Introduction to heat transfer

Asiri Manchanayaka
Thermodynamics – Introduction to heat transfer

 Heat is a form of energy that can be transferred from one system to

another as a result of temperature difference. The science that deals with
the determination of the rates of such energy transfers is the heat
transfer.

 Heat can be transferred in three different modes: conduction,

convection, and radiation. All modes of heat transfer require the
existence of a temperature difference, and all modes are from the high-
temperature medium to a lower-temperature one.
Thermodynamics – Introduction to heat transfer
Modes of Heat Transfer - Classification

Modes of
Heat Transfer

Conduction Convection Radiation

Thermodynamics – Introduction to heat transfer

Heat Flux
The rate of heat transfer per unit area
normal to the direction of heat transfer
is called heat flux.

The average heat flux is expressed as;

Thermodynamics – Introduction to heat transfer

Conduction
This is the mode of energy transfer as heat due to temperature difference
within a body or between bodies in thermal contact without the
involvement of mass flow and mixing

Fourier’s law of heat conduction

Heat flow by conduction in any direction is proportional to the temperature
gradient and area perpendicular to the flow direction and is in the direction
of negative gradient.
Thermodynamics – Introduction to heat transfer
For example, consider a steady-state conduction
experiment carried out for a cylindrical rod of known
material which is insulated on its lateral surface,
while its end faces are maintained at different
temperatures, with T1 and T2. (T1 > T2)
The temperature difference causes conduction heat
transfer in the positive x - direction.
According to the Fourier’s law heat transfer rate qx,
Where k, the thermal conductivity (W/m K). Evaluating this expression in the limit as
Δx → 0, we obtain for the heat rate;

The negative sign is because the heat flow is towards the direction of temperature fall.
Thermodynamics – Introduction to heat transfer
Heat transfer through a plain wall

Figure shows a cross section of a

plane wall. An expression using the
Fourier’s law, for the rate of heat
transfer across the faces of the wall is
to be derived.

Consider a small elemental strip of thickness ds as shown and apply Fourier’s Law;
Thermodynamics – Introduction to heat transfer

Example 01
Determine the heat flow across a plain wall of 10 cm thickness with a constant thermal
conductivity of 8.5 W/m K when the surface temperatures are steady at 100 0C and
30 0C. The wall area is 3 m2. Find the temperature gradient in the flow direction.
Thermodynamics – Introduction to heat transfer

Heat transfer through pipe lagging

Figure shows a pipe with a surface temperature T1
and a layer of insulation with surface temperature
T2. The diameter of the pipe is r1 and the radius to
the outer surface of the lagging is r2. The thermal
conductivity of the lagging is k.
Apply Fourier's law;

For length, l, the area of the elemental strip is (circumference × length) 2πrl
Thermodynamics – Introduction to heat transfer

Heat transfer through pipe lagging cont..

Thermodynamics – Introduction to heat transfer

Example 02
A pipe of inner diameter 0.15 m is lagged with 0.065 m thick material of thermal
conductivity 0.6 W/m K. If the inner and outer surface temperatures of the lagging are
260°C and 50°C respectively, calculate the heat loss per metre length of pipe.
Thermodynamics – Introduction to heat transfer
Convection
Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent
liquid or gas that is in motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and
fluid motion. The faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heat transfer. In the
absence of any bulk fluid motion, heat transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent
fluid is by pure conduction.
Free and Forced Convection
Convection is called forced convection if the fluid
is forced to flow over the surface by external means
such as a fan, pump, or the wind. In contrast,
convection is called natural (or free) convection if
the fluid motion is caused by buoyancy forces that
are induced by density differences due to the
variation of temperature in the fluid.
Thermodynamics – Introduction to heat transfer

Newton’s law of cooling for convection

Despite the complexity of convection, the rate of convection heat transfer is observed to
be proportional to the temperature difference, and is conveniently expressed by
Newton’s law of cooling as;

where h is the convection heat transfer coefficient in W/m2 K. As is the surface area
through which convection heat transfer takes place, Ts is the surface temperature, and
T∞ is the temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface. Note that at the
surface, the fluid temperature equals the surface temperature of the solid.
Thermodynamics – Introduction to heat transfer

Example 03
Determine the heat transfer by convection over a surface of 0.5 m2 area if the surface is
at 160 0C and fluid is at 40 0C. ( h = 25 W/ m2 K)
Thermodynamics – Introduction to heat transfer
Radiation
Electromagnetic radiation carries energy and radiation is emitted by various means.
Such radiation due to temperature called thermal radiation. It is a surface phenomenon.
No medium is required.
Blackbody Radiation
A body at a temperature above zero emits radiation in all
directions over a wide range of wavelengths. Different
bodies may emit different amounts of radiation per unit
surface area, even when they are at the same temperature.
A blackbody is an idealized body, defined as a perfect emitter
and absorber of radiation. At a specified temperature and
wavelength, no surface can emit more energy than a
blackbody. A blackbody emits radiation energy uniformly in
all directions per unit area normal to direction of emission.
Thermodynamics – Introduction to heat transfer

Blackbody Radiation cont..

Heat transfer rate by radiation can be calculated using the following Stefan –
Boltzmann equation.

Where;
σ – Stefan – Boltzmann constant (σ = 5.67 × 10-8 W/ m2 K4)
T is the absolute temperature of the surface in K where radiation heat transfer occur
As is the surface area
Q̇ is the radiation heat transfer rate (in W)
Es is called the blackbody emissive power (in W/m2)
Thermodynamics – Introduction to heat transfer

Emissivity (ε)
The emissivity of a surface represents the ratio of the radiation emitted by the surface at a
given temperature to the radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature. The
emissivity of a surface is denoted by ε, and it varies between zero and one, 0 < ε < 1.
Emissivity is a measure of how closely a surface approximates a blackbody, for which
ε = 1.
The emissivity of a real surface is not a constant. Rather, it varies with the temperature of
the surface as well as the wavelength and the direction of the emitted radiation.
Assuming the emissivity is same throughout the radiating surface or considering the
average emissivity, the Stefan – Boltzmann equation can be rewritten as;
Thermodynamics – Introduction to heat transfer

Example 04
Consider a 20-cm-diameter spherical ball at 800 K
suspended in air as shown in the figure. Assuming the ball
closely approximates a blackbody, determine
(a) the total blackbody emissive power,
(b) the total amount of radiation emitted by the ball in 5 min,
(c) If the ball is actually having an average emissivity of
0.521, calculate the radiation heat transfer rate emitting
from the ball.
Thermodynamics – Introduction to heat transfer

Thermal-electrical analogy
Recall from circuit theory that resistance (𝑅Elec)
across an element is defined as the ratio of electric
potential difference (V1-V2) across that element,
to electric current (I) traveling through that
element, according to Ohm’s law.

Within the context of heat transfer, the respective

analogues of electric potential and current are
temperature difference (T1 – T2) and heat transfer
rate (Q̇), respectively. Thus we can establish
“thermal circuits” if we similarly establish thermal
resistance Rthermal instead of 𝑅Elec
Thermodynamics – Introduction to heat transfer

Thermal-electrical analogy for conduction

(a) Conduction through a plain wall
From Fourier’s law From Thermal-electrical analogy

Comparing both equations

Thermodynamics – Introduction to heat transfer

(b) Conduction through a pipe lagging

From Fourier’s law From Thermal-electrical analogy

Comparing both equations

Thermodynamics – Introduction to heat transfer

Thermal-electrical analogy for convection

From Newton’s law of cooling From Thermal-electrical analogy

Comparing both equations

Thermodynamics – Introduction to heat transfer

Modeling Heat Transfer Problem using a thermal resistance network

Complicated heat transfer problems can be modeled using thermal resistance network in
order to simplify the calculations.
Consider heat transfer through a plane wall of
thickness L, area A, and thermal conductivity k
Q̇
that is exposed to convection on both sides to
fluids at temperatures T∞1 and T∞2 with heat Convection Conduction Convection
into the wall through the wall from the wall
transfer coefficients h1 and h2, respectively.
(T∞1 > T∞2).

= Q̇
Thermodynamics – Introduction to heat transfer

So, the problem can be modeled by using

two convection thermal resistances and
Q̇ one conduction thermal resistance. These
resistance values are shown below the
equivalent circuit.
Thermodynamics – Introduction to heat transfer

The equivalent circuit can be further simplified introducing a total thermal resistance
RTotal

Q̇

Since all the resisters are connected in series

Thermodynamics – Introduction to heat transfer
Overall heat transfer coefficient (U)
It is sometimes convenient to express heat transfer
through several mediums in an analogous manner
to Newton’s law of cooling as;
Q̇

For this heat transfer across the wall

where U is called the overall heat transfer coefficient

with the unit W/m2·K.
Thermodynamics – Introduction to heat transfer
Calculation of Overall heat transfer coefficient (U)
Compare both the equations.
Q̇ From electrical analogy Using overall heat transfer
coefficient

Q̇
Thermodynamics – Introduction to heat transfer
Example 05
Consider a 0.8-m-high and 1.5-m-wide glass window with a thickness of 8 mm and a
thermal conductivity of k = 0.78 W/m·K. Determine the steady rate of heat transfer
through this glass window and the temperature of its inner surface for a day during
which the room is maintained at 20°C while the temperature of the outdoors is -10°C.
Take the heat transfer coefficients on the inner and outer surfaces of the window to be
h1 = 10 W/m2·K and h2 = 40 W/m2·K, which includes the effects of radiation also.
Thermodynamics – Introduction to heat transfer

Example 06
Steam at T∞1 = 320 °C flows in a cast iron pipe (k = 80 W/m·K) whose inner and outer
diameters are D1 = 5 cm and D2 = 5.5 cm, respectively. The pipe is covered with 3-cm-
thick glass wool insulation with k = 0.05 W/m·K. Heat is lost to the surroundings at
T∞2 = 5 °C by natural convection and radiation, with a combined heat transfer
coefficient of h2 = 18 W/m2·K. Taking the heat transfer coefficient inside the pipe to be
h1 = 60 W/m2·K, determine the rate of heat loss from the steam per unit length of the
pipe. Also determine the temperature drops across the pipe shell and the insulation.
Thermodynamics – Introduction to heat transfer

Additional Reading

Please read from the page 144 to 152 and from

161 to 170 for thermal – electrical analogy.