Soil Investigations, Problems, and Compaction

Civil Engineering
Construction & Graphics

Soil Investigations, Problems, and
Compaction Lecture # 31
Engr. Shad Muhammad

Lecturer
Department of Civil Engineering
COMSATS University Islamabad, Sahiwal Campus.
Lecture # 31 _ Soil Investigations, Problems, and Compaction
Table of Content 2
• Typical Geotechnical Section Activities
• Geotechnical Investigations
• Office Review
• Boring and In Situ Test Frequency
• Field Investigations
• Subsurface Soil Investigations
• Surface Soil Investigations
• Above Ground Indicators of Soil Conditions
• Soil Classifications
• Soil Groups
• Soil Problems
• Sumps and Ditches for Dewatering of Excavations
• Suitability
• Use of Sumps and Ditches in Cofferdams
• Advantages of Sumps and Ditches
• Disadvantages of Open Sump and Ditches
• Compaction of Soil
Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Soil Investigations, Problems, and Compaction
Typical Geotechnical Section Activities 3
• Subsurface investigations • Geosynthetic applications

• Laboratory testing of soil and rock • Project scoping
• Foundation design • New technology implementation
• Soil and rock slope engineering • Site monitoring and instrumentation
• Aggregate resource evaluation • Construction review and assistance
• Aggregate source database management • Technical Certification
• Groundwater investigations
• Subsurface drainage design/recommendations
• Retaining wall design
• Vibration monitoring
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Website: www.mytrustworth.com
www.mytrustworth.com
Geotechnical Investigations 4
✓ Geotechnical investigations are an essential component of a successful geotechnical engineering analysis and
foundation recommendation report. These investigations allow geotechnical engineers and geologists to
characterize subsurface conditions and make engineering judgments about how the earth will behave when
subjected to structure and embankment loads associated with highway construction.
✓ Subsurface investigations include methods such as foundation drilling and in situ test methods. The subsurface
soils and rock are investigated to determine properties including:
• Soil / rock stratigraphy / classification
• Soil / rock strength parameters
• Soil / rock stiffness parameters
• Groundwater conditions
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
• Good quality geotechnical investigations are very crucial to the success of every construction project. A proper
geotechnical investigation will identify underground and soil conditions and will determine the proper
geotechnical design parameters.
• Unfortunately, many projects lack a proper geotechnical investigation. As a result, engineers are all too often
forced to use overconservative design parameters.
• In a worst case scenario, an inadequate geotechnical investigation will not properly identify soil conditions and will
result in "unexpected" delays, failures, and added construction costs.
• Bridges • Buildings
• Retaining Walls • Communication and Light Towers
• Large Culverts • Miscellaneous Structures
• Roadway Embankments
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
• A good quality geotechnical investigation identifies:
a) Soil layers and types, bedrock elevations if possible
b) Soil density and strength, as well as other mechanical soil properties
c) Ground water conditions
d) Obstructions and existing underground structures
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
• The above geotechnical data are then assessed for risks posed by site
condition and used in designing earthworks, structure foundations.
• A proper geotechnical investigation will also aid in properly identifying critical
points to monitor during earthwork and foundation construction.
• Geotechnical site investigations are almost always needed in major projects and
help gain an understanding of the project area.
• Soil and rock samples are typically collected with a drill rig and appropriate
samplers. The soil samples are then transported to a geotechnical laboratory
where a number of geotechnical tests are carried out.
• In situ tests typically include the Standard Penetration Test and the Cone
Penetrometer Test.
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
• The Standard Penetration Test is one of the oldest geotechnical field tests.
• It is an in-situ dynamic penetration test designed to provide information on the geotechnical engineering
properties of soil.
It involves the insertion of a standard sampler within a borehole. The rods are hammered
with a standard 140lb weight that drops a distance of 30 inches. The number of blows
required for driving the sampler through three 6-inch intervals is recorded. The sum of the
blows over the last two 6-inch intervals is referred as the Standard Penetration Number.
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
✓ For most projects, standard pre-design activities include:
• Develop a Geotechnical Investigation Plan
• Perform Geotechnical Investigation
• Perform Geotechnical Lab Analysis
• Prepare Geotechnical Recommendations
• Field investigations duration depends on weather, availability of access (e.g. lane closures), depth of
investigation, and the types of sampling needed.
• Lab analysis of soil specimens can take time for a large volume of tests or if time-dependent parameters are of
interest, requiring longer testing times.
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Office Review 10
✓ While most may think of subsurface investigations as consisting of
1. Geologic Maps
fieldwork, there are many tasks that should be completed in the 2. Aerial Photos
3. Well Records
office prior to any fieldwork being started to aid in the overall 4. Piezometer Records
investigation. 5. Existing Borings
6. Historical Bridge Plans with Plotted Borings
✓ Office tasks include researching historical data, reviewing 7. Pre-Design plans, profiles and cross
sections
available subsurface information and site data and planning 8. Historical Geotechnical Reports
the subsurface investigation. 9. Preliminary Bridge Plans and Bridge
Surveys
✓ All subsurface investigations should begin with a collection of 10. Property Ownership Information
11. Utility location information
existing data for the project. 12. Contour Maps
13. Hydraulics Report
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Boring and In Situ Test Frequency 11
✓ Increase the number of borings/in situ tests required as needed based on field observation and other design
considerations. Locate and space borings as topography, site conditions, soil conditions and design factors dictate.
However, do not locate borings further than 30 ft. from the proposed structure location.
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Borings advanced for landslide, groundwater, or specialty site characterization with instrumentation often require closer minimum spacing than established in the table.
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Field Investigations 19
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Subsurface Soil Investigations 27
✓ Subsoil conditions are examined using test borings, provided by Soil Engineer (Geotechnical).
✓ Number of borings and location of borings depends on building type and site conditions.
✓ Typically for uniform soil conditions borings are spaced 100-150′ apart, for more detailed work, where soil
footings are closely spaced and soil conditions are not even borings are spaced 50′ apart.
✓ Larger open warehouse type spaces, where fewer columns are present (long span) required less boring
samples.
✓ Borings must extend to firm Strata (go through unsuitable foundation soil) and then extend at least 20 feet more
into bearable soil.
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
✓ Location of borings samples are indicated on engineer plan. These are not taken directly under proposed
columns.
✓ Borings indicate depth, soil classification (according to the unified soil system) and moisture content and
sometimes ground water level is shown as well. (Physical properties: particle size, moisture content, density).
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
✓ Subsurface Soil investigation report recommendation should be based on testing of materials obtained from on
site borings and to include:
1. Bearing capacity of soil
2. Foundation design recommendations
3. Paving design recommendations
4. Compaction of soil
5. Lateral strength (active, passive, and coefficient of friction)
6. Permeability
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Surface Soil Investigations 30
✓ Surface soil investigations are required for construction for following cases:
• High water table.
• Presence of trouble soils: Peat, soft clay, loose silt, or fine water bearing sands.
• Rock close to the surface (require blasting for excavations).
• Dumps or Fills.
• Evidence of slides or subsidence.
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Surface Soil Investigations 31
Above Ground Indicators of Soil Conditions
✓ Near Buildings – require shoring or earth and existing foundations.

✓ Rock Outcropping – indicate bedrock, good for bearing and frost resistance, bad for excavations.
✓ Water (lake) – indicate high water table, some waterproofing of foundations is required.
✓ Level Terrain – easy site work, fair bearing, but poor drainage.
✓ Gentle Slopes – easy site work, and excellent drainage.
✓ Convex Terrain (Ridge) – dry solid place to build.
✓ Concave Terrain (Valley) – wet soft place to build.
✓ Steep Terrain – costly excavations, potential erosion, and sliding soils.
✓ Foliage – some trees indicate moist soil. Large trees indicate solid ground.
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Soil Classifications 32
✓ Engineers dealing with soil mechanics devised a simple classification system that will tell the engineer the
properties of a given soil.
✓ The unified soil classification system is based on identifying soils according to their textural and plasticity
qualities and on their grouping with respect to behavior.
✓ Soils are usually found in nature as mixtures with varying proportion of particles of different sizes, each of these
components contribute to the soil mixture.
✓ Soil is classified on the basis of:
1. Percentage of gravel, sand, and fines.
2. Shape of grain.
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
✓ In the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) the soil is given a descriptive name and a letter symbol indicating
its principal characteristics.
✓ Placement of solid into its respective group is accomplished by visual examination and laboratory tests.
✓ In the unified soil classification, the terms cobbles, gravel, sand, and fines (silt or clay) are used to designate the
size ranges of soil particles.
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
✓ Soil particle size ranges from largest to smallest:
• Cobbles
• Gravel (Coarse + Fine)
• Sand (Coarse + Medium + Fine)
• Fines consisting of Clay or Silt
✓ Soil Shear Strength is made up of cohesion (water content, how sticky it is) and internal friction (based on size
of grains). This is determined by triaxial compression testing.
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Soil Investigation and Types of Foundations Based on Soil Properties 35
Plasticity and compressibility characteristics of soil
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Soil Groups 36
✓ Soils are then grouped into three groups consisting of:
• Coarse Grained – divided into gravelly soils (G) and sands and sandy soils (S)
• Fine Grained – divided based on their plasticity properties. (L,H)
• Highly Organic – are not subdivided. (Pt)
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Soil Groups 37
✓ These are the soils which are composed of gravel and or sands and which contain a wide variety of particles.
✓ Coarse Grained - are most suitable for foundations when well drained and well confined. They are soils with
good bearing value. Particularly the G series (GW, GP, GM, GC). Identified on the basis of the percentage amount
of gravel and sand.
✓ Fine Grained – are soils that are Silts and Clays (L,H). Contain smaller particles of silt and clay. These are suitable
for foundations but require compactions. The most suitable of this series (L) is the CL. These soils are identified
based on their cohesive properties and permeability.
✓ Highly Organic – are soils that are usually very compressible and are not suitable for construction. They
contain particles of leaves, grass, and branches. Peat, Humus, and swamp soil with highly organic texture are
typical of this group (Pt). These are identified readily on the basis of color, texture, and odor. Moisture content is
also very high in this type of soil.
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Soil Groups 38
✓ Soil names shown on the unified soil classification system are associated with certain grain size and textural
properties. This is the case for the coarse grained soils.
✓ For silts and clay the names are based on the plasticity basis of the soil.
✓ Relevant information of samples taken by borings which can aid the geotechnical engineer in determination of
foundations includes:
• For coarse grain soil – the size of the particles, mineralogical composition, shape of grains, and character of
the binder.
• For fine grained soils – strength, moisture, and plasticity.
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Soil Groups 39
✓ In the preliminary stages, a visual inspection can determine the behavior of the soil when used as component in the
construction of a proposed building.
✓ Soil can be classified according to the classification categories of the unified soil classification system. Later on
laboratory testing can be performed.
✓ Strength and consolidation which make up the compaction characteristics of the soil determines its suitability for
building foundations.
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Soil Problems 40
✓ The problem of uplift pressures in soil can be reduced by having well drained and free draining gravels (GW, GP).
✓ Uplift pressures can occur in fine grained soils consisting of silts and clays; such soils can cause heaving of
foundations and formation of boils.
✓ Due to potential frost action
• Regardless of the frost susceptibility of the various soil groups, two conditions must be present simultaneously
before frost action will be a consideration – a source of water during the freezing period and a sufficient
period of the freezing temperature to penetrate the ground.
• In general silts and clays (ML, CL, OL) are more susceptible to freezing (as they contain moisture). Well
drained granular soils are less susceptible to freezing and creating foundation problems.
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Soil Problems 41
✓ Due to drainage Characteristics
• The drainage characteristics of soils are a direct reflection of their permeability.
• The presence of moisture in base, sub-base and sub-grade materials may cause the development of pore
water pressure and loss of strength.
• The gravelly and sandy soils with little or no fines (GW, GP, SW, SP) have excellent drainage
characteristics.
• Fine grained soils and highly organic soils have poor drainage characteristics.
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Sumps and Ditches for Dewatering of Excavations 42
✓ The application of sumps and ditches within an excavation is one of the elementary method of dewatering
employed in construction.
✓ The water entering these installed units can be pumped out.
✓ The general procedure of dewatering with sumps and ditches is depicted in the figure.
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
✓ The sump is located below the ground level of the excavation as shown in figure; at one or more corners or the
sides.
✓ The procedure involves the cutting of a small ditch around the bottom of the excavation, that is falling
towards the sump.
✓ The sumps is the name given for the shallow pits that are dug along the periphery of the excavation or the
drainage area, which is named as ditches.
✓ Under the action of gravity, the water from the slopes will flow to the sumps.
✓ The sumps collect the water and is later pumped out.
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
✓ Significant amount of seepage can result in raveling or sloughing or softening of the slope in the lower part.
✓ The slump bottom may also be subjected to piping.
✓ The above problems can be solved by the use of inverted filter that is of many layers.
✓ These have coarser material in successive layers from the bottom of the sump pit to the upward direction.
✓ This is a simple method used for dewatering shallow excavations that have coarse grained soils or the soils that
have permeability that is greater than 10-3 cm/sec.
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Suitability
✓ If the construction demands for lowering the water table or the ground water head of the area to a depth
greater than 1 feet, the method of sumps and ditches is not suitable.
✓ If sumps and ditches are employed for greater depth lowering, seepage will be prominent that will result in
the instability of the excavation slopes.
✓ This wrong decision will also bring effects that are detrimental for the integrity of the foundation soils of the
area.
✓ In order to overcome the problems that arise due to minor raveling and to support the collection of seepage
water, it is recommended to employ filter blankets or drains in the sump and ditch system installed.
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Use of Sumps and Ditches in Cofferdams
✓ In areas that are confined, the common method of excavation that is followed is the driving of a sheet pile
that is either wood or steel, below the subgrade elevation.
✓ Then the bracing is installed and proceeds with the excavation of earth.
✓ Later the water that seeps into the cofferdam area is pumped out.
✓ The use of sumps and ditches in the dewatering of sheet excavation face the limitation similar to that of open
excavations.
✓ The formation of hydraulic heave at the bottom of the excavation which is found to be very dangerous can be
reduced by the driving of sheeting into the impermeable strata that is underlying.
✓ This can help in the reduction of seepage into the bottom of the excavation.
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Use of Sumps and Ditches in Cofferdams
✓ Those excavation carried out below the water table can be effectively conducted with the help of sheeting and
sump. This is merely dependent on the site conditions.
✓ The hydrostatic pressure and toe support are the two factors that is to be considered important while
designing the sheeting and the bracing.
✓ The construction process and the pumping out activities can be conducted smoothly by covering the bottom of
the excavation by means of a inverted sand and gravel filter blanket.
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Advantages of Sumps and Ditches
✓ The method is widely used.
✓ It is appropriate for small depth lowering.
✓ This method is found to be most economical one among dewatering systems while considering the installation
and the maintenance procedures.
✓ This method can be applied for most of the soil and rock conditions.
✓ The site is mostly recommended where boulders or massive obstructions are met within the ground.
✓ The greatest depth up to which the water table can be lowered by this method is 8m.
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Disadvantages of Open Sump and Ditches
✓ In areas where there is high heads or steep slopes, the method is not demanded.
✓ This method will bring collapse of the slopes and cause dangerous problems.
✓ The use of sumps and ditches in open or timbered excavation will bring risk in the stability of the base.
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Compaction of Soil 50
✓ The sheepsfoot and rubber tired rollers are common pieces of equipment used to compact soils.
✓ Some advantage is claimed for the sheepsfoot roller in that it leaves a rough surface that affords better bond
between layers.
✓ Granular soils consisting of well graded materials (GW, SW) furnish better compaction results, than the poorly
graded soils (GP, SP).
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
✓ Fine grained soils can also be compacted.
✓ For most construction projects of any magnitude, it is highly desirable to investigate the compaction
characteristics of the soil be means of a field test section.
✓ Suitability of soils for foundations depends primarily on the strength, cohesion and consolidation characteristic
of the soils.
✓ The type of structure, load and its use will largely govern the adaptability of a soil as a satisfactory foundation
material.
✓ A soil might be entirely satisfactory for one type of construction but might require special treatment for other
building.
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
✓ In general, gravel and gravelly soils (GW, GP, GM, GC) have good bearing capacity and undergo little
consolidation under load.
✓ Well graded sands (SW) usually also have good bearing capacity.
✓ Poorly graded sands and silty sands (SP, SM) have variable capacity based on their density.
✓ Some soils containing silts and clays (ML, CL, OL) are subject to liquefaction and may have poor bearing
capacity and large settlements when subject to loads.
✓ Of the fine grained soil group CL is probably the better for foundations.
✓ Organic soils (OL and OH ) and highly organic soils (Pt) have poor bearing capacity and usually exhibit large
settlement under load.
Engr.
Engr. Shad
Shad Muhammad,
Muhammad,Lecturer,
Lecturer,Department
Departmentof
of Civil
CivilEngineering,
Engineering,COMSATS
COMSATS University,
University,Sahiwal.
Sahiwal. Website:
Thank-you for Listening! 53
An educated person is reluctant to start a business due to his knowledge!

(Shad)
Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com

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Engr. Shad Muhammad

• Subsurface investigations • Geosynthetic applications

✓ Near Buildings – require shoring or earth and existing foundations.

An educated person is reluctant to start a business due to his knowledge!

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