CHAPTER 2

PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

CHAPTER TWO
Properties of fluids
 1
Introduction
 Any characteristic of a system is called a property.

 The most familiar properties are being pressure P, temperature T, volume V,

and mass m.

 Less familiar are such as viscosity, thermal conductivity, modulus of elasticity,

thermal expansion coefficient, vapor pressure, surface tension.

 Intensive p
properties
p are independent
p of the mass of the system.
y Examples:
p
temperature, pressure, and density.

 Extensive properties are those whose value depends on the size of the system.
Examples: Total mass,
mass total volume,
volume and total momentum.
momentum

 Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific properties. Examples
include specific volume v = V/m and specific total energy e=E/m.
 2

Introduction
 An easy way to determine whether a
property is intensive or extensive is to divide
the system into two equal parts with an
imaginary partition

 Intensive properties will have the same value

as the original system, but half the value of the
extensive properties.

 Generally, uppercase letters are used to denote

extensive properties (with mass m being a major
exception), and lowercase letters are used for intensive
properties (with pressure P and temperature T being the
obvious exceptions).
 3
Importance of continuum concept to study properties
off a substance
b t

 Atoms are widely y spaced

p in the g
gas
phase. However, we can ignore the
atomic nature of a substance and
view it as a continuous, homogeneous
matter with no holes,
holes that is,
is a
continuum. This allows us to treat
properties as smoothly varying
quantities.

 Continuum is valid as long as size of

y
the system is large
g in comparison
p to
distance between molecules.
 4

Density
 The density of a substance is the quantity of matter contained in a unit volume of
the substance .

 The density of a substance can be expressed in three different ways

i. MASS DENSITY
 Mass density,   is defined as the mass of substance per unit volume  = m/V
/

 Its SI unit is Kg/m3 and its dimension is [ML-3]

 Typical values are water 1000 kg/m3, Mercury 13546 kg/m3 , Air 1.23 kg/m3, Paraffin
g/ 3 all are measured at p
oil 800 kg/m pressure of 1.013x 105 N/m
/ 2 and Temrature 288.15K
 5
Density
y
ii. SPECIFIC WEIGHT
 The specific weight is defined as the weight per unit volume, i.e., s = (mg)/(m/
/ / =
g where g is the gravitational acceleration. s has units of N/m .
3

 Its SI unit is N/m-3 and its dimension is [ML-2 T-2]

 Typical values are water 9814 N/m3, Mercury 132943 N/m3 , Air 11.07 N/m3,
Paraffin oil 7851 N/m3 all are measured at pressure of 1.013x 105 N/m2 and T
288.15K
 Specific volume is defined as the inverse of density v = 1/ = V/m.

iii. SPECIFIC GRAVITY OR RELATIVE DENSITY

 Specific gravity, or relative density is defined as the ratio of the density of a substance
to the density of some standard substance at a specified temperature (usually water at
4°C),), i.e.,, SG=/H20. SG is a dimensionless q
quantity.
y It is dimension is 1

 Typical values are water = 1, mercury =13.5 and Paraffin oil = 0.8
 6

Density of Ideal Gases

 Equation of State is equation for the relationship between pressure,
temperature, and density.

 The simplest and best-known equation of state is the ideal-gas equation.

Pv=RT or P = R T

 Ideal-gas equation holds for most gases.

 Density of a gas highly depends on temperature and pressure.

 However, dense gases such as water vapor and refrigerant vapor should not be
treated as ideal gases.
 7
Vapor pressure and cavitation
• Saturation temperature Tsat :- The
temperature at which a pure substance
changes phase at a given pressure.

• Saturation pressure Psat:- The pressure at

which a p
pure substance changes
g p phase at
a given temperature.

• Vapor pressure (Pv):- ): The pressure

exerted by pure substance vapor in
phase equilibrium with its liquid at a
given temperature. It is identical to the
saturation pressure Psat of the liquid (Pv =
Psat).
 8
Vapor pressure and cavitation
• There is a possibility of the liquid pressure
in liquid-flow systems dropping below the
vapor pressure at some locations, and
resulting
lti unplanned
l d vaporization.
i ti

• The vapor bubbles (called cavitation

bubbles since they form “cavities” in the
liquid) collapse as they are swept away
from the low-pressure regions, generating
highly destructive, extremely high
high-pressure
pressure
waves. Cavitation damage on a 16-mm by
23-mm aluminum sample tested at
60 m/s for 2.5 h. The sample was
• This phenomenon,
phenomenon which is a common cause l
located
t d att the
th cavity
it collapse
ll region
i
for drop in performance and even the downstream of a cavity generator
erosion of impeller blades, is called specifically designed to produce
cavitation, and it is an important high damage potential.
consideration in the design of hydraulic
turbines and pumps.
 9
Vapor
p Pressure and Cavitation

 Vapor Pressure Pv is defined as the

pressure exerted by its vapor in phase
equilibrium with its liquid at a given
temperature

 If P drops below Pv, liquid is locally

vaporized, creating cavities of vapor.

 Vapor cavities collapse when local P

rises above Pv.

 Collapse of cavities is a violent process

which can damage machinery.

 Cavitation is noisy, and

C d can cause
structural vibrations.
 10
Energy and Specific Heats

 Total energy E is comprised of numerous forms: Thermal, Mechanical, Kinetic,

Potential Electrical,
Potential, Electrical Magnetic,
Magnetic Chemical,
Chemical and Nuclear.
Nuclear

 The forms of energy related to the molecular structure of a system and the degree
of the molecular activity are referred to as the microscopic energy.
energy

 The sum of all microscopic forms of energy is called the internal energy of a
system and is denoted by U (or u on a unit mass basis).
system, basis)

 Internal energy u is for a non-flowing fluid and is due to molecular activity.

 11
Energy and Specific Heats

 In the analysis of systems that involve fluid flow, we frequently encounter the
combination of properties u and Pv. For convenience, this combination is called
enthalpy h. That is,

 P/  is the flow energy, also called the flow work, which is the energy per unit mass
needed to move the fluid and maintain flow.

 In the energy analysis of flowing fluids, it is convenient to treat the flow energy as
part of the energy of the fluid and to represent the microscopic energy of a fluid
stream by enthalpy h
 12

Energy and Specific Heats

 The macroscopic energy of a system is related to motion and the influence of some
external effects such as gravity, magnetism, electricity, and surface tension.

 Macroscopic energy includes such as kinetic and potential energy among others
 Kinetic energy ke=V2/2

 The energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion relative to some
reference frame is called kinetic energy

 Potential energy pe=gz

 The energy that a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a gravitational
f ld is called
field ll d potential
i l energy

 In the absence of electrical, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear energy, the total
energy is eflowing= h+V2/2+gz.
 13
Energy and Specific Heats

 The differential and finite changes in the internal energy and enthalpy of an ideal
gas can be expressed in terms of the specific heats as

 Cv and Cp are the constant-volume and constant-pressure specific heats of the ideal
gas.

 Using specific heat values at the average temperature, the finite changes in internal
energy and enthalpy can be expressed approximately as

 For incompressible substances, the constant-volume and constant-pressure specific

heats are identical. Therefore,, Cpp ≈ Cv ≈ C for liquids,
q , and the change g in the
internal energy of liquids can be expressed as
 14
Energy and Specific Heats

 Noting that  is constant for incompressible substances, the differentiation of

enthalpy h = u + P/  gives dh = du + dP/  . Integrating, the enthalpy change
becomes
 15
Coefficient of Compressibility
 How does fluid volume change with P and T ?
 Fluids d as T ↑ or P ↓
Fl id expand
 Fluids contract as T ↓ or P ↑
 In this context there is a need for fluid properties that relate volume changes to
changes
h iin P and
d T.
T
 P   P 
 Coefficient of compressibility   v      
 v T   T
 It can also
l beb expressed
d approximately
i t l ini terms
t off finite
fi it changes
h as

 Noting
N i that ∆ / or ∆  / is
h ∆v/v i dimensionless,
di i l k must have
h the
h dimension
di i off pressure
(Pa or psi). The coefficient of compressibility represents the change in pressure
corresponding to a fractional change in volume or density of the fluid while the
p
temperature remains constant. The coefficient of compressibility
p y of a trulyy
incompressible substance (v = constant) is infinity.
 16
Isothermal compressibility

 The inverse of the coefficient of compressibility is called the isothermal

compressibility a and is expressed as

 The isothermal compressibility of a fluid represents the fractional change in volume

or density corresponding to a unit change in pressure.

 Show that for an ideal gas the coefficient of volume expansion is 1/T and the
coefficient of compressibility is P
 17
Coefficient of Volume Expansion

 The density of a fluid, in general, depends more strongly on temperature than it does on
pressure, and
d the
h variation off density
d withh temperature is responsible
bl for
f numerous naturall
phenomena such as winds, currents in oceans, rise of plumes in chimneys, the operation of hot-
air balloons, heat transfer by natural convection, and even the rise of hot air and thus the
phrase “heat rises”
 Coefficient of volume expansion
1  v  1   
      
v  T  P   T  P

 It can also be expressed approximately in terms of finite changes as

 Combined effects of P and T can be written as follows by differentiating v = v(p, T)

 18
Viscosity
V y
 Viscosityy is a p property
p y that
represents the internal resistance
of a fluid to motion.

 The force a flowing fluid exerts on

a body in the flow direction is
called the drag force, and the
magnitude of this force depends,
depends
in part, on viscosity.

 Viscosity
Vi it i
increases with
ith
temperature for gases and
decrease for liquids.
 19

Viscosity

 TTo obtain
bt i a relation
l ti for
f viscosity,
i it consider
id
a fluid layer between two very large
parallel plates separated by a distance ℓ

 Definition of shear stress is  = F/A.

 The shear strain angle

g d  will continuously
y
grow as long as the stress  is maintained.
 For no slip condition u(0) = 0 and u(ℓ) =
V=u,

 From the geometry

 tan  = a/ y = u *t/y
 20

Viscosity
 In the limit of infinitesimal changes , this becomes a relationship between
shear strain rate and velocity gradient.
tan  = = u *t/y = a/ y
 /t = u /y
 It can be conclude that the rate off deformation
f off a fluid
f element is
equivalent to the velocity gradient
 /t = u /y

 It can be verified experimentally that for most fluids the rate of deformation
(and thus the velocity gradient) is directly proportional to the shear stress 
   /t ,   u /y

 Fluids for which the rate of deformation is proportional to the shear stress are called
Newtonian fluids
 21
Newtonian //Non-Newtonian fluids

 Most common fluids such as water, air, gasoline, and oils are Newtonian
fl d
fluids.
 Blood and liquid plastics are examples of non-Newtonian fluids.

 In one-dimensional shear flow of Newtonian fluids, shear stress can be

expressed by the linear relationship

 where the constant of proportionality  is called the coefficient of viscosity

or the dynamic (or absolute) viscosity of the fluid, whose unit is kg/m · s, or
equivalently, N · s/m2 (or Pa . s where Pa is the pressure unit Pascal).

Newtonian /
/Non-Newtonian fluids
The rate of deformation (velocity gradient) of
a Newtonian fluid is proportional to shear
stress, and the constant of proportionality is the
viscosity.
22
Variation of shear stress with the
rate of deformation for Newtonian
and non-Newtonian fluids (the slope
of a curve at a point is the
apparent viscosity of the fluid at
that point).
 kinematics viscosity, 23
m2/s or stoke ((1 stoke = 1 cm2/s))

Where a, b,
Wh b c are
experimentally detrained
constant and T is the
absolute temperature

The viscosity of liquids decreases and the

24 viscosity of gases increases with temperature.
 24
Viscometryy
 How is viscosity measured? Consider
a rotating
t ti viscometer.
i t
du  Two concentric cylinders with a fluid in
F  A  A the small gap ℓ.
dy
 Inner cylinder is rotating, outer one is
fixed.
 Use definition of shear force:
du
F   A   A
dy
 If ℓ/R << 1, then cylinders can be
modeled as flat plates.

 Torque T = FR, and tangential velocity

V=R

L length of the cylinder  Wetted surface area A=2RL.

number of revolutions per unit time
 25

Viscometry

The shear force can be expressed as

du
F   A   A
dy

This equation can be used to calculate the viscosity of a fluid by measuring torque
at a specified
p angular
g velocity.
y

Therefore, two concentric cylinders can be used as a viscometer, a device that

measures viscosity.
viscosity
 26
Surface Tension
 Liquid droplets behave like small spherical
balloons filled with liquid, and the surface
of the liquid acts like a stretched elastic
membrane under tension.

 The pulling force that causes this is due to

the attractive forces between molecules called
surface tension s.

• The magnitude of this force per unit length is

called surface tension (or coefficient of surface
Attractive force on surface molecule tension) and is usually expressed in the unit
is not symmetric. N/m.
• This effect is also called surface energy [per
p
Repulsive forces from interior
molecules causes the liquid to uniti area]] and
d is
i expressed
d in
i the
h equivalent
i l
minimize its surface area and attain unit of N  m/m2.
a spherical shape.
 27
Surface Tension

Some consequences of
surface tension.
 28

Stretching a liquid film with a U

U-shaped
shaped
wire, and the forces acting on the
movable wire of length b.

Surface tension: The work done per unit increase in the surface area of the liquid.
29
 29

30
Capillary Effect 30

 Capillary effect is the rise or fall of a

liquid
q in a small-diameter tube. This
arises from the forces between the
molecules of a liquid and the forces
between the liquid molecules and those
of any adjacent substance.

 The two basic phenomenon responsible

for rise or fall of fluids are Cohesion and
adhesion forces.

 Forces between the molecules of a fluid

and the molecules of a solid boundary
surface give rise to adhesion between the
fluid and the boundary.

 cohesion is the tendency of the liquid to

remain
i as one assemblage
bl off particles
il
 The curved free surface in the tube is call
the meniscus.
 31
Capillary Effect
 If the forces of adhesion are greater
than the forces of cohesion,, the liquid
q
molecules tend to crowd towards the
solid surface, and the area of contact
between liquid and solid tends to
increase. This kind of fluids are known as
wetting
tti fluids.
fl id

 Water meniscus curves up because water

is a wettingg fluid.

 Mercury meniscus curves down because

mercury is a non wetting fluid.
Force balance can describe magnitude of
capillary rise.

 Ccapillary rise is inversely proportional to the radius of the tube and density of the
liquid.