
delimiter defaults to the list separator for the current region, usually
comma.
nthItem(list, n, delimiters )
Examples: nthItem("a,b,c", 1) returns "a" when comma is the regional
list separator; nthItem("January 1, 2006", 3, ", ") returns "2006";
nthItem("HTHHT", 4, "") returns "H" because all characters are items
when there are no delimiters.

sortItems(list, delimiters)
Sorts the items in the list passed as its first argument, using the
characters in its optional second argument as delimiters. The delimiter
defaults to the list separator for the current region, usually comma.
Examples: sortItems("2,16,3,4,3") returns "2,3,3,4,16" when comma is
the regional list separator; sortItems("{T;H;12;2;t;h}", "{;}") returns
"{2;12;H;h;T;t}"; sortItems("HTHHT", "") returns "HHHTT",
because all characters are items when there are no delimiters.

9.4.9 Logical Functions

Returns true if the argument is even: even(10) returns true; even(11) returns false. If the
even
argument is not an integer, you will get a #DOMAIN# error.
True if the value exists for the indicated attribute: exists(pressure) will be true for each
exists
case for which there is a value for pressure.

Takes two arguments and returns true if the second argument is a substring of the first
includes (also treated as a string): includes("the", "he") returns true; includes("dancing", "joy") returns
false; includes(1234, 23) returns true.

True when a number is in a given range: inRange(height, 60, 66) will be true for people
inRange whose height is greater than or equal to 60 and less than 66. Otherwise, assuming the
arguments are numeric, the result will be false.
True if the value is numeric: isNumber(date) will be true for the value 27 but false for the
isNumber
value June.
True if the value is a prime integer: isPrime(1234567) is false; isPrime(1234577) is true. The
isPrime argument can be as big an integer as your computer can represent, probably about 15
digits.

missing True if the value is missing (there is no value for that cell); false if there is a value present.

Returns true if the argument is odd. odd(15) returns true. odd(20) returns false. If the
odd
argument is not an integer, you will get an error.

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9.4.10 Conditional Functions

Creates an “if” block. If the expression in parentheses after if is

if true, the formula returns the upper value; if not, it returns the
lower. The example at left returns “big” if the value for xx is
greater than 2 and “small” otherwise. See Express a Condition
with an If-Statement 130 .

Acts like a sophisticated if; very useful for recoding attributes. It

takes an optional expression inside parentheses and then evaluates
each of any number of true/false expressions to determine which
value to return. This is best done with a couple of examples.
Fathom interprets this by substituting age for ? in each of the
expressions, starting at the top, until it finds one that is true. It
switch returns the value to the right of the colon for that expression. So,
if age is 45, the value of the entire expression is “mature.”
Here’s another example, one that might be used to recode
numeric data from the census into meaningful phrases. Fathom
compares the value of eduCode with each of the numbers in
parentheses and returns the expression to the right of the first one
that matches. If none match, it returns the value of the expression
to the right of else.
 To add a test value, position the caret in an existing test or
result value. Press the Insert key (or Ctrl+Enter (Win) Option
+Return (Mac)).
See Recode with a Switch Statement 131 , Recode Numeric Values
to Categories 132 , and Recode Ranges of Numeric Values to
Categories 134 .

9.4.11 Text Functions

Takes two arguments and returns true if the first begins with the
beginsWith(stringToLookIn, second. For example, beginsWith(LastName, "Mc") will return true
stringToFind)
for “McBride” and false for “Binker.”

Returns the ASCII code for the first character in the string
argument. For example, charToNum("Hello") is 72 because the letter
H has the ASCII code of 72. Note that even numeric arguments
charToNum(aString)
will return something for this function because the numeric result is
first converted to a string. For example, charToNum(1/2) is 48
because 48 is the ASCII code for the 0 of 0.5.

Takes up to ten arguments and returns a string. For example, if a

case has the value “Denise” for the attribute Name and the value
concat(string1, string2, “likes dogs” for the attribute Hobby, then concat(Name, " ", Hobby)
... string10) gives “Denise likes dogs.” The arguments can be numeric or strings.
Note: You have to include an argument for the space to get a space
in the caption.

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Fathom 2 Help
endsWith(stringToLookIn,
stringToFind)
findString(stringToLookIn,
stringToFind, start)
includes(stringToLookIn,
stringToFind)
leftString(aString, numChars)
midString(aString,
start, numChars)
numToChar(aNumber)
repeatString(aString,
numRepetitions)
replaceChars(aString,
start, numChars, substituteString)
replaceString(aString,
stringToFind, substituteString)
Takes two arguments and returns true if the first ends with the
second. For example, endsWith(LastName, "er") returns true for
“Binker” and false for “McBride.”
Takes three arguments, returning the position of stringToFind in
stringToFind starting from start. The first character of
stringToLookIn is numbered 1. Returns 0 if stringToFind is not
found.
The third argument need not be present and defaults to 1.
Example: findString("mathematics", "the") returns 1, but findString
("mathematics", "the", 2) returns 6.
Takes two arguments and returns true if the second argument is a
substring of the first (also treated as a string): includes("the", "he")
returns true; includes("dancing", "joy") returns false; includes(1234, 23)
returns true.
Takes two arguments, the first treated as a string with the second an
integer ≥ 0. Returns a string made of the first numChars characters
of the string.
Example: leftString("Fathom this", 6) returns “Fathom”.
Takes three arguments, the first treated as a string, with the
remaining two integers ≥ 0. Returns a string made of the numChars
characters starting at start. If the third argument is missing, the
result will be the characters from start to the end of the string.
Example: midString("thermometer", 5, 3) returns “mom” and
midString("thermometer", 7) returns “meter”.
Takes an integer between 0 and 255 treated as an ASCII code and
returns the letter corresponding to that code for the computer on
which Fathom is running.
Examples: numToChar(65) returns “A” and numToChar(126) returns
“~”.
Takes two arguments, the first a string and the second an integer ≥
0. Returns the result of concatenating aString numRepetitions times.
Example: repeatString("#&", 4) returns “#&#&#&#&”.
Takes four arguments. The first is the original string. The second is
an integer > 0 specifying the starting location for the substitution.
The third is the number of characters to be replaced, and the last is
the string that is to be substituted. If numChars is 0, substituteString
is inserted.
Example: replaceChars("computer", 3, 4, "nfus") gives “confuser”.
Takes three string arguments and substitutes the third for all
occurrences of the second in the first.
Example:
replaceString("12:30:45", ":", " and ") returns “12 and 30 and 45”.
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rightString(aString, numChars)
stringLength(aString)
stringToNumber(aString)
9.4.12 Other
cardIcon(card, suit)
cardIcon(cardNumber)
indexOfCategory(attribute)
indexOfCategory(attribute,
value)
lookupValueByIndex
(CollectionName,
AttributeName, index)
Reference
The first argument is a string, and the second is an integer ≥ 0.
Returns the rightmost numChars characters of aString.
Example: rightString("football", 4) returns “ball”.
Returns the number of characters in the string representation of the
argument.
Examples: stringLength("Fathom") gives 6. stringLength(321) gives 3.
Returns the first number in the given string representation.
Example: stringToNumber("Jen is 18 years old") gives 18.
If there are two arguments, then the first (the value of the card) must
be between 1 and 13 and the second (the suit) must be between 1 and
4.
If there is just one argument, it must be a number between 1 and 52.
This function can be used as a formula for the image attribute in the
Display panel of a collection inspector.
Example: cardIcon(11, 2) when used for the image formula will display
the jack of diamonds in the collection.
See the Probability of a Pair 163 simulation.
With a single argument, an attribute in the collection, this returns the
index of the category corresponding to a case’s value for that attribute.
With a second argument, which should be one of the categories for the
attribute, it returns the index of that category.
Examples: If the attribute sex has a category set {“M”, “F”} assigned to
it, indexOfCategory(Sex) would give 2 for a case whose value for Sex is
“F.” Similarly, indexOfCategory(Sex, "M") would give 1 and be
independent of the case.
The first two arguments are strings and refer to the name of another
collection and the name of an attribute in that collection. The third
argument is the index of a case in that collection. The result will be the
value of the attribute for that case in the collection with that name.
Example: In a document that has a collection States,
lookupValueByIndex("States", "Name", 3) would give “Arizona” as the
result.
Note: This function does not update dynamically, thus, in the example, if
the name of the third state were changed to “AZ”, this would not be
reflected as the result of the function until a recomputation were
forced.
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The first argument is a string giving the name of a collection in the

lookupValueByKey
(CollectionName,
ReturnedAttrName,
KeyAttrName,
keyValue)
document. The second is a string giving the name of an attribute whose
value is to be looked up in that collection. The third argument is a
string giving the name of an attribute to be used as a “key” into the
collection, and the fourth argument is the value to be matched with the
key.
Example: lookupValueByKey("States", "Population", "State", "CA")
would return 35000000, the result of looking up the population for
California in a collection of states.
Note: This function does not update dynamically. Also, this is the
function that table join (see Add Attributes from Another Case Table
Using Table Join 70 ) creates for you automatically: one for each
attribute brought over from the collection you drag from.

9.4.13 Special Values

A value equivalent to the case’s row number in a case table. No parentheses are needed.
It only makes sense when used as part of the formula of an attribute.
caseIndex
Example: modulo( caseIndex, 3) will yield {1, 2, 0, 1, 2} as values for the first five cases
in a collection.

false A constant whose value is always false.

You can enter the value for π by typing pi or by double-clicking the entry for pi under
π Special in the Functions list. On a Mac, you can produce π by typing Option+p.

true A constant whose value is always true.

9.4.14 Special Values for Summary Table

These special values are available only for formulas in a summary table, and
columnProportion they appear in the Special heading, not in the Functions list. This is the
proportion of cases in a column of a summary table that belong in a cell.

columnTotal The number of cases in a column of a summary table.

expected The expected number of cases for a cell in a two-way table.

The total number of cases that appear in a summary table.
Note: This may not be the same as the total number of cases in the collection,
grandTotal
because some cases in the collection may not have the requisite values to show
themselves in the summary table.

rowProportion The proportion of cases in a row of a summary table that belong in a cell.

rowTotal The number of cases in a row of a summary table.

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9.4.15 Special Value for Histogram

The width of bins in a histogram. This special value is only available when you are
plotting a function or value on a histogram.
binWidth
Example: binWidth*count()*normalDensity(x, mean(), s()) plots a normal curve on a
histogram with a count scale. The curve has the same area under it as has the histogram.

9.4.16 Special Value for Ntigram

The number of bins in an ntigram. This special value is only available when you are
numBins
plotting a function or value on an ntigram.

9.4.17 Units
Below are the dimensions in which Fathom’s units live. All the units in a given dimension are compatible,
and Fathom can convert between them (except for the Important Constants). Some conversions are
given. Each unit lists the short form, the long form singular, the long form plural, and then other allowed
forms. You can combine units in any way you want.

Unit Dimensions
Length 435 Area 436 Volume 436
Mass 437 Time 437 Speed 438
Acceleration 438 Frequency 438 Force 438
Density 438 Pressure 438 Work 439
Power/Energy 439 Charge 439 Electrical Potential 439
Resistance 439 Current 439 Conductance 440
Capacitance 440 Magnetic Flux 440 Inductance 440
Magnetic Flux Density 440 Angle 440 Data 440
Important Constants 441 Amount 437

Length
m, meter, meters
cm, centimeter, centimeters
1 cm = 0.01 m
mm, millimeter, millimeters
1 mm = 0.001 m
km, kilometer, kilometers, click, clicks
1 km = 1000 m
nm, nanometer, nanometers
1 nm = 1 x 10^-09 m
N.M., nautical mile, nautical miles, nauticalmile, nauticalmiles, NM
1 N.M. = 1852 m

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Fathom 2 Help

AU, astronomical unit, astronomical units, au

1 AU = 149,597,870,691 m
pc, parsec, parsecs
1 pc = 206,265 m (approximately)
ly, light year, light years
1 ly = 3.08568 x 10^+16 m (approximately)
R_Earth, Earth radius, Earth radii, RE
1 R_Earth = 6371.01 km
in, inch, inches
1 in = 2.54 cm
ft, foot, feet
1 ft = 12 in
yd, yard, yards, pace, paces
1 yd = 3 ft
mi, mile, miles, statute mile, statute miles
1 mi = 1760 yd
furlong, furlongs
1 furlong = 1/8 mi
fm, fathom, fathoms
1 fm = 6 ft
Angstrom
1 Angstrom = 0.1 mm

Area
ha, hectare, hectares
1 ha = 10000 m^2
acre, acres, ac
1 acre = 1/640 mi^2
barn, barns
1 barn = 1 x 10^-24 cm^2

Volume
L, liter, liters
1 L = 1000 cm^3
dL, deciLiter, deciLiters,
1 dL = 0.1L
mL, milliliter, milliliters
1 mL = 0.001 L
cc, cubic centimeter, cubic centimeters
1 cc = 1 mL
gal, gallon, gallons
1 gal = 231 in^3
qt, quart, quarts
1 qt = 1/4 gal
pt, pint, pints
1 pt = 1/2 qt

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 Reference

flOz, fluid ounce, fluid ounces, floz

1 flOz = 1/16 pt

Mass
g, gram, grams
kg, kilogram, kilograms, kilo, kilos
1 g = 0.001 kg
mg, milligram, milligrams
1 mg = 0.001 g
MT, Metric Ton, Metric Tons
1 MT = 1000 kg
M_Earth, Earth mass, Earth masses, earth mass, earth masses, earthmass, earthmasses
1 M_Earth = 5.9742 x 10^24 kg
M_Sun, Solar mass, Solar masses, solar mass, solar masses, sunmass, sunmasses
1 M_Sun = 1.9891 x 10^30 kg
amu, atomic mass unit, atomic mass units
1 amu = 1.66053873 x 10^–27 kg
1 flOz = 1/16 pt

Amount
mole, Mole
1 mole = 6.023 x 10^23

Time
s, second, seconds, sec, secs
ns, nanosecond, nanoseconds
1ns = 0.00000000001s
µs, microsecond, microseconds,
1 µs = 0.0000001s
ms, millisecond, milliseconds
1 ms = 0.001 s
min, minute, minutes, mins
1 min = 60 s
hr, hour, hours, h
1 hr = 60 min
d, day, days
1 d = 24 hr
wk, week, weeks
1 wk = 7 d
fortnight, fortnights
1 fortnight = 14 days
yr, year, years, (Julian) year, (Julian) years, y, yrs
1 y = 365.25 days
sY, (sidereal) year, (sidereal) years
1 sY = 365.256360417 days

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Fathom 2 Help

Speed
c, light, light, lightspeed
1 c = 2.99792458 x 10^8 m/s
mach
1 mach = 331.46 m/s
mph, mile per hour, miles per hour
1 mph = 1 mi/hr
kph, kilometer per hour, kilometers per hour
1 kph = 1 km/hr
kt, knot, knots
1 kt = 1 N.M./hr

Acceleration
gravity, gravities
1 gravity = 9.80665 m/s^2

Frequency
Hz, Hertz, hz
1 Hz = 1 s^-1
MHz, megaHertz, megahertz
1 MHz = 1,000,000 Hz
kHz, kiloHertz, kilohertz
1 kHz = 1000 Hz

Force
N, Newton, Newtons, newton, newtons
1 N = 1 kg m/s^2
dy, dyne, dynes
1 dy = 0.00001 N
kgf, kg of force, kg of force
1 kgf = 1 kg gravity
sthene
1 sthene = 1000 N
lb, pound, pounds, lbs
1 lb = 4.448222 N
oz, ounce, ounces
1 oz = 1/16 lb

Density
H2O, water
1 H2O = 1 gravity g/cm^3
Hg, Mercury
1 Hg = 13.5951 H2O

Pressure

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 Reference

Pa, Pascal, Pascals, pascal, pascals

1 Pa = 1 N/m^2
kPa, kilopascal, kilopascals,
1 kPa = 1000 Pa
atm, atmosphere, atmospheres
1 atm = 101325 Pa

Work
J, Joule, Joules, joule, joules
1 J = 1 kg m^2/s^2
erg, ergs
1 erg = 1 x 10^-7 J
BTU, BTUs
1 BTU = 1/1055.056 J
kWh, kilowatt-hour, kilowatt-hours
1 kWh = 1000 W hr
eV, electron Volt, electron Volts
1 eV = 1 electron V

Power/Energy
W, Watt, Watts, watt, watts
1 W = 1 kg m/s^3
hp, horsepower
1 hp = 550 ft lb/s
cal, cals, calorie, calories
1 cal = 4.185 J
kcal, kcals, kilocalorie, kilocalories
1kcal = 1000 cal

Charge
C, Coulomb, Coulombs, coulomb, coulombs
1C=1As
electron, electron charge, electron charges
1 electron = 1.602176462 x 10^-19 C

Electrical Potential
V, Volt, Volts, volt, volts
1 V = 1 W/A

Resistance
Ohm, Ohms, ohm, ohms
1 Ohm = 1 V/A

Current
A, Ampere, Amperes, ampere, amperes, amp amps
1 A = 1 coulomb

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Fathom 2 Help

mA, milliAmpere, milliAmperes, milliamp, milliamps

1 A = 0.001 mA

Conductance
S, siemens, mho
1 siemens = 1 Amp/Volt

Capacitance
F, farad, farads
1 farad = 1 coulomb/volt
uF, microfarad, microfarads
1 uF = 1,000,000 F

Magnetic Flux
Wb, weber, webers
1 weber = 1 volt second

Inductance
H, henry
1 henry = 1 weber/amp

Magnetic Flux Density

T, tesla, teslas
1 tesla = 1 weber/m2
gauss
1 gauss = 10-4 tesla

Angle
deg, degree, degrees
rad, radian, radians
1 rad = 57.295779513 degrees
sr, steradian, steradians
1 sr = 3282.806 degrees
arcmin, arcminute, arcminutes
1 arcmin = 1/60 deg
arcsec, arcsecond, arcseconds
1 arcsec = 1/60 arcminutes
rev, revs, revolution, revolutions
1 rev = 360 degrees

Data
B, byte, bytes
kB, kilobyte, kilobytes
1 kB = 1024 B
MB, megabyte, megabytes
1 MB = 1024 kB

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 Reference

GB, gigabyte, gigabytes

1 GB = 1024 MB
TB, terabyte, terabytes
1 TB = 1024 GB
bit, bit, bits
1 bit = 1/8 B

Important Constants
Planck’s constant, Planck’s constants
1 h = 6.62606876 x 10^-34 J s
G, Big G
1 G = 6.673 x 10^-11 N m^2/kg^2
Avogadro’s Number
1 mole = 6.023 x 10^23

9.5 Keyboard Shortcuts

This section lists all the shortcuts available in Fathom.

Work with Files

Description Windows Mac
Shortcut Shortcut

Create a New file Ctrl + N z+ N

Open an existing file Ctrl + O z+ O

Close file Ctrl + W z+ W

Save file Ctrl + S z+ S

Save As… z+ Shift + S

Print file Ctrl + P z+ P

Edit
Description Windows Mac
Shortcut Shortcut

Undo Ctrl + Z z+ Z

Redo Ctrl + R z+ R

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Fathom 2 Help

Cut Ctrl + X z+ X

Copy Ctrl + C z+ C

Copy As Picture Ctrl + Shift + C z+ Shift + C

Paste
Ctrl + V z+ V

Delete Delete Key Delete Key

Select All Ctrl + A z+ A

Edit Formula Ctrl + E z+ E

Show Text Palette Ctrl + Shift + P z+ Shift + P

Edit collection name (with collection selected) Tab Tab

Work with Objects

Description Windows Mac
Shortcut Shortcut

Create a New Collection Ctrl + L z+ L

Create a New Case Table Ctrl + T z+ T

Create a New Graph Ctrl + G z+ G

Create a New Summary Table Ctrl + U z+ U

Create a New Slider Ctrl + Shift + D z+ Shift + D

Create New Text Ctrl + Shift + T z+ Shift + T

Inspect Object Ctrl + I z+ I

Duplicate Object Ctrl + D z+ D

Delete Object Delete key Delete key

Add Filter Ctrl + F z+ F

Hide Object Ctrl + Shift + H z+ Shift + H

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 Reference

View in Window Alt + V z+ Shift + V

Rerandomize Collection (with collection selected) Ctrl + Y z+ Y

Move object (object must be selected) Arrow keys Arrow keys

Note: If you don’t see a new object appear after using one of these commands, the object might be hiding
behind an inspector.

Navigate in Case Tables and Inspectors

Description Windows Mac
Shortcut Shortcut

Move to the next editable attribute or value Tab Tab

Move to the previous editable attribute or value Shift + Tab Shift + Tab

Move to the next editable row Enter Enter

Move to the previous editable row

Shift + Enter Shift + Enter

Move within the active cell Left and right arrow keys Left and right arrow
keys

Navigate in Statistical Objects

Description Windows Mac
Shortcut Shortcut

Move to next editable field Tab Tab

Move to the previous editable field Shift + Tab Shift + Tab

Work with the Formula Editor

Description Windows Mac
Shortcut Shortcut

Enter ≥ Ctrl + > Option + Shift + >

Enter ≤ Ctrl + < Option + Shift + <

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Fathom 2 Help

Move to next or previous character Right and left arrow keys Right and left arrow
keys

Move to the next field (e.g., in a switch statement) Tab Tab

Move to the previous field (e.g., in a switch Shift + Tab Shift + Tab
statement)

Cut selection Ctrl + X z+ X

Copy selection Ctrl + C z+ C

Paste selection Ctrl + V z+ V

Undo last action Ctrl + Z z+ Z

Redo last action Ctrl + R z+ R

Cancel formula edits Esc Esc or z+ . (period)

Accept the formula and close the formula editor Enter or Return Enter or Return

Note: The formula editor, unlike Fathom in general, does not support unlimited Undo/Redo.

General Fathom Commands

Description Windows Mac
Shortcut Shortcut

Preferences z+ , (comma)

Hide Fathom z+ H

Hide Others z+ Option + H

Help
F1 z+ ?

Quit Fathom Ctrl + F4 z+ Q

10 Troubleshooting
If something on your screen has happened that you don’t understand or don’t like, the first best step is to
read what the Undo command in the Edit menu says. Choosing this command may fix your problem.

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 Troubleshooting

If you want to not only get things back the way they were but also to understand what you did, you can
use Redo in conjunction with Undo to toggle back and forth.

If undoing doesn’t help, try to find your problem in the topics within this section. If you still can’t correct
the problem, you can get technical support (see My Problem Still Isn’t Solved 454 ).

Subsections:
Problems with Data 445
Problems with Graphs 448
Problems with Sliders 451
I Can’t Drag the Slider’s Thumb 451
Problems with Inspectors 451
Problems with Formulas 452
Problems with Statistical Inference Objects 452
Problem with Fathom Surveys 453
Problems with Experiments 453
My Problem Still Isn’t Solved 454

10.1 Problems with Data

These topics cover common problems with the data itself, or with bringing data into Fathom.
Subsections
My Data Are Gone 445
My Data Don’t Paste into Fathom 446
Fathom Won’t Let Me Open/Import My File 446
A Web Page Doesn’t Import 446
Census Microdata Import Attempt Failed 446
Fathom Treats Numeric Data as Categorical 447
I Assigned a Wrong Unit and Can’t Fix It 447
I’m Having Trouble Opening a Fathom Document from My Browser 448

10.1.1 My Data Are Gone

If all of your data have disappeared from all tables and graphs, then you may have deleted the collection.
Use Edit | Undo to go back to before you deleted the collection. Because the collection is what holds
your data, deleting it will delete the data itself. You rarely want to do this.

If you still have your collection, it might have a filter on it for which no cases pass. Select the collection
and read the item for filtering in the Object menu. If it says Remove Filter rather than Add Filter, then
you have a filter on the collection for which none of the cases are true. Either remove the filter or edit it
(if you can’t see the filter, enlarge the collection by dragging its bottom corner: the filter appears below
the box of gold balls).

Here, the user meant age is greater than or equal to 21 and less than or equal to 50. Because no case satisfies
the current filter, all graphs and tables are blank.

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Fathom 2 Help

See Write a Filter 121 .

10.1.2 My Data Don’t Paste into Fathom
You have copied data from somewhere, but Fathom’s Paste command is unavailable.
 Make a collection to paste the data into by dragging one from the shelf.
You were able to paste, but the data didn’t come in cleanly or as expected.
 If you can edit the source of the data, make it conform better to a collection Fathom
understands: Each row or paragraph is a case (the first row can be attribute names).
 Consider pasting the data into a spreadsheet program and cleaning it up there; then copy from
the spreadsheet and paste into a Fathom collection.
See Paste Data into a Collection 81 ,Import Data from a Text File 81 , or Import Data from the Internet
88 .

10.1.3 Fathom Won’t Let Me Open/Import My File

Fathom opens only Fathom or TinkerPlots documents. If your data are in another format, you need to
copy/paste or export/import.

Because the Import File command works only on text files, you need to export your data from within its
current program before trying to import.
10.1.4 A Web Page Doesn’t Import
First, make sure you are connected to the Internet and are trying to import a page that actually has the
data on it and that the data are text, not pure image, such as a picture or a PDF file. (There’s no text for
Fathom to import in these.)

If a Web page of data in text form doesn’t import by dragging its URL or using the Import from URL
command, try selecting the data, copying it, and pasting it into an empty Fathom collection. You’ll have
to copy and paste any comments separately.

Not all data will import perfectly; you might have to clean it up, either in Fathom or in another program
(such as a word processor or spreadsheet).

See Paste Data into a Collection 81 , Import Data from a Text File 81 , or Import Data from the Internet
88 .

10.1.5 Census Microdata Import Attempt Failed

Make sure you can access the Internet.

You may have chosen attributes that are unavailable for your sample, such as Person attributes when you
are importing households, or educational attainment when you are importing cases from 1880. Check the

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status bar comments for each attribute to see in which years it’s available.

You need to have at least one year selected for import. See Import Historical Data from IPUMS 87 .
You may have selected one or more states and one or more metro areas to import. You can choose which
states or which metro areas to import, but you can’t have selections from both. See Import Specific
Geographical Areas from IPUMS 87 .

Make sure the folder that contains the Fathom application has its Helpers folder, and that that folder has
its ImportSpecs folder, and, finally, that that folder has the IPUMS_USA_InterfaceSpec.xml file.

There may be a problem with the IPUMS Web site. Let Key Curriculum Press Tech Support know you
are having a problem by going to http://www.keypress.com/fathom/contact.htmlor try again later.
10.1.6 Fathom Treats Numeric Data as Categorical
There are two common reasons for Fathom to treat numeric data as categorical: The values of the
attribute include at least one non-numeric character that isn’t a unit (such as the letter o rather than a
zero, or an asterisk representing missing values) or the attribute has a category set applied to it.

You can use a case table with a filter not IsNumber(TroublesomeAttribute) to see those cases, non-numeric
characters. You can fix the problematic values by editing them, or you can create a new attribute using
the StringToNumber function to strip out non-numeric characters. Or you could put the attribute on the
down arrow of a summary table and scroll through it to see what the non-numeric categories are.

If all the characters are truly numeric, then the attribute might have a category set applied to it. Removing
the category set will fix the problem. (In the collection’s inspector, with Details showing, select the
attribute and choose None from the Set pop-up menu.) See Control Behavior of Categorical Attributes
Using Category Sets 99 .

If these aren’t the problem, perhaps Fathom is failing to recognize units. Make sure you have the Units
file in the right place by looking in the Fathom folder from your desktop. The Fathom application folder
(the folder that the Fathom application itself lives in) needs to contain a folder called Helpers; that folder
needs to contain a file called Units.xml. (By default, all helpers are installed correctly.) If the Helpers
folder or the Units file is missing, quit Fathom, copy the missing components from the Fathom CD,
relaunch, and try again.
10.1.7 I Assigned a Wrong Unit and Can’t Fix It
Suppose you put seconds in an attribute that is a measure of distance. If you’ve tried to simply change the
unit, the values don’t change, but they turn magenta. Fathom thinks you’re trying to convert between
incompatible units. To fix the unit, you need to first get rid of the old, and then add the correct unit.

1. Delete the incorrect unit from the units row.

2. Press Enter or Return (so Fathom accepts the change).
3. Type the correct unit.
4. Press Enter or Return.

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Fathom 2 Help

10.1.8 I’m Having Trouble Opening a Fathom Document from My

Browser
When a Web browser encounters a link to a file that it can’t open itself, it uses a helper application to
open the file instead. Helper applications are supported by most popular browsers (Internet Explorer,
Netscape, Mozilla, Opera, etc.) The only major browser with no support for helper applications at this
point is Apple’s Safari browser. Depending on your browser, you may need to configure it to recognize
Fathom as the helper application for Fathom documents.

On the Internet, files are categorized by “MIME-type” and “file extension.” Fathom documents have the
MIME type application/x-ftm and the extension .ftm.

If you use Netscape or Mozilla browsers, helper applications can be added using the Helpers tab of the
General Preferences dialog box. If you use Internet Explorer, helper applications can be added using the
File Helpers tab of the Preferences dialog box. (For other browsers, consult the browser’s
documentation.) Use your browser’s helper configuration settings to specify that Web-based data files
with the .ftm extension and/or the application/x-ftm MIME type belong to the Fathom application.

If you’re using a Macintosh, you may want to also set the downloaded file’s File Type and Creator, as
shown in the table below.

Finally, if your browser asks whether the files contain binary or text data, indicate that they are binary.
MIME Type application/x-ftm
File Extension .ftm
Macintosh File Type FDoc
Macintosh File Creator Fthm
Binary or Text? binary

10.2 Problems with Graphs

If you can’t get the type of graph you want, make sure you have put the right kind of data in the right
drop spot. You can see examples of all the graphs Fathom makes and where to drop what kind of
attributes in Graphs Available in Fathom 342 .

Subsections:
I Want to Split a Numeric Graph, Not Make a Scatter Plot 448
I Have Frequencies: How Do I Make a Histogram? 449
I Can’t Drag Data in a Graph 449
The Text in My Graph Is Unreadable or Takes Up Too Much Space 449
The Dots Became Colored Squares 450
No Data Show in the Graph 450
Problems with Residual Plots 451
10.2.1 I Want to Split a Numeric Graph, Not Make a Scatter Plot
You get a scatter plot by putting at least one numeric attribute on each axis. Add the second attribute to
the first to split the graph by dropping the second attribute on the plus sign that appears on the axis when
you drag an attribute to the graph. See Add Another Attribute to an Already Occupied Axis 35 .

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 Troubleshooting

HusbandsAndWives Dot Plot

Age_Husband
Age_Wife
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

10.2.2 I Have Frequencies: How Do I Make a Histogram?

Fathom was specifically designed to work with raw data, wherein each case represents some thing. If all
you have is summary data, however, you can trick Fathom into making a bar chart. See Cases 329 for a
discussion of this distinction.
1. Keep the Shift key pressed when dropping the attribute onto an empty graph to get a bar chart.
2. Edit the formula governing the heights of the bars to sum(attrName).
See Change Bar Charts to Reflect a Function Other Than Count 64 .
10.2.3 I Can’t Drag Data in a Graph
When an attribute is determined by formula, the data can’t be changed by dragging. You have to change
the values on which the computation is based (if any), instead. Clearing the formula defining the attribute
allows data to be dragged, although the attribute will no longer recompute.

Dragging data in graphs can be disabled. To see if that’s the case, select the graph and look in the
Collection menu. If there’s a command that reads Enable Changing Values In Graphs, choose it. See
Prevent Changing Values in Graphs 382 .
10.2.4 The Text in My Graph Is Unreadable or Takes Up Too Much Space
If your attribute has a lot of categories, especially a lot of wordy categories, it’s much cleaner and easier to
read if you put the attribute on the vertical axis. You’ll probably have to make it very tall, as well. If
there’s still too much text, you can put the attribute on the down arrow of an empty summary table.
Although not the same as a graph, you can at least read all the categories by scrolling down the table. You
should consider doing a recode of the attribute to make fewer and shorter categories. (see Recode with a
Switch Statement 131 .)

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Fathom 2 Help

Boston Bar Chart

200

York
aii

Portugal
Z...

District Connecticut

Vermont
Republi...
CentralColorado

Lebanon
Maine
Michigan
Mexico
Oregon

Spain
eden
Washington
Yemen ArabWisconsin
Australia andCalifornia
Alaska
Canada
England
of Columbia
Greece
Idaho
America
Florida

Indiaa
Ireland
Latvia
Louisiana
Maryland
Minnesota
Hampshire
NorthCarolina
Dakota
Other Pennsylvania
USSR/Russia
Poland
Rico
Island
Dakota
iterland
Illinois

Kansas

Massachusetts
Netherlands

Texas
West Indies
Germany

Italy
Kentucky

Jersey
AFRICA

AMERICA
Iow
Haw
New

Puerto

SwSw
New

Rhode
South
NewNew
New
North

SOUTH
count  

10.2.5 The Dots Became Colored Squares

This means you have dropped another attribute (in the image below, numeric) into the plot area. In
Fathom this creates a legend. Choose Graph | Remove Legend Attribute [attrName] to get rid of the
coloring. See Add an Attribute to the Middle of a Graph 36 .
Boston Dot Plot

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Age
TotalIncom e

0 100000 200000 300000

10.2.6 No Data Show in the Graph

There are several possible reasons for this.

Perhaps the graph axes were rescaled beyond where the data lie. Choose Graph | Rescale Graph Axes
to see if that fixes the problem.

Either the graph itself, or the collection the graph is connected to, might be filtered in such a way that no
cases pass the filter. Filters are appended to the bottom of the object they filter. To see if the collection is
filtered, enlarge it. Remove a filter by selecting the object and choosing Object | Remove Filter. Edit the
filter by double-clicking it.

It is possible that you dropped a categorical attribute on a graph while pressing Ctrl (Win) Option (Mac).
This has the effect of ignoring all non-numeric characters. If the attribute has no numbers, it will be
blank.

Another possibility is that you have no data to graph. Perhaps you inadvertently deleted the collection, in
which case you should Undo until you get it back. (If the graph’s name is “No Data,” this is what has
happened.) It is also possible that you have not added cases to the collection, as when defining the
attributes by random formula. Until you tell Fathom to create cases (Collection | New Cases), you have

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 Troubleshooting

no data to display.
10.2.7 Problems with Residual Plots
When there is more than one thing plotted on the graph, the residual plot is based on the function
selected when the residual plot is made.

If you have selected a graph that has functions or computed lines on it and Make Residual Plot 396 is
disabled, you need to select the line or function on which you want the residual plot to be based. (Click
the line itself or its equation.)

If a residual plot is based on the wrong function, click the function on which you want it based, and the
residual plot will change.

See Make a Residual Plot 396 .

10.3 Problems with Sliders

Subsections
I Can’t Drag the Slider’s Thumb 451
My Slider Rounds Its Value; How Can I Make It Stop? 451

10.3.1 I Can’t Drag the Slider’s Thumb

When a slider has a formula, its thumb becomes a marker that can’t be changed by dragging (its value
appears in “computed value” gray).
thing = 3.69

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Either clear the slider’s formula (in its inspector) or make another slider whose thumb you can drag.
10.3.2 My Slider Rounds Its Value How Can I Make It Stop?
You have a slider whose values have been restricted to multiples of some number. Remove the restriction
by clearing the Restrict_to_multiples_of field in the slider’s inspector.

10.4 Problems with Inspectors

To read about inspectors, see Inspectors 336 or Inspector Panels 353 .

Subsections
I Can’t See the Panel I Need 451
Where’s the Show Details Button? 452

10.4.1 I Can’t See the Panel I Need

If the inspector panel you need isn’t available, you are inspecting the wrong object. For example, the
Measures panel is available only in collection inspectors; if you are inspecting a graph, you can’t get to
the Measures panel. To change the focus of an inspector, double-click the object you want to inspect.
You could also try resizing the panel.

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Fathom 2 Help

10.4.2 Where’s the Show Details Button?

Inspect the collection not a graph. Although the graph inspector has a Cases panel, it isn’t the same as
the collection inspector’s Cases panel.

10.5 Problems with Formulas

Subsections
Fathom Won’t Recognize a Function I Typed 452
Error Messages for Formulas 452

10.5.1 Fathom Won’t Recognize a Function I Typed

Fathom won’t turn a function blue until you have typed an open parenthesis after its name; have you
done this?

Is there text next to the function name but no operator between them? If so, Fathom probably thinks the
whole thing is one word. You need to put something (multiplication, perhaps) between the items.
If nothing else works, enter the function by double-clicking it from the Functions list on the right, middle
pane of the formula editor.
10.5.2 Error Messages for Formulas
Here is a list of formula error messages and what they mean.
You have referred to a symbol that Fathom doesn’t recognize. For
#Name not recognized#
example, you may have misspelled the name of an attribute.
You have given a function an argument of the wrong type. For example,
#Type(s) incompatible#
sin("hello") gives this error.

You’ve given a function the wrong number of arguments. For example,

#Argument count error#
#Domain error#
#Circular reference#
#Format error#
#Units incompatible#
#Evaluation error#
even(3, 4, 5) gives this error.
You’ve tried to evaluate a function outside its domain. For example,
percentile(110, height) returns this error because percentiles must be
between 0 and 100.
You’ve used the attribute you’re defining in the formula (perhaps
indirectly, through another attribute).
Something is wrong with the way the formula is written. For example, x
< ? will produce this error.
You are performing calculations with incompatible units, or some
elements in the calculation require units you neglected to enter.
This is a catchall used when Fathom cannot otherwise explain why the
formula did not produce a result.

10.6 Problems with Statistical Inference Objects

Subsections
I Don’t See Statistical Objects on the Shelf 453
This Object Says I’m Required to Use Raw Data, But I Should Be Able to Enter Summary Data 453

452
 Troubleshooting

10.6.1 I Don’t See Statistical Objects on the Shelf

The preference is set to hide these objects. Change the preference to show them. See Preferences 377 .
10.6.2 This Object Says I’m Required to Use Raw Data, But I Should Be
Able to Enter Summary Data
If you used the same object with raw data and simply deleted its attributes, then the object won’t accept
input of summary data. Make a new object and enter your summary information there.

Analysis of variance, test slope, and both simple and multiple linear models require raw data and cannot
be computed from summary statistics.

10.7 Problems with Surveys

Subsections
I Can't Find the Fathom Surveys Website 453
I Made a Survey and Can't Upload It 453
I Uploaded a Survey, but Don't See It on the Website for Students 453

10.7.1 I Can't Find the Fathom Surveys Website

When you create a survey with Fathom, the collection’s Survey panel has a link that allows you to view
the survey. This is the most direct connection between Fathom and the Fathom Surveys website. See
also Log In to Your Fathom Surveys Account 148 .

10.7.2 I Made a Survey and Can’t Upload It

You need a Fathom Surveys account (see Log In to Your Fathom Surveys Account 148 ).

10.7.3 I Uploaded a Survey, but Don't See It on the Website for Students

As a student, when you create and upload a survey, your teacher has to approve it and then publish it. If
you don't see the survey you uploaded that means your teacher has yet to approve it.

10.8 Problems with Experiments

Subsections
My Sensor Is Not Working 454
My Experiment Is Running Very Slowly 454

453
Fathom 2 Help

10.8.1 My Sensor Is Not Working

Fathom only supports Vernier sensors. If you are using a different company's sensors, Fathom will not
work with them. If you are using Vernier sensors and still experiencing problems, contact Vernier
technical support for help.

10.8.2 My Experiment Is Running Very Slowly

Vernier LabPro limits the user to four analog sensors and two digital sensors. Physical limitations like
device sample rates will further influence how many devices you can meaningfully work with.

10.9 My Problem Still Isn’t Solved

If you haven’t been able to solve your problem by consulting Fathom Help, here are a few things you can
do.
 Check the Fathom Resource Center at www.keypress.com/fathom. Here you will find answers
to frequently asked questions and the latest updates to the program. You can also check for
updates by choosing Help | Fathom Updates. (To find out what version of Fathom you are
running, choose Help | About Fathom (Win) Fathom | About Fathom (Mac). The version
number appears in the top right corner of the splash screen.)
 You can submit a tech support request via the Web by going to www.keypress.com/fathom/
contact or by calling 1-800-995-MATH(6284). We can be most helpful to you if you are sitting
in front of a computer with Fathom running.

11 Glossary
Glossary
attribute
A descriptor of a case, for example, the height of a person is an attribute.

bar chart
A plot of a categorical attribute in which each category has a bar whose height is determined by a formula,
count( ) by default.

bin
For a numeric attribute, a range of values. The number of cases whose attribute values lie within this
range is used to determine the height of a bar in a histogram.

bin alignment
The value on one end or the other of a bin. For a histogram, setting the bin alignment at 1.5 guarantees
that the lower bound of one bin will be 1.5.

bin width
The upper value minus the lower value of a bin.

bivariate
Involving two attributes. For example, a scatter plot is a bivariate plot because it uses an attribute on each
of its two axes.

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 Glossary

Boolean
Having a value of either true or false.

caption
The word or phrase that appears under a case icon in an open (expanded) collection. Also appears in the
status bar when the mouse pointer is over a that case’s point in a graph.

caret
The blinking indicator that shows where the next typed character will appear.

case
An individual record in a collection, for example, a person who filled out a survey, or a set of
measurements taken at a given time.

case icon
The look of a case in an open (expanded) collection. By default a gold, green, or blue ball, but
controllable by formula.

categorical
Having values drawn from a set of possibilities (categories). The race of a person and the color of a bead
are categorical attributes.

category
One of a set of possible values of an attribute, for example, “These paintings all have the category Gothic
as their value for Style.”

category set
The possible values for a categorical attribute. For example, the category set Gender consists of the values
male and female.

collect measures
To record a collection’s measures as values of a case in a measures collection. Typically, this is done
repeatedly to build up a distribution for each collected measure.

collection
The container for data in Fathom.

comments
A textual description of a collection. Can be viewed in a collection’s inspector.

cursor
Depending on context, either the position of the mouse pointer on the screen or the position of the caret
within text.

data
Generic term for the finest grain of information. Fathom is software for working with data.

distribution
The arrangement of values for an attribute with respect to their frequency. For example, the distribution
of heights for this collection of students peaks at about 170 cm.

document
Generic term for a Fathom file. A Fathom document typically contains one or more collections, graphs,

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Fathom 2 Help

tables, sliders, and text objects.

dot plot
A graph of a numeric attribute in which each case appears as a dot. In a stacked dot plot, the dots pile on
top of each other to show the shape of the attribute’s distribution.

drag
A common operation in Fathom, namely, to click, hold, and move the mouse on some object to change
its state or to link it to some other object.

export
In Fathom, to create a text file of the data contained in a collection.

Fathom
1) To measure the depth of water. 2) To understand deeply. 3) A unit of linear measure equal to 6 feet. 4)
The name of a piece of dynamic data analysis software.

file
The unit of information storage in a modern computer operating system. Fathom documents are files.

filter
In Fathom, to prevent certain cases from being displayed or used in an analysis. Any Fathom object that
displays or analyzes data can have a filter. A filter on a collection affects all objects that use that
collection’s data.

formula
In Fathom a symbolic expression consisting of attributes, functions, operators, and constants that can be
evaluated. For example, an attribute may have its values determined by a formula.

function
In Fathom a formula with one variable that takes values from a graph axis in order to show a line plot of
that function.

histogram
A plot of the values of a continuous attribute in which the heights of bars are proportional to the density
of cases whose values fall within the range of values corresponding to each bar. Fathom’s histograms
have bars of uniform width. (Compare with ntigram.)

household
One of the possible units of analysis for census microdata. Household attributes pertain to the structure
in which people live or a group of people as a whole.

hypothesis
A proposed explanation of the observed data.

image
In Fathom, the picture used as a case icon in an open (expanded) collection. By default a gold, green, or
blue ball, but can be determined formulaically or pasted onto individual cases.

import
In Fathom, to bring data into Fathom from some source that is not a Fathom document, for example,
from a text file, Web page, or census microdata server.

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 Glossary

inference
A conclusion based on evidence. In Fathom, the following objects are used for statistical inference:
interval estimates, hypothesis tests, and linear models.

inspector
In Fathom, a floating window that displays information about an object embedded in the document.

inspector pane
In Fathom, a portion of an inspector panel, for example, the left pane of the Microdata panel allows
choice of subsets of attributes to import.

inspector panel
In Fathom, one of several choices of displays of information in an inspector. A basic collection inspector
has panels for cases, measures, comments, display attributes, and categories.

interval estimate
A proposed range of reasonable values for a population parameter based on sample data. Assumes a
confidence level and typically specified as a central value plus or minus a range.

IPUMS
Integrated Public-Use Microdata Series. In Fathom, refers to the project at the University of Minnesota
Center for Population Studies from which Fathom obtains U.S. census microdata.

join
In Fathom, the process of merging two collections by using an attribute in one collection as a “key” to
cases in another (also, “table join”).

least-squares
Refers to a process of fitting a function to data in which the sum of squares of residuals is minimized.

legend
The portion of a graph that shows the key for symbols or colors used in a plot.

link axes
In Fathom, to specify that two or more numeric axis scales will have the same scales so that a change in
one will cause a change in all.

measure
In Fathom, refers to a quantity, typically computed by a formula, that applies to an entire collection.
Measures are specified in the Measures panel of a collection’s inspector.

microdata
Data about individuals, as opposed to summary data. (Each person’s sex and income in a collection of
people is raw data or microdata; proportions of females and median incomes in a collection of provinces
is summary data.) Fathom was designed to work with microdata but does less well with summary data.

model
A theoretical construct used to explain observations and predict new observations. There are many ways
to construct models in Fathom.

multiple regression
The fitting of data using more than one attribute to fit the observed values of a response attribute.
Fathom’s model object can compute a multiple linear regression, the product of which is a linear equation

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Fathom 2 Help

for the response in terms of one or more predictor attributes.

multivariate
Involving multiple attributes. For example, a scatter plot with a legend attribute is a multivariate graph
because it involves three attributes.

nominal
Categorical, having named values.

ntigram
A graphical representation of the values of an attribute in which each of several bars arranged along a
numeric axis has equal area and that area is proportional to the count of cases whose values for the
attribute lie within the range of the bin corresponding to each bar.

numeric
Having a value that is a number (sometimes called “continuous”). In contrast to categorical attributes.

object
In Fathom, selectable entities within a Fathom document. A graph and a case table are objects, but an
inspector window is not because it floats above the document rather than living within it.

operator
In a Fathom, formula a symbol that indicates something to be done to one or more values. For example,
the division operator divides one value by another and returns the result.

parameter
A value that determines which of a family of functions or models is under consideration at the moment.
In Fathom, sliders are used as parameters.

percentile
Given a value for an attribute, the percent of values for that attribute that are less than or equal to the
given value.

plotted function
In Fathom, a line or curve on a plot determined by a formula using one axis as its domain for a dummy
variable in the formula.

plotted value
A line on a plot perpendicular to an axis, where the position of the line along the axis is determined by a
formula.

properties
In Fathom properties are attributes of objects other than collections. Graphs and sliders have properties
whose values determine their appearance and behavior.

quantity
A number with a unit. Attribute values in Fathom can be either plain numbers or quantities.

raw data
The data as it was originally gathered, as opposed to summary data.

recode
To take the values of one attribute and use them to determine (usually formulaically) the values of

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 Glossary

another attribute. Recoding numeric choices to their corresponding textual meaning can greatly increase
one’s ability to understand data.

redo
In computer software, refers to the act of making something that was undone happen again.

residual
The observed value minus the predicted value.

revert collection
In Fathom, to return the values of a collection’s attributes to their last saved values without changing
other objects in a document.

ribbon chart
A plot in which a rectangle representing all the cases is divided into sub-portions using one or two
categorical attributes, such that the area of each sub-portion is proportional to the count of cases having
certain values of the categorical attributes.

sample
To draw cases from a population. In Fathom, sampling is nearly always random.

scatter plot
A graphical representation in which numeric attributes placed on each axis determine the coordinates of
points representing cases in the collection.

scramble
In Fathom, to take one attribute in a collection and reassign its values randomly to that attribute.
Scrambling is typically used to simulate a situation in which two attributes are independent of each other.

shelf
In Fathom, the place at the top of the application (Win) or document (Mac) window that contains iconic
representations of the objects that can be placed in the document.

simulation
To represent some process (for example, rolling a die) through some other means, usually for the
purpose of discovering properties of that process. Fathom provides many tools for constructing
simulations.

slider
In Fathom, an object representing a named number or quantity such that the name can be used in
formulas to represent the slider’s value. The slider’s value can be determined by the position of its
“thumb,” by typing a new value, or by formula.

stack attributes
In Fathom, the process of reorganizing the data so that there are two attributes, named “group” and
“value” by default, where the values of the group attribute are the names of the attributes. The process
can be visualized as taking each attribute of the collection and stacking it under its predecessor.

statistic
A quantity computed from data.

status bar
A pane found at the bottom of an application (Windows) or document (Mac) window that displays some

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information relevant to the current mouse position.

string
Textual information. An attribute treated as categorical typically has string values rather than numeric
values.

summary data
Data that summarizes raw data. Summary data typically consists of many fewer values than its raw data,
and contains less “information” than the raw data. Proportions and means are summary data; values
about individuals are raw data, from which summary statistics are computed.

table join
The operation of merging two collections by dragging an attribute from one collection onto an attribute
name appearing in a case table. The result is that information from the first collection is brought into the
second using the attribute dropped upon as a key to the dragged attribute.

test
In Fathom, “test” typically refers to a hypothesis test object used to determine whether certain
observations can be explained by chance or not.

test statistic
A computed quantity whose distribution, when the null hypothesis is true, is known or can be
determined. For a given inference, the test statistic is used to determine how likely it is that the data can
be explained by the null hypothesis.

undo
In software applications, to reverse the most recent action. Fathom’s undo capabilities allow you to step a
document back to the state at which it was last opened (or created).

unit
The standard of measurement in a physical dimension to be considered as 1; for example, an attribute
value of 3.4 Joules has Joules as its unit.

univariate
Pertaining to something determined by one variable or attribute. In Fathom a dot plot with a single
attribute is a univariate plot. The mean and median are univariate measures.

URL
Uniform Resource Locator. The address of a given Web page. Fathom’s Import From URL command
takes a URL and attempts to convert the indicated page into a collection of data.

value
The number, quantity, or string corresponding to a given attribute for each case. An attribute need not
have a value for a given case, in which situation the value is said not to exist.

window
In Fathom, documents and inspectors appear in windows. An object in a document, such as a graph,
however, is not a separate window because it is constrained to stay within the document window.

zoom
To expand or contract a numeric scale on a graph. To “zoom in” is to expand the scale so that points
appear farther apart.

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 Index 461

Index -P-
Paste 26
-A- Probability 163

attributes 330
-R-
-B- recode 131, 132, 134
Redo 32
boolean 130 Reference 342
running sum 131

-C- -S-
Case Tables 334
Cases 329 Sliders 339
Collections 334 Statistical Objects 341
condition 130 Summary Tables 335
Copy 26 switch statement 131

-D- -T-
data 24, 25, 328 Troubleshooting 444

-F- -U-
faq 135 Undo 32
formulas 135 units 134

-G- -V-
Glossary 454 values 330
Graphing 31
Graphs 335
-Z-
-I- zoom 41

if statement 130
Inspectors 336

-M-
Measures 333
Movies 215

© 2007 KCP Technologies