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Electron configuration
1) Defined as the arrangement of electrons around nucleus
2) Gives info on the chemical behaviour of the atom
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a. According to Bohr Theory, the energy of the es and the radii of the orbits are
quantized (restricted to certain specific energy values)
b. Es orbiting in their given orbits do not emit or lose energy.
c. Electrons would absorb extra energy given in the form of heat or electrical
discharge and get excited. (hence give rise to Absorption Spectrum)
d. Electrons would then go back to ground state by losing the extra energy in the
form of light. (LES)
e. Electrons have definite speed (2200km/h) and definite path (radius 53 pm)
5) Later, it was found that Bohr’s Model is unsatisfactory because
a. According to Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, it is not possible to measure
experimentally both the speed and location of es simultaneously. Thus it is not
possible to know both the velocity of es and orbit radii at the same time.
b. Bohr’s theory can only explain the movement of electron in hydrogen atom.
i. An attempt to use this theory to explain the movement of electrons in the
atom with more than 1 electron failed.
c. Today, Bohr’s Model is partially accepted and it is not completely rejected. Its
explanation is still used by scientists to explain LES and Absorption Spectra.
6) In 1923, Louis de Broglie (French) advanced his theory, Wave Theory of Atom that es
have wave-particle duality character
a. If light can have both wave and particle character, hence matter can have wave
character.
b. Electron has both wave and particle character
c. λ=h/mv
d. This theory was later confirmed by Davisson & Germer (American physicist)
using “double-slit” experiment.
i. When streams of electrons are passed through a double- slit, the electrons
show diffraction pattern.
7) Schrodinger worked on Wave Theory of Atom developed by de Broglie
a. He came up with a set of complex mathematical equation and he had used
advance calculus to solve the equation.
b. The solutions to these mathematical equation were the probability of finding es
around the nuc
c. According to Schrodinger, es do not move in orbits but they can be found in
atomic orbital
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ATOMIC STRUCTURE
1) Atomic orbital is a volume in space where there is a maximum chance or 95% probability
of finding the electrons.
2) Atomic orbital is also known as ‘electron cloud’ because the electrons move at high speed
and you can only see them as cloud.
3) Since electrons move so fast, you cannot tell the exact location of the electrons in the
atomic orbital.
4) In order to be able to keep track of electrons in the atomic orbital, you need to know the
term ‘shell’ and ‘subshell’.
5) In order to be able to keep track of electrons in the atomic orbital, you need to know the
term ‘shell’ and ‘subshell’.
Shell
1) Tells about the average distance between the nucleus and electrons.
2) Also known as the principle energy level or main energy level
3) Shell no., n = 1,2,3,4,5,6,and 7 correspond to the main energy level
a. n = 1 (nearest to nucleus)
b. n = 7 (farthest from nucleus)
4) The bigger the number, the greater the distance between the nucleus and electrons, the
larger the size of atomic orbital and the less stable the atomic orbital will become.
Subshell
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Energy level
1) Build-up principle can be used to write the electron configuration for any given
atom
2) It consists of 3 rules
a. Pauling Exclusion
i. Each atomic orbital can accommodate to a max of 2 e & the e
must be in the opposite spin
b. Energy sequence of the orbital
i. Fill up the orbitals with e following their successive energy
levels according to the diagram below
c. Hund’s Rule
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i. When electrons enter the orbitals, which have the same energy,
they would arrange themselves so that they will have a max no
of unpaired e with identical spin.
ii. Subshells in the same shell do not have the same energies;
whereas the orbitals in the same subshell have the same energies.
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2) However, transition elements do not have to acquire noble gas configuration to be
stable. This is because they have a stable 3d-orbital configuration.
3) Can write the electron configuration for cation or anion by first writing the e-conf
of the neutral atom, then substract or add the e to form the respective ion.
a. Cations
i. Na+ 1s2 2s2 2p6
ii. Ca2+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
iii. Sc2+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1
iv. Zn2+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10
v. Cr3+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3
vi. Cu+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10
vii. Cu2+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d9
b. Anions
i. S2- 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
-
ii. F 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
4) For transition elements, when forming cations, always substract the e from 4s
orbital first since 4s orbital has the highest energy level.
Spectra
Emission Absorption
Line Continuous
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Flame test
Can be used to identify the metal cations in their salt solutions
Different metal cations would give rise to different flame colours.
The colour of the flames is unrelated to the colour of metal or metal salts
Eg: CuSO4
Cu2+ blue solution
Cu brown metal
e) Flame colours
Cation Colour
Ba2+
Ca2+
Cu2+
Pb2+
Li+
K+
Na+
Sr2+
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f) Explanation of LES in relation to e-structure of an atom
-When the val es are supplied with extra energy in the form of ________,________, or
__________, the val es will be promoted to _______ energy levels. These val es are said
to be ___________.
-To regain stability, the excited es will go back to the ________ state and they would lose
extra energy that they have absorbed earlier in the form of __________( electromagnetic
radiation).
-The colours could be observed with naked eyes, only if the freq of that particular light is
in the visible region (wavelength 400-750 nm).
Eg: Na produces 3 freqs in the wavelengths of 185nm, 330 nm and 590 nm.
Can only observe wavelength in 590 nm (yellow colour), the rest are invisible to
naked eyes. That’s why Na produces yellow colour upon heating over Bunsen
burner.
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Periodic table
Introduction
Sketch the PT and show the location of the s,p,d and f block
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Exercise 1
period :_____
Explanation:
Group:______
Explanation:
period :_____
Explanation:
Group:______
Explanation:
period :_____
Explanation:
Group:______
Explanation:
period :_____
Explanation:
Group:______
Explanation:
period :_____
Explanation:
Group:______
Explanation:
c) For transition elements, they have no groups but they have periods and blocks
eg: Sc (z=21) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1 4s2
Period :_4____
Explanation: electrons occupy the 4th principle energy level
block:_d_____
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Explanation: it has incomplete d orbital
Exercise 2
period :_____
Explanation:
Block:______
Explanation:
period :_____
Explanation:
Block:______
Explanation:
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Electronegativity
Definition
a) the ability of an atom to attract the shared pair of electrons towards itself in a covalent bond.
Eg: HCl
b) Linus Pauling devised a scale to measure the relative electronegativity values for each of the
element in the periodic table known as Pauling Scale.
c) Pauling Scale runs from 0-4 and Flourine was chosen as a reference element since it has the
highest electronegativity value.
i) In PT,
Electronegativity incrs from left to right across a period
Electronegativity decrs down a group
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Polarity
Bond Polarity
a) refers to a situation in the covalent molecule where the sharing of the bonding es is
UNEQUAL.
c) In 2 identical atoms from the same elements, the atoms have same electronegativity values,
thus there is no difference in electronegativity, and hence the bonding electron pairs are shared
equally btw 2 atoms
Eg: X : X X-X
d) 2 unidentical atoms from different elements, both atoms have different electroneg values,
thus there is a difference in electronegativity, and hence the bonding electron pairs are
UNEQUALLY shared btw 2 atoms
We say that the covalent bond is polar or the covalent bond is said to have a dipole i.e the bond
has 2 different ends.
e) The greater the difference in the electronegativity between the 2 atoms, the more polar the
bond will be
C-H bond - non polar bond because the difference in electronegativity is so negligible
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Trends across period
Nature of elements
a) As go across a period, there would be a decrease in atomic size (the distance btw nuc and
valence es), but there is an increase in the attraction btw nuc and valence es and hence
electronegativity.
b) Therefore observe a change in the nature of elements as go across a period from metal to
metalloid to non-metal (i.e a decrease in metallic character).
1) Eg: Elements in Group 1 and 2 - metals
2) Elements in Group 3 - semi metals/metalloids
3) Elements in group 4, 5,6,7- non-metals
Nature of oxides
a) A change in electronegativity would also reflect on the nature of oxides when elements react
with oxygen forming oxides.
b) As we go across a period, we would observe a change in the nature of oxides from basic to
amphoteric to acidic oxides
c) Basic oxides
1) metallic oxides are basic in nature
2) show basicity of oxides by reacting with water or hydrogen ions
a. Na2O
Na2O (s) + H2O(l)
Na2O (s) + H+ (aq)
b. MgO
MgO (s) + H2O(l)
MgO (s) + H+ (aq)
c. CuO
CuO (s) + H2O(l)
CuO (s) + H+ (aq)
d. Fe2O3
Fe2O3 (s) + H2O(l)
Fe2O3 (s) + H+ (aq)
d) Amphoteric oxides
1) Oxides of metalloid are amphoteric i.e able to behave as both acid and base
2) Show amphoteric character by reacting with both hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions
a. Al2O3
Al2O3 (s) + OH- (aq)
Al2O3 (s) + H+ (aq)
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b. ZnO
e) Acidic oxides
1) Oxides of non-metals are acidic
2) Show acidic character by reacting with water and hydroxide ions
a. SO2
SO2 (g) + H2O(l)
SO2 (g) + OH- (aq)
b. SO3
SO3 (g) + H2O(l)
SO3 (g) + OH- (aq)
c. CO2
CO2 (g) + H2O(l)
CO2 (g) + OH- (aq)
d. P4O10
P4O10 (s) + H2O(l)
P4O10 (s) + OH- (aq)
e. SiO2
SiO2(s) + H2O(l)
SiO2(s) + OH- (aq)
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Trend down a group
a) As we go down a group, no of valence es unchanged but atomic size increases, force of
attraction btw nuc and valence es decreases and hence electronegativity decreases as well.
Nature of elements
Non-metals
d) As we go down the group, there is a change from non-metallic to
amphoteric to metallic character i.e metallic character increases.
e) The trend in an increase in metallic character in PT is related to a
decrease in electronegativity.
f) Eg:
i. Group 3 B Al Ga In Tl
ii. Group 6 O S Se Te Po
Metals
a) As go down group 1 and 2, there would be a decrease in
electronegativity, hence an increase in metallic character.
b) Eg: K has lower electroneg. than Na thus K is more metallic in
nature than Na
Chemical reactivity
Metals
a) As we go down grp 1 and 2, electronegativity decreases. Consequently, val
es can leave the atom more easily to form cation. Hence, reactivity increases down a grp.
b) The metallic elements become stronger reducing agents (undergo oxidation: tendency to lose
val es)
Eg:
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Non-metals
a) Electronegativity decreases down the group, the harder for non-metals to attract val es to
form anions. Therefore decrease ability as oxidizing agents
b) Eg:
Exercise 3
1) Predict and explain whether MgO would be acidic or basic compound? (3marks)
3) Explain why chlorine gas can displace bromine from its solution by referring to their
position in the periodic table. ( 3 marks)
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Chemical bonding (Intramolecular forces)
Bonding
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Molecular covalent
a) Covalent molecules are held together
closely by strong secondary
inyeractions .Solids with low melting
points. Eg: Moth ball (Naphthalene),
Iodine, Table sugar, Sulfur.
Physical properties
a) Melting point
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b) Physical states
c) Electrical conductance
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Exercises
1) Explain why magnesium oxide, MgO has high melting point. (3 m)
2) Explain why silicon dioxide, SiO2 has a melting point of 1700 o C (3m)
5) Explain why NaCl can conduct electricity in molten or aqueous state but not in solid state. (3
m)
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Shapes
1. The forces of attractions between 2 nuclei of non-metallic atoms and the shared pair
of electrons are directional, causing the covalent molecules to have shapes.
2. There are 7 shapes of covalent molecules
i. Linear
ii. V-shape
iii. Trigonal planar
iv. Trigonal pyramid/Pyramidal
v. Tetrahedral
vi. Trigonal bipyramid
vii. Octahedral
Linear
V-Shape
Trigonal planar
Trigonal pyramid
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Tetrahedral
Trigonal bipyramid
Octahedral
VSEPR Theory
a) Acronym for
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- All e pairs are arranged as far apart as possible to minimize repulsion
-Non-bonding e pairs are more repulsive than bonding es leading to a smaller bond angle
d) In using VSEPR Theory, multiple bonds are treated as single bonds in term of their repulsion.
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PCl5 SO3 SF6
Octet Expansion
1. Atoms react in the chemical reactions in order to be more stable by acquiring octet electron
configuration.
3. Transition elements do not need to acquire octet electron configuration because they are stable on their
own due to the presence of their d orbitals. So they do not conform to the Octet rule.
4. However, elements in period 3 and beyond are able to expand their octet. This would mean that they
would have more than 8 electrons in their outer shell. Consequently, these elements can have many
oxidation states and covalences.
Group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Valence
electrons
Ionic charge
Oxidation
states
5. For example, the elements which can expand their octet are sulfur, phosphorus and chlorine.
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Phosphorus(z=15)
Sulfur(z=16)
Chlorine(z=17)
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Exercises
2. Using VSEPR Theory, explain why the shape of HOCl is as you have drawn above. (3 marks)
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Molecular polarity
a) Depends on
- bond polarity
-polar bond
-non-polar bond
- shapes (spatial arrangement of atoms in molecule)
-symmetrical
-non-symmetrical/asymmetrical
-If then shape is symmetrical, the bond polarities in that molecule cancelled out,
therefore, the molecule has no net dipole. So the molecule is non-polar
-If the shape is non-symmetrical, the bond polarities do not cancelled out. The molecule
has a net polarity or net dipole. So the molecule is polar.
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How to assign molecular polarity
Diatomic molecules
A-A A-X
- non-polar covalent bond bc - polar bond due to there is difference in
there is no diff in electronegativity.
-hence, non-polar molecule electronegativity
- Shape: non-symmetrical, hence there will
be a net dipole in the molecule.
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Polyatomic molecules
SO3 NH3
Shape explanation Shape explanation
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CO2 PCl3
Shape explanation Shape explanation
Exercises
1. Predict whether ammonia, NH3 is a polar or non-polar molecule. Give reasons for your answer.
(3 marks)
2. Methane, CH4 is the major component of natural gas. Predict and explain the molecular
polarity of methane. (3 marks)
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Intermolecular forces
a) also known as secondary interactions
b) electrostatic in nature but very much weaker compared to that of primary bonds
e) Secondary interactions are important b/c they govern the physical properties of covalent
molecules.
-molecular polarity
-If the size of the molecule is kept constant, the more polar the molecule, the
stronger the secondary interaction
-What do we understand by the term ‘very polar molecule’?
- the greater the difference in electronegativity between 2 atoms,
the more polar the bond will be. If the shape is non-symmetrical,
we will end up with very polar molecule.
-size
h) DF, DDI and HB are formed btw covalent molecules whereas IDI is formed btw ion and
polar covalent molecule
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Dispersion/ Dipole-dipole Hydrogen Bond Ion-dipole
London Force Interaction interaction
Molecular polarity
Polar molecules Very polar molecules N/A
polar and non-polar
molecules
Diagram
Description
The electrostatic force of The electrostatic force
The temporary dipoles The polar molecules are
attraction between delta of attraction between
resulted from uneven arranged in such the way that
positive hydrogen atom polar covalent
distribution of electrons in the delta positive end of one
directly attached to N, O or F molecules and ions.
the molecules molecule is directed towards
atom in one molecule and
the delta negative end of the
delta negative N,O or F atom
neighbouring molecule
in the other molecule
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Physical properties
a) Solubility in water
c) Physical state
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Exercises
1) Ammonia, NH3 has a bp of –33 o C whereas nitrogen gas, N2 has a bp of –198 o C. Explain
their differences in bp. (4m)
2) Magnesium oxide, MgO has a melting point of above 2000 o C and ice has a melting point of
0 o C. Compare their differences in the mp. (5 m)
3) Ammonia, NH3 dissolves very well in water but sulfur dioxide, SO2 has low solubility in
water. Give reason for your answer (4m)
5) Explain your answer in term of secondary interactions why methane is a gas at room
temperature and iodine is a solid. (4 m)
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