Chapter 2 PDF

Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems
 A mathematical model uses mathematical language such as

functions, equations, diagrams, etc, to describe a physical
system.
 The process of deriving a mathematical model for a physical
system is called system modeling.
 System modeling = Convert a physical system to a mathematical
expression.
Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 2-1 Modern Control Systems

Review of RLC Circuit
 Consider the parallel RLC circuit for t ≥ 0:
 Assume: Some energy is already stored in C but not in L when t = 0,

that is, vC(0) ≠ 0 but iL(0) = 0.
 Notes: 1. RLC are in parallel and share the same voltage v(t).
vR (t )  vL (t )  vC (t )  v(t )
2. iC(t), iL(t) and iR(t) follow PRC (or PSC).
The Mathematical Model
 Currents through R, L, and C in terms of v(t) following PRC:
(with iL(0) = 0)
 KCL:
 Differentiating both sides and transform to monic form. Then
 This is the so-called mathematic model of parallel RLC circuit.

Mass-Spring-Damper (MSD) System
 Mass, spring and damper are the most
basic elements of any mechanical system.
 Assumptions:
1. the mass is a free body
2. the spring is linear and follows
Hook’s law
3. the viscus damper can be described by
fv = bv(t)
where b is the friction constant and
v(t) is the velocity
4. A force F was applied when t < 0
and the mass was at rest with an
initial displacement of yo from its
equilibrium.
Unforced Response of MSD System
 If the mass is suddenly released, that is, suddenly F  0, how

does the system response?

System Modeling
 Define the position of the mass at rest when F = 0 as its
equilibrium and the displacement from the equilibrium as y(t).
Then the velocity of the mass:
dy (t ) t
v(t )   y (t )   v( )d
dt 0
dv(t ) d 2 y (t )
The acceleration of the mass: a (t )  
dt dt 2
 Force exerted on the mass in motion by the spring (Hook’s law):
t
f y (t )  Ky (t )  K  v( )d
0
 Force exerted on the mass by the damper:
f v (t )  bv(t )
 Force exerted on the mass due to (t). (Newton’s 2nd Law)
dv(t )
f a (t )  Ma (t )  M
dt
Mathematic model and Analogous systems
 The mathematical model for t  0  No force applied  F = 0
dv(t ) t
f a (t )  f v (t )  f y (t )  M  bv(t )  K  v( )d  F  0 (2)
dt 0
 Comparison with the RLC circuit

dv(t ) 1 1 t
iC (t )  iR (t )  iL (t )  C  v(t )   v( )d  0 (1)
dt R L 0
 Since (M, b, k) & (C, R, L) are all constant real numbers for a
specific system, equations (1) and (2) are actually the same.
 These two systems are called analogous systems. Voltage v(t) and
velocity v(t) are analogous variables called voltage-velocity analogy.
dy (t ) t
 With v(t )  and y (t )   v( )d , (2) can be transformed to:
dt 0

New Terminology
 Equation (3) is also a 2nd-order homogeneous differential

equation called the mathematical model of the MSD system.
 Through variable —A variable transmitted through an element: i(t)
 Across Variable — A variable whose value is determined by
measuring the difference of the values at two extreme points of an
element: v(t)
 Inductive storage — Inductor with inductance L
 Capacitive storage — Capacitor with capacitance C
 Energy dissipater — Resistor with resistance R

The Variables
 By comparison:
dv(t ) 1 1 t
iC (t )  iR (t )  iL (t )  C  v(t )   v( )d  0 (1)
dt R L 0
dv(t ) t
f a (t )  f v (t )  f y (t )  M  bv(t )  K  v( )d  0 (2)
dt 0

Comments
 Analogous systems from different disciplines, electrical and

mechanical, can be described by differential equations of the
same form.
 The solution of analogous equations or the response of
analogous systems will also take the same form.
 System analysis and design procedures from one field can be
directly extended to analogous systems in other fields.
 A system can be simulated with an analogous system.
Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 2 - 10 Modern Control Systems

Rotational MSD System
where T = Torque
 = angular displacement
 = Angular velocity
J = Inertia of the rotational object
c = friction constant of rotational viscus damper
K = Intensity factor of rotational linear spring

The model
 Torque-Displacement form:
d 2 y (t ) dy(t )
 Translational: M 2
b  ky (t )  F  0
dt dt
d 2 (t ) d (t )
 Rotational: J 2
c  k (t )  T  0
dt dt
 The system input is the applied torque T.
 The system output is the angular displacement, .

Gears

Gear Ratio
 Gear Ratio:
 Two important relationships:

Gear Train
 To obtain large gear ratio:

Pulley and Pulley Train
 Gear ratio: use the ratio of radiuses

Rotational System with Gear
 System input: Td (t)  driving torque

 Possible output: d (t) or  l (t)  angular displacement
 Temporarily ignore the driving gear and consider the load shaft
only. Then
d 2 l (t ) d l (t )
Tl (t )  J 2
c  k l (t )
dt dt
Take l (t) as Output & Relate it to Td (t)
d 2 l (t ) d l (t )
 Substitute Tl (t )  J 2
c  k l (t )
dt dt
into
Then
 The only difference is a gear ratio.

Take d (t) as Output & Relate it to Td (t)
 Substitute
d 2 l (t ) d l (t )
into Tl (t )  J 2
c  k l (t )
dt dt
Then
and
 The difference becomes a squared gear ratio.

Laplace Transform  LT
 F s   L  f (t )  0 f (t )e  st dt


 Definition:  1   j
 f (t )  L 1
F ( s )    j F ( s )e ds
st
 2j
 Laplace transform is the foundation of control systems and

Laplace transform table will be used extensively through
table lookup.

Functional Transform
 Notes:
d
s
dt
1
 s

 In another word:
s = differentiator
1  integrator

s  step function

Functional Transform
 Note: No negative sign in all LTs except initial conditions.

Operational Transform

LT of MSD System
 Notes:
1. Y(s) is an algebraic function of s.
2. y(t) can be found through inverse Laplace transform.
3. To make use of the LT table, Y(s) needs to be transformed
into the form that can be found in the table.
Example 1: Unforced Response of MSD System
 Assume that that M = 2kg, b = 1.12N-s/m, k = 4N/m and yo = 0.6m.

Solve for the displacement y(t) for t  0, by making use of the
Laplace transform table.
 Note: If the unit of all variables is metric system unit, then all
the units can be ignored.
 b 
 s   yo
Y (s)  
M
b k
s  s
2
M M

Practical Consideration
 Attention:
 We need phase information of the response and it is not
acceptable to have 2 sinusoidal functions with no phase
information in one solution
 Please use formula 12 instead of 10 and 11.
 If you use formula 10 and 11, you MUST combine them
together to obtain one sinusoidal function
Solution
 Function found in Laplace transform table:
 Transformation of the denominator:
s 2  0.56s  2  s 2  2  0.28s  0.282  0.282  2

 s 2  2  0.28s  0.282  1.9216  s  0.28  1.38622
2
 Temporarily ignore yo, , Y s   s  0.56

s  0.282  1.38622
 By comparison:  = 0.56, a = 0.28 and  = 1.3862 rad/s.
Solution (Cont.)
 With  = 0.56
a = 0.28
 = 1.3862
1
0.56  0.28   1.3826 
2 1.4142
2
 1.0202
1.3862 1.3862
 1.3862 
  tan 1    78.58
 0.56  0.28 
 Take into account yo = 0.6:

Time response plot with yo = 0.6 (m)

Plot of time-domain response using Matlab
clc; clear all; close all; % Following
% sign is notes
y0=0.6; M=2; bb=1.12; KK=4; t=[0:0.1:16];
alpha=bb/M; aa=bb/(2*M); ww = sqrt(KK/M - aa^2);
yy=y0*sqrt((alpha-aa)^2+ww^2)/ww;
phi=atan(ww/(alpha - aa));
DE=yy*exp(-aa*t); DEN=-DE; % Damping envelop
SW=sin(ww*t+phi); % Undamped sinewave
y=DE.*SW; % Array multiplification & complete response
hold on; plot(t, DE, '--', 'LineWidth',1.2, 'Color', 'k');
plot(t, DEN, '--', 'LineWidth',1.2, 'Color', 'k');
plot(t, SW, '--', 'LineWidth',1.2, 'Color', 'r');
plot(t, y, 'Color', 'blue', 'LineWidth',3); hold off
xlabel('Time(sec)'), ylabel('y(t) (meters)');
title('Unforced Response of Mass-Spring-Damper System'); grid;
Change Property of Curves

Change Property of Curves
 Right click on the curve and choose what to change:

Copy Figure and Paste in Word File
Homework 1
Transfer Function  TF
 Definition: The ratio of the Laplace transform of the output

function to the Laplace transform of the input function with
ALL zero initial conditions.
Assume: The output function: y(t)  Y(s)
The input function: r(t)  R(s)
Then The transfer function: [or T(s)]
The output: Y(s) = R(s)G(s)

Linear Systems
 This definition of TF is applicable only to Linear Time-
Invariant (LTI) continuous-time system.
 Linear systems:
Let r(t) and y(t) be the input and output signals of a system. A
system is said to be linear iff it satisfies the following properties:
If r1(t)  y1(t) while r2(t)  y2(t), then
Superposition: {r1(t) + r2(t)}  {y1(t) + y2(t)}
+ Homogeneity: r1(t)  y1(t) and r2(t)  y2(t)
= Linearity: {r1(t) + r2(t)}  {y1(t) + y2(t)}
where  and  are nonzero real constant.

Example
 Is the following system linear?

y = f(t) = mt + b where both m and b are real non-zero constant
 Let  be a real non-zero constant, then
y = f( t) = m t + b   y = m t +  b
 Since the homogeneity property is not satisfied, the system is

not linear.

Notes
1. Transfer function is a mathematical artifact of a physical system

and the independent variable is s. It is a description of the
input-output relationship but does not provide any
information about the type, the structure and the parameters of a
system
2. Please go through all the s-domain functions in the Laplace
transform table. Negative sign can be found only in the initial-
condition-related terms.
3. With ALL zero initial conditions, there MUST be no
negative sign in a transfer function of a practical
system.
Forced and Unforced Response
 The previous Mass-Spring-Damper System:
s  b y
  o
( Ms  b) yo
 
M
Response in LT form: Y ( s )  2
Ms  bs  k s 2  b s  k
M M
 This result was obtained with initial condition yo with F = 0
when t  0, that is, there is no input force, called unforced
response (zero input).
 An input is required and all initial conditions must be zero in
the definition of transfer function. Therefore, response
described by transfer function is called forced response (with
all initial conditions being zero).
s = A Complex Number  s =  + j
d 2 v(t ) 1 dv(t ) 1
 The system equation: 2
  v(t )  0
dt RC dt LC
 LT with all zero initial conditions:
1 1  2 1 1 
s V ( s) 
2
sV ( s )  V ( s)   s  s  V ( s)  0
RC LC  RC LC 
1 1
 Recall the characteristic equation (CE): s  s 0
2
RC LC
1 1
Denote   and o  , where o  natural frequency
2 RC LC
Then
If  < o, let d  02   2 , then d  damped frequency
s1, 2     jd
 s is a frequency with complex value called complex frequency.
TF from Differential Equation
 Note: Input is denoted as r(t) in classic control theory.
 The mathematical model with non-zero input force:
d 2 y (t ) dy (t )
M 2
 b  ky (t )  r (t )
dt dt
 The Laplace transform:
M s 2Y ( s)  sy 0   y ' 0  bsY s   y0  kY ( s)  R( s)

 With all zero initial conditions:
Ms2Y ( s)  bsY ( s)  kY ( s)  Ms2  bs  k Y ( s)  R( s)
 The transfer function: Note: 1. Numerator from input
2. Denominator from output
d
3. s
dt
Rotational Mass-Spring-Damper System
 The mathematical model with non-zero input r(t ):

d 2 (t ) d (t )
J 2
b  k (t )  r (t )
dt dt
 Similar to translational system,

Rotational MSD System with Gear
 Treat l(t) as output, then from previous difcussion
 Treat d(t) as output, then

s-Domain Representation of Circuit Element
 Comparison of impedance and LT:
 Impedance is a complex number and a function of frequency.

 s =  + j is a complex frequency. R, sL and 1/Cs are called
generalized impedance of resistors, capacitors and inductors,
and can also be denoted as ZR , ZL and ZC respectively.
Modeling of Electric System
Treat ZR, ZC and ZL exact in the same way as resistance

All the laws, (Ohm’s Law, KCL, KVL) and rules
As well as all the circuit analysis techniques
Can be applied directly in the same way as resistive circuits

Transfer Function of RC Circuit
Time-domain circuit s-domain equivalent
 Use impedance and apply VDR:
 The transfer function:

Proportional Controller
 A proportional controller is simply an inverting amplifier
whose output is directly proportional to its input.

Integral Controller
 Replace R2 with a capacitor.
 In frequency domain:
 In the same way,
where
1
 From LT table, means integration.
s
 This circuit is also called integrator.
Derivative Controller
 Replace R1 with a capacitor in
a proportional controller.
 In frequency domain:
1
s
 Let , then
d
 From previous discussion: s
dt
 This circuit is a differentiator.
PI Controller
 With previous discussion, we can directly write down the

transfer function now:

PD Controller

PID Controller

Cascaded Circuit
 Overall:

General Form of Transfer Functions
 Let r(t) and its derivatives = the control input to a LTI system
y(t) = the output or response of that system
The general form of differential equation is
dny d n 1 y dy d n 1r d n2 r dr
n
 q n 1 n 1
   q1  q o y  p n 1 n 1
 p n2 n2
  p1  po r
dt dt dt dt dt dt
where n is an integer with n > 0.
 With zero initial condition, the corresponding transfer function is
 Note:

Zeros and Poles
 Set the numerator polynomial of a transfer function to zero, i.e., let
p(s) = 0, then G(s) = 0.
The roots of the equation p(s) = 0, that is, the values of s that cause
the transfer function to become zero, are called the zeros of the
transfer function.
 Note: “zero” is not a number but a noun here. It is the synonym of
the root of p(s) = 0.
 Set the denominator polynomial of a transfer function to zero, i.e.,
let q(s) = 0, then G(s)  .
“q(s) = 0” is called the characteristic equation.
The roots of the characteristic equation, that is, the values of s that
cause the transfer function to approach infinity, are called the poles
of the transfer function.
s-plane and pole-zero plot
 Zeros and poles are generally complex numbers, each corresponds
to a point on the complex plane. The complex plane is then called
s-plane in the field of control systems.
 For example, if
Letting p(s) = s + 3 = 0
and q(s) = (s +1)(s+2) = 0
result in
A zero causes G(s) = 0 but
Zero: s = –3
does not mean that its own
Poles: s1 = –1 & s2 = –2 value is zero.
Second-Order System
 Recall the transfer function of mass-spring system again:
 This is a 2nd-order system.

Unit-Step Response
 From LT table, the Laplace transform of the unity-step function is:
1
R( s) 
s
 Laplace transform of the unity-step response of 2nd-order system
is:
 From LT table, the unity-step response of 2nd-order system is:
where is called damping factor

is called damped frequency,
Restrictions and Interpretation
 Restrictions to the value of :

   0: n is a radian frequency and must be non-negative.
If  < 0, then   as time goes on. (Forbidden)
  < 1 because of with the 2 poles becoming complex.
 In all, 0   < 1 in order for this formula to make sense.
 y(t) consists of two parts. The constant value 1, called steady-

state response . The second term will damp out
with time since , called transient response.
Unit Step Response of 2nd-Order System When  = 0
 When  = 0,
The pole: purely imaginary
The response:
 Partial fraction:
 By comparison: A = 1, B = 1 and C = 0. From LT table:

Unit-Step Response Curves
 The response curve:
 y(t) oscillates with constant amplitude and never converges to

ySS(t). This case is undesirable and will not be considered.

Unit Step Response when  = 1
 The 3rd term, t , attenuates faster and faster as time goes on.
 y(t) increases rapidly to ySS(t) with no overshoot at all.
 The system is said critically-damped. (Unachievable)
 When  = 1,
The pole:
Purely real

Unit Step Response when 0 <  < 1
 When 0 <  < 1, y(t) increases rapidly with some overshoot or
even oscillation due to the sine function in the formula. y(t) finally
converges to ySS(t) due to the exponential function. The system is
said under-damped.
s1, 2    n  jn 1   2

Unit Step Response when  > 1
 When  > 1, the response becomes slow. (Too slow to consider)
 The system is said over-damped.

Summary
 When  < 0, y(t)  . (Forbidden)
 When  = 0, oscillation sustains.
(Undesirable)
 When 0 <  < 1, oscillation damps
out as time goes on and y(t) finally
converges to ySS(t). The system is
under-damped.
 When  = 1, the system is critically-
damped. (Unachievable)
 When  > 1, the system is over-
damped. (Too slow)
 Only 0 <  < 1 will be considered.
Pole Location vs. System Performance
 Characteristic equation: (0 <  < 1)
 Closed-loop pole on s-plane: s1, 2    n  jn 1  2
 Conclusion: It is the location of the system pole on the

complex plane that determines the system performance.
Example 1 (Cont.)  Forced Response
 Assume that M = 2kg, b = 1.12N-s/m, and k = 4N/m for a mass-
damper-spring system. The mass stand-still at its equilibrium
when t < 0. A force r(t) = 3.2N is suddenly applied a t = 0 and
remains constant thereafter. Solve for the displacement y(t) for
t  0, by making use of the transfer function method.
 The transfer function (Change to standard form):
 This is a 2nd-order system. By comparison,

Solution
 The input: r(t) can be treated as step function:
 1   2  0.9802

n  0.28

n 1    1.3862 (rad/s)
2

  cos   78.58
-1
 Response in frequency domain:
 1 
 Reverse LT: y (t )  0.8  1   e 0.28t sin 1.3862t  78.58
 0.9802 
 0.8  0.81616e 0.28t sin 1.3862t  78.58(m)
Homework 2
Steady-State Response yss(t) — Final Value Theorem
 Definition: yss (t )  lim y (t )

t 
 In previous example,
y (t )  0.8  0.81616e 0.28t sin 1.3862t  78.58(m)

ySS (t )  lim y (t )  0.8 (m)
t 
lim e
t 
 0.28 t
0 
 Final value theorem
lim f (t )  lim sF ( s)
t  s 0
 Apply final value theorem:

Block Diagram  Element Block
 A block diagram is a graphical presentation of a dynamic
system and consists of unidirectional, operational blocks
 An element block represents the transfer Y (s)
function of an element or a subsystem
G( s) 
R( s)
where G(s) = transfer function of the element
R(s) = input signal
Y(s) = output signal

Summing Point
 A summing point
 accepts 2 input signals
 performs addition operation and produces one output
signal

Comparator
 A comparator
 accepts 2 or more input signals
 performs subtraction operation and produces one output
signal

Summing Point & Comparator with More Inputs

Pickoff point or Branch point
A pickoff point is a point from which a signal goes concurrently

to different subsystems when multiple subsystems are
interconnected.
Comparing Element Pickoff Point

point Block At Output
R E Y
Plant
Feedback
Element

General Form of Block Diagram of Closed-Loop Systems
 R(s) = reference input or desired output

 Y(s) = actual output or response
 B(s) = feedback signal
 E(s) = error signal
 G(s) = forward path transfer function
 H(s) = feedback path transfer function

Closed Loop Transfer Functions (CLTF)
 From the block diagram:

Y(s) = E(s)G(s) = [R(s) – B(s)]G(s) = [R(s) – Y(s)H(s)]G(s)
= R(s)G(s) – Y(s)H(s)G(s)
 Separate output from input:
Y(s) + Y(s)H(s)G(s) = Y(s)[1 + H(s)G(s)] = R(s)G(s)
Y ( s) G( s) G( s)
CLTF   
R( s ) 1  G ( s ) H ( s ) 1  GH ( s )
Simplified block diagram
 The result can well be represented by Y (s) G( s)
CLTF  
the following simplified block diagram. R( s ) 1  GH ( s )
R(s) G(s) Y(s)

1  GH ( s )
 Set the denominator polynomial of the closed-loop transfer

function to zero. That is
1 + GH(s) = 0
 Recall the previous discussion, this equation is the so-called
characteristic equation of the closed-loop system.

Block diagram reduction
Original block diagram Simplified Block diagram
R(s) G(s) Y(s)

1  GH ( s )
 This gives us a motivation that a complicated block diagram

can be reduced by proper transformation.
 Caution: Block diagram reduction is to simplify
the structure of the block diagram and should
not change the overall transfer function.
Block diagram transformation

Block diagram transformation (Cont.)

Parallel subsystems

Example 1
 Find the closed-loop transfer function Y(s)/R(s).

 Step1: Eliminate the crossing loop by moving a pickoff point
behind a block (Rule 4)

Example 1 (Cont.)
 Step 2: Eliminating the inner-most feedback loop (Rule 1&6)
 Step 3 Combine the blocks in cascade. (Rule 1)

Compound Fraction
 Directly applying the rule results in a compound fraction.

 Such compound fraction is not acceptable and must be
simplified.
Fraction Numerator and Denominator
 Assume the following block diagram:
 Then the closed-loop transfer function:

GN GN
Y ( s) G ( s) GD GD
CLTF    
R ( s ) 1  GH ( s ) 1  N N GD H D  GN H N
G H
GD H D GD H D
 GD H D With Unity Feedback
GN H D GN
 
GD H D G H  G H H D  H N 1 GD  G N
D D N N

Example 1 (Cont.)
 Step 4: Use the above formula and eliminating the inner

feedback loop (Rule 6)
GN H D G1G2G3   G3

GD H D  GN H N 1  G2G3 H 2   G3  G1G2G3   H1

 Step 4: Blocks in Parallel :
G1G2G3 G1G2G3  G4  1  G2G3 H 2  G1G2 H1 

 G4 
1  G2G3 H 2  G1G2 H1 1  G2G3 H 2  G1G2 H1

Example 1 (Cont.)
 Final Step: Eliminating the feedback loop with unit-feedback:

H = 1 or ( HN = 1 & HD = 1 )

Final Answer
Homework 3

Signal-flow graph (Chart)
 An alternative graphical presentation of dynamic systems,
sometimes called line path method.
 Consider the following block diagram.
 In a signal flow graph, it changes to the following

unidirectional path segment called branch.
 The input-output points are called nodes.

Node Operation
 The signal at one node is the sum of all signals coming to it.
V ( s)  R1 ( s)G1 ( s)  R2 ( s)G2 ( s)  R3 ( s)G3 ( s)
C1 ( s )  V ( s )G4 ( s )  R1 ( s )G1 ( s )G4 ( s )  R2 ( s )G2 ( s )G4 ( s )  R3 ( s )G3 ( s )G4 ( s )
C2 ( s )  V ( s )G5 ( s )
C3 ( s )   V ( s )G6 ( s )
Signal-flow graph
 A signal-flow graph consists of nodes which are connected by
directed branches
 New terms:
1. Path: A branch or a continuous sequence of braches that
can be traversed from one node to another
2. Loop: A closed path that starts and terminates at the same
node, and no node is met more than once along the path
3. Touching and non-touching: If two loops share one or
more nodes, they are said to be in touch. If two loops do not
have any node in common, they are said to be non-touching.
 Advantage: a little bit easier to manipulate than block diagram
reduction because of the availability of a flow graph gain
formula

Mason’s signal-flow gain formula
P  k k
 The gain formula: T (s)  k

where T(s) = transfer function to be determined

Pk = the transfer function of the kth forward path
from input to output
k = the cofactor of Pk
 = the determinant of the graph

Determination of  and k
 List out all the forward path transfer functions , P1, P2, … Pk.
 Determine :
1. List out all the loops, say, N, and name the corresponding loop
transfer functions as L1, L2, L3, …LN
2. Determine all combinations of two nontouching loops
3. Determine all combinations of three nontouching loops
4. ………..
N M ,Q
5. Then  1   Ln  L m LQ  Lr Ls Lt  
n 1 m 1, q 1
 Determine k:
1. Identify all the loops that touches the forward path Pk and set
the corresponding loop transfer functions to zero
2. Substitute these zeros into . The result is the so-called k
Example 3
 Given the following signal flow graph, determine the transfer
function of the system.
 Two forward paths: P1  G1G2G3G4

P2  G5G6G7G8
Example 3 (Cont.)
 Four loops: L1  G2 H 2
L2  G3 H 3
L3  G6 H 6
L4  G7 H 7
 Four nontouching loop pairs:

L1 & L3 L1 & L4 L2 & L3 L2 & L4
 There is no combination with 3 and more non-touching loops
 Hence   1  L1  L2  L3  L4  L1 L3  L1 L4  L2 L3  L2 L4
 1  G2 H 2  G3 H 3  G6 H 6  G7 H 7
 G2 H 2G6 H 6  G2 H 2G7 H 7  G3 H 3G6 H 6  G3 H 3G7 H 7
Example 3 (Cont.)
 1  L1  L2  L3  L4  L1 L3  L1 L4  L2 L3  L2 L4
 L1 and L2 touch forward path P1.
Set L1 = 0, L2 = 0 and substitute
into . Then
1 1  0  0  L3  L4
 0  L3  0  L4  0  L3  0  L4
1  L3  L4
1  G6 H 6  G7 H 7
 L3 and L4 touch forward path P2. Set L3 = 0, L4 = 0 and
substitute into . Then
 2 1  L1  L2  0  0  L1  0  L1  0  L2  0  L2  0
1  L1  L2 1  G2 H 2  G3 H 3
Example 3 (Cont.)
 Finally
P11  P2  2
T (s) 

G1G2G3G4 1  G6 H 6  G7 H 7   G4G5G6G8 1  G2 H 2  G3 H 3 

1  G2 H 2  G3 H 3  G6 H 6  G7 H 7 
 G H G H G H G H G H G H G H G H 
 2 2 6 6 2 2 7 7 3 3 6 6 3 3 7 7

Previous Example
 Find the closed-loop transfer function Y(s)/R(s).
 The result:

Previous Example (Cont.)
P1  G1G2G3
 There are 2 forward paths:
P2  G4
 There are 4 loops. Please pay attention to the negative sign
in each loop due to the negative feedback.
L1   G2G3 H 2 L2   G1G2 H1 L3   G1G2G3 L4   G4

Previous Example (Cont.)
 There are 2 non-touching loop pairs: L1 & L4 L2 & L4

 1  L1  L2  L3  L4  L1 L4  L2 L4
1  G2G3 H 2  G1G2 H1  G1G2G3  G4  G2G3G4 H 2  G1G2G4 H1
 All the 4 loops touch the forward path 1. Setting all of them to
zero in  results in 1 = 1.
 L3 and L4 touch forward path 2. Setting them to zero in 
results in
 2 1  L1  L2 1  G2G3 H 2  G1G2 H1
The Answer
 Finally Homework 4
 Compare with the previous result:
 The same.
Possible Mistake
 Common
mistake:

Modeling of DC Motor
 Note:
The
mechanical
load is rigidly
coupled to the
motor with
J = Jlr + Jm
and
b = blr + bm
 Variables Involved: Va: Armature voltage

Ia: Armature current Ra: Armature resistance
La: Armature inductance Vb: Back emf (ElectroMotive Force)
J: Mechanical inertia : Angular displacement
: Angular velocity b: Friction coefficient
Vf: Field voltage If: Field current
TF of armature-controlled dc motor
 s-domain equivalent circuit:
 Assumptions:  Expected transfer function:

1. If = constant and stable
 (s)
2. Input = Va(t) G (s) 
Va ( s )
3. Output = (t)
Transfer function derivation
1. If = constant and stable   = Kf If = constant
2. When the armature is rotating, a back EMF Vb(t) is generated.

Vb(t) is directly proportional to the angular velocity, (t) = d(t) /dt.
Vb(t) is opposite in polarity to the applied voltage, Va(t).
Vb ( s )  K b ( s )  K b s ( s )
3. Apply Ohm’s law to armature circuit:
Va ( s )  Vb ( s ) Va ( s )  K b s ( s )
I a (s)  
Ra  La s Ra  La s
1 Kb s
 Va ( s )   (s)
La s  Ra La s  Ra
TF of armature-controlled dc motor
4. Mechanic torque generated by the motor:
Tm ( s )  K1I a ( s )  K1 K f I f I a ( s )  K m I a ( s )
Km K m Kb s
 Va ( s )   (s)
5. The load torque due to rotating inertia and friction:
d 2 (t ) d (t )
TL (t )  J (t )  b (t )  J 2
b
dt dt
TL ( s)  Js 2 ( s)  bs ( s)  s Js  b  ( s)
6. At equilibrium, TL = TM. That is
Km K m Kb s
s Js  b  ( s )  Va ( s )   (s)
The transfer function
Km K m Kb s
s Js  b  ( s )  Va ( s )   (s)
 (s)
Expected transfer function: G ( s ) 
Va ( s )
Separate Va(s) from (s):
 K m Kb s  Km
s Js  b    ( s )  Va ( s)
 La s  Ra  La s  Ra
s Js  b La s  Ra   K m K b  ( s)  K mVa ( s)

7. The transfer function of the armature controlled dc motor:
 ( s) Km
G(s)  
Va ( s ) s Js  b  La s  Ra   K m K b 
Simplification of the TF
 ( s) Km
G(s)  
Va ( s ) s Js  b  La s  Ra   K m K b 
8. La is usually small and can generally be ignored. Then

Km
 (s) Km Ra b  K m K b
G(s)   
Va ( s ) s Ra Js  Ra b  K m K b   Ra J 
s s  1
 Ra b  K m K b 

Block diagram of armature-controlled dc motor
 The complete block diagram:
 Transfer function:
 Km 1 
  
 (s)  La s  Ra Js  b  1 Km
G (s)    
Va ( s ) 1  K m  1  K s s Js  b  La s  Ra   K m K b 
La s  Ra Js  b
b
 The same transfer function.

Determination of System Response
 Procedures :
1. System modeling: Derive system transfer function T(s).
General form of transfer function:
2. Choose control input, say unity-step, then,

1 pn 1s n 1  pn  2 s n  2    p1s  po
R( s)  Y ( s) 
s s n  qn 1s n 1    q1s  qo 
and
s
3. Solve the CE:
4. Partial fraction
5. Inverse Laplace transform
3 typical TFs from partial fraction
 3 typical components from partial fraction of Y(s):
where the 3rd type represents complex poles and p(s) can simply
be constant A or a polynomial A(s+c).
 Corresponding poles:
s  0, s   a, s1, 2   n  jn 1   2
 Corresponding time response from LT table:
where a,  and n are all real positive constant.

BIBO stability
 The most important concern for automatic control systems is
the stability. Control system theories only deals with stable
systems or how to make an unstable system stable
 BIBO Stability (Bounded-Input-Bounded-Output):
In simple word, a bounded input should produce a bounded
output in a stable system.
 Question: Which parameter will cause the above 3 time

functions unbounded?
 The first function is always bounded. The last two functions

will become unbounded as t   if a < 0 or n < 0.
Pole location and stability
 In order for the system to be stable, one must ensure that
a > 0 and n > 0
 Where are the poles

when a > 0 and n > 0?
 They all lie on the left-half

of the s-plane (LHP)

Conclusion
For a stable system,

all poles must have
negative real part.
OR
all poles must lie
on the left-half of
the s-plane or on LHP.
Pole location and Response

Find poles and zeros using Matlab
s  10
 Let T ( s )  2  Matlab command:
s  2s  1
>> T=tf([1 10],[1 2 1]);
p=pole(T)
p=
-1
-1
>> z=zero(T)
z=
-10

Pole-zero plot: Cascaded System
8s 2  18 ( s  1)( s  2)
 Let G ( s)  3 and H ( s) 
s  3s  3s  1
2
( s  j 2)( s  j 2)( s  3)
Tg=tf([8 0 18],[1 3 3 1]);
Th=tf(conv([1 1],[1 2]),conv([1 2j],conv([1 -2j], [1 3])));
T=Tg*Th; % Cascade G(s) and H(s) in series: G(s)H(s) = GH(s)
pzmap(T);

TF summation
10 1
 Let G1 ( s )  2 and G2 ( s ) 
s  2s  5 s 1
 Find the sum G1(s) + G2(s):
T1=tf([10],[1 2 5]);
T2=tf([1], [1 1]);
T=T1+T2 % G1(s) and G2(s) in parallel
Transfer function:
s^2 + 12 s + 15
R G1
---------------------------
s^3 + 3 s^2 + 7 s + 5 Y
G2

Simulation of DC Motor Control System
 The block diagram of a dc motor:
 Assume the following parameters with a power amplifier G3:

Simulation Using Matlab
clear
Tg1=tf([10],[1 1]); Tg2=tf([1],[2 0.5]);
T1=Tg1*Tg2; T2=feedback(T1, 0.1);
T3=540*T2; T=feedback(T3, 1);
t=[0:0.005:5];
[y,t]=step(T,t);
plot(t,y,'LineWidth',2),grid;
xlabel('Time (sec)');
ylabel('Wheel velocity');
title('Step response of dc motor');

Simulation Using Simulink
 Start Matlab
>> simulink
 The following window pop up use to build the block diagram

 Commonly used
Blocks:
Click, hold, move
and put it into the
file you just open

Simulation using Simulink
 Source  Step
 Continuous  Find appropriate block needed
 Sink  Scope
 Flip or rotate the components as required
 Connect each block as in the block diagram: Put the cursor at the
terminal of a block, hold, move to the terminal of another block
and release.

Modify and simulation
 Modify the values of each block: Double click. Then change
the parameters to the desired value. OK.
Warning: Don’t include ‘s’ in the block parameters but
only the coefficients
 Set desired step time, stop time and step size:
Double click on “Step” input box and enter desired ‘Step
time’ (Normally 0) and ‘Sample time’, (E.g., 0.01).
Displaying time period: Set the value near the sign ‘ ’
 Simulation: Click on the sign ‘ ’ to start.
 View the result: Double click on Scope. If you can not see
the curve you expected, right click the mouse and click ‘Auto
Scale’.
The block diagram
 Click to run the program.

 Double click “Scope” to show the results.
Change Scope Parameters

The Final Result
Homework 5

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Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems

 A mathematical model uses mathematical language such as

Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 2-1 Modern Control Systems

 Assume: Some energy is already stored in C but not in L when t = 0,

 Differentiating both sides and transform to monic form. Then

 This is the so-called mathematic model of parallel RLC circuit.

 If the mass is suddenly released, that is, suddenly F  0, how

Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 2-5 Modern Control Systems

 Comparison with the RLC circuit

Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 2-7 Modern Control Systems

 Equation (3) is also a 2nd-order homogeneous differential

Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 2-8 Modern Control Systems

Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 2-9 Modern Control Systems

 Analogous systems from different disciplines, electrical and

Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 2 - 10 Modern Control Systems

Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 2 - 11 Modern Control Systems

Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 2 - 12 Modern Control Systems

Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 2 - 13 Modern Control Systems

 Two important relationships:

Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 2 - 14 Modern Control Systems

Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 2 - 15 Modern Control Systems

 Gear ratio: use the ratio of radiuses

 System input: Td (t)  driving torque

 The only difference is a gear ratio.

Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 2 - 18 Modern Control Systems

 The difference becomes a squared gear ratio.

 Laplace transform is the foundation of control systems and

Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 2 - 20 Modern Control Systems

Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 2 - 21 Modern Control Systems

 Note: No negative sign in all LTs except initial conditions.

Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 2 - 23 Modern Control Systems

 Assume that that M = 2kg, b = 1.12N-s/m, k = 4N/m and yo = 0.6m.

Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 2 - 25 Modern Control Systems

 Transformation of the denominator:

s 2  0.56s  2  s 2  2  0.28s  0.282  0.282  2

 Temporarily ignore yo, , Y s   s  0.56

Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 2 - 28 Modern Control Systems

Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 2 - 29 Modern Control Systems

Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 2 - 31 Modern Control Systems

Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 2 - 32 Modern Control Systems

 Definition: The ratio of the Laplace transform of the output

The input function: r(t)  R(s)

Then The transfer function: [or T(s)]

The output: Y(s) = R(s)G(s)

Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 2 - 34 Modern Control Systems

Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 2 - 35 Modern Control Systems

 Is the following system linear?

 Let  be a real non-zero constant, then

 Since the homogeneity property is not satisfied, the system is

Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 2 - 36 Modern Control Systems

1. Transfer function is a mathematical artifact of a physical system

M s 2Y ( s)  sy 0   y ' 0  bsY s   y0  kY ( s)  R( s)

 The mathematical model with non-zero input r(t ):

Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 2 - 41 Modern Control Systems

 Treat l(t) as output, then from previous difcussion

 Treat d(t) as output, then

Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 2 - 42 Modern Control Systems

 Impedance is a complex number and a function of frequency.

Treat ZR, ZC and ZL exact in the same way as resistance

Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 2 - 44 Modern Control Systems

 Use impedance and apply VDR:

 The transfer function:

Chapter 2 Mathematical Models of Systems 2 - 45 Modern Control Systems