Economic Study of Alternate Rice ND Vegetable PRDCTN in Mymensingh DSTRT

AN ECONOMIC STUDY OF ALTERNATE RICE AND
VEGETABLES PRODUCTION IN SELECTED

AREA OF MYMENSINGH DISTRICT
A T h esis
By
MST. SH AH NAZ PARVIN

Exam ination Roll No. 07 Ag. Econ. (PE) JJ-13M
Registration No. 28313
Session : 2000-2001
S e m e ste r: July-D ecem ber 2008
MASTER OF SCIENCE (M.S.)

IN
AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS (PRODUCTION ECONOMICS)
DEPARTM ENT OF A G R I C U L T U R E ECONOMICS

BANGLADESH AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
MYMENSINGH
NOVEM BER 2008


Session : 2000-2001
Sem ester : July-D ecem bcr 2008
Submitted to the Department of Agricultural Economics (Production

Economics) Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymcnsingh in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE (M.S.)

IN
AGRICULTURAL ECONOM ICS (PRODUCTION ECONOMICS)
DEPARTM ENT OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS

BANGLADESH AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
MYMENSINGH
NOVEM BER 2008

A Thesis
By
M S T . S H A H N A Z P A R V IN
Session : 2000-2001
Approved as to the style and content 6y:
(Prof. Dr. M. Serajul Islam) (Prof. Dr. Md. Akteruzzaman)

S u p e rv iso r C o -su p e rv iso r
(Prof. Dr. M. Harun-Ar Rashid)

C h airm an
E x a m in a tio n C o m m ittee
and
H ead, D e p artm en t o f A g ricu ltu ral E c o n o m ics
B an g lad esh A gricu ltu ral U n iv ersity
M y m ensin g h
NOVEMBER 2008

S e s s io n : 2000-2001
Approved as to the style and content by:
(Prof. Dr. M. Serajul Islam) (Prof. Dr. Md. Akteruzzaman)

S u p e rv iso r C o -su p e rv iso r
(Prof. Dr. M. Harun-Ar Rashid)

C h airm an
E x a m in a tio n C o m m ittee
and
H ead, D e p artm en t o f A g ricu ltu ral E co n o m ics
B an g lad esh A gricu ltu ral U n iv ersity
M y m ensin g h
NOVEMBER 2008
(Dedicated to
my
(BeCcrvedParents
-
ABSTRACT
The present study was designed to study the economic activities of alternate rice and
vegetables production in selected areas of Mymensingh district. In order to attain the
objectives, a total of 60 sample households were randomly selected from 2 villages
namely Boyra and Baliala Bazar of Sadar IJpazila of Mymensingh district by selecting 20
marginal, 19 small, 17 medium and 4 large farms. Both tabular and statistical analyses
were done to achieve the objectives of the study.
The major findings of the present study were that the alternate rice and vegetables
production were profitable from the viewpoints of marginal, small, medium and large
farmers. Average family size of all farmers was 5.67 which was relatively higher than
national average (4.48). About fifty percent of the household heads of the sampled farmers
had some level of education and farming was the main occupation of the farmers. Boro
rice, Aman rice, lady's finger, cabbage and white gourd were mainly produced in the study
areas and per hectare net returns of producing these crops were I k 23581, Ik 3896. Tk
86898. Tk 89640 and Tk 99000. respectively. The farmers earned the highest profit from
white gourd vegetables.
Considering food security of farm households , average daily per capita calorie intake was
the highest for the members of large farm household (3112 Kcal.) followed by marginal
farmers (2119 Kcal.), medium farmers (2097 Kcal.) and small farmers (1951 Kcal.).
Non-farm income, production of crops , education of household heads were the significant
factors while size of cultivated land and family size were found as insignificant factors to
increase the household income. On the other hand, cereal crops, cultivated land and family
size had significant effect to increase per capita consumption for the members of farm
households.
Finaly. recommendations were made to increase vegetables production due to its higher
profits compared to cereal crops which could also help increase the farm household
income.
IV
ACKNOW LEDGEMENT
I wish to acknowledge the immeasurable grace a n d profound hindness o f the ‘a lm ig h ty J lS a h ' the
supreme ruler o f the unnerse, who enabled me to complete the thesis.
I w o u ld (the to acknowledge the untiring inspiration, encouragement and in valuable guidance
provided by my respected teacher a n d supervisor (Professor (Dr. M. Serajul Islam, ‘Department o f
A gricultural‘Economic, ‘Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh. ‘H is scholastic criticism,
continuous supervisor, valuable suggestion a n d helpful comments throughout the period o f the
research were instrum ental fo r the successful completion o f this study.
I am highly indebted to my respected teacher a n d co-supervisor professor ‘Dr. M d AKteruzzaman,
(Department o f A gricultural (Economics. ‘Bangladesh Agricultural University, ‘M ymensingh, f o r his
constructive criticism a n d helpful comments to overcome the difficulties I fa c e d during the period o f
study.
1 w o u ld (the to express my deepest gratitude to (Dr. M. Harun-Ar (Rflshid, (Professor a n d Head,
Department o f Agricultural (Economics <Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh f o r his
kjnd-hearted help a n d advice in completing the thesis.
I f e e l happy to express sincere gratitude to (Professor (Dr. M .A ■Sattar MandaC Vice-chancellor,
(Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, (Professor M d T ofazzalH ossam Miah, (Dean
‘f a cu lty o f Agricultural ‘Economics and (Rjtral Sociology. ‘Professor ‘Dr. M d Jfabi6ur (Rahman,
(Professor (Dr. S■M. M unzur Murshed (Professor A tta r (Rahman Moda. (Professor <Dr. ‘W.M.H. Jatm.
(Professor (Dr. <Rfzaul Kjinm Taluhder, (Department o f Agricultural Economics and (Professor (Dr.
‘Kjiandafyr Md. M ostafizur (Rphman, (Department o f Agricultural Statistics f o r their constant
encouragement a n d valuable suggestions fo r completing this thesis timely.
M y cordial thanks are due to the relevant farmers who supplied necessary information.
/ am g ra tefu l to ‘Food a n d Agriculture Organization (<FjAO)for providing fin a n cia l support to
collect necessary information f o r the study under the research project entiled. "( hanging land use
pattern an d its impact on fo o d security f o r farm household in (Bangladesh"
I also express my deepest gratitude a n d thanks to (Rhaihan <Bhai f o r his sincere co-operation and
suggestion f o r completing the thesis.
1 deeply owe my whole hearted thanhj to a ll w ell wishers, roommate JAmina, Voly, <Fapn and
friends specially TOtm^um, Shammi, Tonni, Liza, Tanjima, ftasnn, Shamima, 'Mita a n d (Poly my
deepest hearted thanks to Shohel (Bhai, Jilamgir (Bhai, <Rpny, ‘M ustafiz, andJAmee, f o r their Co
operation, inspiration a n d affectionate feeling f o r the successful completion o f my study.
1 am also grateful to the M inistry o f Science and Information a n d Communicatum Technology,
government o f (Bangladesh f o r granting a !NSICT (Fellowship to undertake this research program.
Last Sut no least, I express my profound gratitude to my beloved parents, brother, sister and uncle
fo r theirfinancial support, patience help, inspirations, encouragement a n d endless love to complete
my study.
The A u th o r
CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

NO.
ABSTRACT iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENT v
CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES xii
LIST OF FIGURES xiv
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS XV
1 INTRODUCTION 1
l.l Introduction 1
1.2 Importance o f Rice and Vegetables Production 2

1.2.1 Importance o f rice 2
1.2.2 Importance o f vegetables 3

1.2.2.1 Combating malnutrition 3
1.2.2.2 Reducing dependence on cereals 4
1.2.2.3 Employment opportunity 4

1.2.2.4 Export earning o f vegetables 5
1.2.2.5 Production, consumption and potentials o f 6
vegetables in Bangladesh
1.3 Production o f Lady's finger.Cabbage and 8
While gourd.
1.3.1 Lady’s finger 8
1.3.2 Cabbage 8
1.3.3 White gourd 9
1.4 Changing Land Use Pattern and Food Security 9
1.5 Justification of the Study 10
1.6 Objectives o f the Study 11
VII
CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

NO.
ABSTRACT iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENT V
CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES xii
LIST OF FIGURES xiv
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS XV
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Importance o f Rice and Vegetables Production 2
1.2.1 Importance o f rice 2
1.2.2 Importance o f vegetables 3
1.2.2.1 Combating malnutrition 3
1.2.2.2 Reducing dependence on cereals 4
1.2.2.3 Employment opportunity 4
1.2.2.4 Export earning o f vegetables 5
1.2.2.5 Production, consumption and potentials o f 6
vegetables in Bangladesh
1.3 Production o f Lady's finger.Cabbage and 8
White gourd.
1.3.1 Lady’s finger 8
1.3.2 Cabbage 8
1.3.3 White gourd 9
1.4 Changing Land Use Pattern and Food Security 9
1.5 Justification of the Study 10
1.6 Objectives o f the Study II
VII
CONTENTS (Continued)
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

NO.
2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 12
3 METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY 17
3.1 Introduction 17
3.2 Selection o f the Study Area 17
3.3 Land Use Pattern and Crops Selected for the 17
Study
3.4 Selection o f Sample and Sampling Technique 18
3.5 Preparation o f Interview Schedule and Pre-testing 19
3.6 Data Collection and Used FAO Project Data 19

3.7 Analytical Technique 20
3.7.1 Tabular analysis 20
3.7.2 Statistical analysis 20
4 SOCIOECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 22

SAMPLE HOUSEHOLD
4.1 Introduction 22
4.2 Age Distribution o f the Selected Farmers 22
4.3 Education Level o f Sample farmers 23
4.4 Main Occupation o f the Farmers 23
4.5 Family Size and Age Distribution o f Household 25
Members of the Farm Families
4.6 Dependency Ratio 25
4.7 Size o f Holding and I cnurial Arrangement 26
VIII
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

NO.
5 COST AND RETURNS OF PRODUCING 27

ALTERNATE RICE AND VEGETABLES
5.1 Introduction 27
5.2 Estimation o f Costs o f Boro Rice. Aman Rice. 27

Lady's Finger, Cabbage and White gourd
production
5.2.1 Cost o f human labour 27
5.2.2 Cost o f power tiller 28
5.2.3 Cost ol seed/seedlings 28
5.2.4 Cost o f chemical fertilizer 29
5.2.5 Cost o f manure 30
5.2.6 Insecticides 30
5.2.7 Cost o f irrigation 30
5.2.8 Interest on operating cost 30
5.2.9 Lands use cost 32
5.2.10 Gross cost 32
5.2.11 Ciross return 32
3.5 Comparative Profitability o f Boro Rice. Aman 36
Rice, Lady’s Finger. Cabbage and White Gourd
IX
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

NO.
6 FOOD CONSUMPTION AND NUTRITIONAL 40

STATUS OF FARM HOUSEHOLD UNDER
CHANGING LAND USE PATTERN
6.1 Intake o f Food 40
6.2 Intake o f Calorie 42
6.3 Intake o f Calorie From Food Items 43
7 FACTORS INFLUENCING HOUSEHOLD 44
INCOME AND FOOD SECURITY
7.1 Introduction 44
7.2 Selection o f the Model 44
7.3 Specification and Measurement o f Variable 44
Factors
7.4 Factors Influencing Household Income- 46
Interpretations o f the results
7.4.1 Non-farm income 46
7.4.2 Production o f non cereal crops 46
7.4.3 Production of cereal crops 47
7.4.4 Area o f cultivable land 47
7.4.5 Family size 48
7.4.5 Education o f household head 48
7.5 Factors Influencing Household Food Security - 48
Interpretation o f the results
7.5.1 Production o f cereal crops 48
X
C H A PTE R T IT L E PAGE
NO.
7.5.2 Cultivated land 49
7.5.3 fam ily size 49
7.5.4 Education level o f household head 50
7.5.5 Per eapita expenditure 50
8 SUM M ARY, C O NCLUSIO N S AND PO LICY 51
R ECO M M EN D A TIO N S
8.1 Introduction 51
8.2 Summary 51
8.3 Conclusions 55
8.4 Policy Recommendations 56
R EFER EN C ES 57
XI
LIST OF TABLES
TITLE
Areas, yield rates and production o f rice in 2002/03 to 3

2004/05
Nutrients contents of rice and vegetables 3
(per lOOgm)
Prescribed daily balanced diet composition lor the 4
people o f Bangladesh
Kxport earning from vegetables and its contribution to 6
the total export earning
Per capital daily average productions o f vegetables and 7
cereals (gm)
Sampling design and distribution o f sample farmers 19
Distribution o f sample o f farmers according to age 22
groups
Education level o f sample farmers 23
Main occupation o f samples farmers 24
Family size and age distribution o f household members 25
of farm families
Dependency ratio of sample households 26
Size o f holding and tenurial arrangement o f sample farm 26
households
Per hectare costs and returns o f boro rice 29
XII
LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
TITLE
Per hectare costs and returns o f aman rice 31

Per hectare costs returns o f lady’s finger production 33
Per hectare costs and returns o f cabbage production 34
Per hectare costs and returns of white gourd production 35
Relative profitable of per hectare boro rice, aman rice, lady’s 36
finger, cabbage and white gourd production
Daily per capita food intake (gms) 40

Item wise food intake by the member of farm households 41
under the present land use pattern.
Average daily per capita intake by households (in K calorie) 42

Intake of calorie from food items (k. cal) 45
Estimated values of coeHicienls and related statistics of 47
household income
Estimated values of coefficients and related statistics of 49
household per capita consumption
XIII
LIST o f TABLES (Continued)
TITLE
Per hectare costs and returns o f aman rice 31

Per hectare costs returns of lady’s finger production 33
Per hectare costs and returns o f cabbage production 34
Per hectare costs and returns of white gourd production 35
Relative profitable of per hectare boro rice, aman rice, lady's 36
finger, cabbage and white gourd production
Daily per capita food intake (gms) 40

Item wise food intake by the member of farm households 41
under the present land use pattern.
Average daily per capita intake by households (in K caloric) 42

Intake of calorie from food items (k. cal) 45
Intimated values of coefficients and related statistics of 47
household income
Estimated values of coefficients and related statistics of 49
household per capita consumption
xin
L IS T O F F IG U R E S
PAGE
TABLE T IT L E
NO.
5.1 Gross return, gross cost, gross margin and net returns o f 38
boro rice and aman rice
5.2 Gross return, gross cost, gross margin and net returns o f 39
lady's finger, cabbage and white gourd
XIV
ACRONYMS AND ABBKKVIA TIONS
BA - B achelor o f Arts
BAU - B angladesh A gricultural U niversity
BBS - B angladesh B ureau o f Statistics
BCR - Benefit C ost Ratio
BER - B angladesh Econom ic Review
Ca - C alcium
Cal - C alorie
D AP - D iam onium Phosphate
DTW - D eep Tubew ell
eg - Exam ple
FA O - Food and A griculture O rganization
Fig - Figure
gm - Gram
G ovt - G overnm ent
ha - H ectare
HIES - H ousehold Incom e and Expenditure
Survey
HSC - H igher Secondary C ertificate
i.e - That is
IRRI - International Rice Research Institute
kg - Kilogram
Ln - N atural log
MP - M urate o f Potash
mt - M etric tonne
NG O - N on-G overnm ent O rganization
NNC - N ational N utrition Council
PM S - Poverty M onitoring Survey
ssr School Socoiuhry C ertificate
Tk - Taka, Bangladesh Currency
TSP - Triple Super Phosphate
UK - United Kingdom
USA - U nited States o f Am erica
XV
Chapter I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Bangladesh is one of the densely populated countries in the world. The challenge to
maintain food-population balance is great because practically all cultivable land is in use
There is little scope to expand the land frontier.
The pressure of increasing population reduced the average size of farm holding from 1.70
to 1.48 acres for the period 1996-2005. The growth of crop production now depends
almost entirely on technological progress and intensive farming by introducing better
management for all the food crops and other enterprises to be produced. The country also
faces a difficult distribution problem in order to achieve food security for all groups in
society. About 20 percent of the rural households have no cultivable land and another 38
percent have less than 0.5 acre (BBS, 2006), which cannot therefore be a significant
source of employment and income for the household. This bottom half of the populations
spend more than 60 percent of their income on food (MIES. 2006). Thus, maintaining a
proper balance between food prices and income of the rural people is very important for
providing incentives to food production and achieving food security for the farm
household.
With the intensive and integrated farming, total food grain production has been showing
an increasing trend over the last two decades (28.81 million metric tonne in 2005-06). It
produces major agricultural crops such as rice, wheat, jute, potato, pulses, oilseed,
sugarcane, etc. Since total population is increasing day by day but the production is not
sufficient to meet domestic consumption. That is why. the government is importing large
amount of lood grain (2.0-3.0 million tonnes) almost in every year along with some
manufacturing goods (BER, 2006). Therefore, farm households should increase their farm
production to improve their livelihood.
Aiming to food security cropping pattern as well as farming system have been changed by
the farmers with the introduction of new technologies and betier management Linder this
farming situation farmers also changed their land use patterns and introduced new
1
enterprises combination along with rice production. As a result, agricultural crop lands
have been shifted and are also being used for vegetables production. Secondly, alternate
rice and vegetables are produced by the farmers to increase their food crop.
1.2. Importance of Rice and Vegetables Production

1.2.1 Importance of rice
Rice is the must important staple food crop in Bangladesh feeding almost cent percent of
her population and it supplies 74 percent of caloric requirement to whole population of our
country (IRRI. 1995). It is the main diet for more than two billion people in Asia and for a
few hundred millions in Africa and America. It is the main source of carbohydrate of
almost 40 percent of the world population (Hoffman. 1991). It covers 75 percent of the
total cropped area in Bangladesh (BBS, 2005). Among the rice producing countries.
Bangladesh ranks fourth after China. India and Indonesia considering both in area and
production (FAO. 2003).
The world is facing with an accelerating demand for food due to higher growth rate in
worlds population. Bangladesh has been running in shortage of grain food Moreover,
population is increasing at an alarming rate which is 1.41 percent (BLR 200N) and food
shortage is one of the major problems due to heavy population pressure and low yield of
food crops. Moreover, rice is the maior source of cash income to the average Bangladeshi
farmers. Bangladesh was dependent on rice both in the past, present and will remain so in
the future. Bangladesh is being a densely populated country having small land holding and
leaving no scope of increasing rice area. The yield levels of modem rice varieties are not
in satisfactory level. Evidently, the exploitation of the potential triggered by the current
phase of green revolution will be insufficient to sustain the required growth rate in rice
production in Bangladesh, rherefore efforts must be made for a new frontier for more rice
production. The production target should be accompanied by intensive cultivation of rice.
2
enterprises combination along with rice production. As a result, agricultural crop lands
have been shifted and are also being used for vegetables production. Secondly, alternate
rice and vegetables are produced by the farmers to increase their food crop.
1.2. Importance of Rice and Vegetables Production

1.2.1 Importance of rice
Rice is the most important staple food crop in Bangladesh feeding almost cent percent ol
her population and it supplies 74 percent of caloric requirement to whole population of our
country (IRR1, 1995). It is the main diet for more than two billion people in Asia and for a
few hundred millions in Africa and America. It is the main source of carbohydrate of
almost 40 percent of the world population (Hoffman. 1991). It covers 75 percent of the
total cropped area in Bangladesh (BBS. 2005). Among the rice producing countries.
Bangladesh ranks fourth after China. India and Indonesia considering both in area and
production (FAO, 2003).
The world is facing with an accelerating demand for food due to higher growlh rate in
worlds population. Bangladesh has been running in shortage of grain food. Moreover,
population is increasing at an alarming rate which is 1.41 percent (BtR 200X) and food
shortage is one of the major problems due to heavy population pressure and low vield of
Ibod crops. Moreover, rice is the major source ot cash income to the average Bangladeshi
farmers. Bangladesh was dependent on rice both in the past, present and will remain so in
the future. Bangladesh is being a densely populated country having small land holding and
leaving no scope of increasing rice area. Hie yield levels of modem rice varieties are not
in satisfactory level. Evidently, the exploitation of the potential triggered by the current
phase of green revolution will be insufficient to sustain the required growth rate in rice
production in Bangladesh. Rierefore efforts must be made for a new frontier for more rice
production. The production target should be accompanied by intensive cultivation of rice.
2
Table 1.1 Areas, yield rates and production of rice in 2002/03 to 2004/05
2002/03 2003/04 2004/05
Area Per Production Area Per Production Area Per Production
Rice
‘000' ha ‘000’ ‘000’ ha ‘000’ 000' ha ‘000'
ha yield (m. tons) ha yield (m. tons) ha yield (m. tons)
(ton) (ton) (ion)
Aus 1245 1.49 1850 1202 1.52 1832 1025 1.46 1500
rice
Aman 5684 1.96 11114 5680 2.02 11520 5282 1.86 9X19
rice
Boro 3846 3.18 12222 3945 3.32 12837 4065 3.40 13837
rice
Source: BBS 20()6
1.2.2 Importance of Vegetables

1.2.2.1 Combating malnutrition
Vegetables are the main sources of many essential nutrients. Vitamins such as Vitamin A.
Vitamin C, niacin, riboflavin and thiamin and minerals like calcium and iron to make
human diet complete and balanced. They provide dietary fiber necessary for digestion and
health and combating malnutrition, curing nutritional disorders and diseases like anemia,
blindness, scurvy, goiter etc., including physical and mental growth and help increase
efficiency of labour and span of working life, which eventually intluence the economic
potentials of the nation. It is evident from Table 1.2 that vegetables arc rich in protein and
calcium sources.
Table 1.2 Nutrients contents of rice and vegetables (per lOOgm)

Food Water Carboh Protein Fat Calorie
Vitamins (mg) Minerals
items (gm) ydrate (gm) (cal) (cal) _____________1
(gm) Carotene Calcium Iron
B, C
Rice 12.60 77.40 8.50 0.60 349 0.01 0.27 0.12 - 10 2.80
Vegetable 88.50 4.30 2.90 0.40 36 6.80 0.66 0.15 54 145 9.00
Source: Sharfuddin and Siddique (1485)
3
In Bangladesh, common deficient nutrients are calories. Vitamin A. Vitamin C, riboflavin
and folic acid. Vegetables are the most inexpensive and rich sources of the above-
mentioned nutrients (Hossain 199S). Dieticians, in general, recommended a daily
allowance of 285 gms of vegetables and 80 gms pulses for a balanced diet (Ramphall and
Gill 1990). Of the 285 gms requirement. 85 gms should come from root vegetables and
115 gms from green leafy vegetables and 85 gms from others vegetables respectively. The
prescribed composition for daily balanced diet is presented in Table 1.3 (Maher 1998).
Table 1.3 Prescribed daily balanced diet composition for an adult member in Bangladesh
Daily intake (gm) for
Food
2700 cal. diet 2332 cal. diet 2200 cal. diet 1900 cal. diet
Cereal 434 397 408 394
Pulses 112 74 58 28
Gur and Sugar 29 34 29 29
Meat 16 37 15 -
Milk 64 91 58 -
Fish and eggs 116 26 29 29
Vegetables 634 355 233 256
Fruits 56 31 29 29
Oils 6 17 15 10
Total 1317 1070 874 773

Source: INFS (1984)
1.2.2.2 Reducing dependence on cereals

In general, people of Bangladesh take 450 gms of cereals daily. If quantity of rice intake
can be reduced by 50 gms through motivation and consumption of more vegetables, then
quantity of rice saving will be about 21 million tonnes per annum. By this way the country
can reduce dependence on cereals gradually and release more land for production of other
crops.
1.2.23 Employment opportunity

Vegetables production is profitable in terms of using land and time and making
investment. Further it requires more manpower for production and marketing and thus
4
helps create more job opportunities for all walks of life and increase economic activity and
income.
1.2.2.4 Export earning of vegetables

In a developing country like Bangladesh, where the numbers of exportable items are not
many, international trade is mainly import based and the country faces serious balance of
payment problem. Therefore the country’s export trade plays a vital role to minimize the
gap of earnings between imports and exports.
Exports of all horticultural crops to total country's exports share is below O.S percent and
thus, all policy makers may not take equal interest in expanding horticultural crop exports.
But it may be noted that the demand for vegetables is steadily rising at home and abroad as
their consumption's are income elastic and the affluent people in the developed countries
prefer fruits and vegetables to high cholesterol foods because of rising health
consciousness. Again, production of vegetables is being more labour intensive.
Bangladesh is an advantageous position as it has abundant labour supply and natural
resources endowment like land and climate. It should thus, take advantage of export
potentials in vegetables. The contribution of vegetables (mostly coming from vegetables)
to the total export earning was 0.005 per cent during 1973/74. which reached at the peak
of 0.63 percent in 1997/98. This share, however, decreased in the recent past and it was
0.20 per cent in 2000/01. Again, it was increased at 0.32 percent in 2003/04. Therefore,
the vegetables sector, occupying a more or less significant position in our export
marketing, helps meet our need of foreign currency as well as ensure our economic
development. Bangladesh earned USS 24.70 million in the year 2003/04 by exporting
vegetables. Table 1.4 shows export earnings from vegetables and its contribution to the
total export earnings during 1992/93 to 2003/04.
5
helps create more job opportunities for all walks of life and increase economic activity and
income.
1.2.2.4 Export earning of vegetables

In a developing country like Bangladesh, where the numbers of exportable items are not
many, international trade is mainly import based and the country faces serious balance of
payment problem. Therefore the country's export trade plays a vital role to minimise the
gap of earnings between imports and exports.
Exports of all horticultural crops to total country's exports share is below 0.5 percent and
thus, all policy makers may not take equal interest in expanding horticultural crop exports.
But it may be noted that the demand for vegetables is steadily rising at home and abroad as
their consumption's are income elastic and the affluent people in the developed countries
prefer fruits and vegetables to high cholesterol foods because of rising health
consciousness. Again, production of vegetables is being more labour intensive.
Bangladesh is an advantageous position as it has abundant labour supply and natural
resources endowment like land and climate. It should thus, take advantage of export
potentials in vegetables. The contribution of vegetables (mostly coming from vegetables)
to the total export earning was 0.005 per cent during 1973/74. which reached at the peak
of 0.63 percent in 1997/98. This share, however, decreased in the recent past and it was
0.20 per cent in 2000/01. Again, it was increased at 0.32 percent in 2003/04. Therefore,
the vegetables sector, occupying a more or less significant position in our export
marketing, helps meet our need of foreign currency as well as ensure our economic
development. Bangladesh earned US$ 24.70 million in the year 2003/04 by exporting
vegetables. Table 1.4 shows export earnings from vegetables and its contribution to the
total export earnings during 1992/93 to 2003/04.
5
Table I 4 Export earning from vegetables and its contribution to the total export earning
Contribution of
Year Total exports Vegetables vegetables to total
export (%)
1992/93 2383.89 8.06 0.34
1993/94 2533.90 8.12 0.32
1994/95 3472.56 8.69 0.25
1995/96 3882.42 14.51 0.37
1996/97 4418.28 24.91 0.56
1997/98 5161.20 32.47 0.63
1998/99 5312.86 17.68 0.33
1999/2000 5752.20 14.00 0.24
2000/01 6467.30 12.79 0.20
2001/02 5986.09 15.31 0.26
2002/03 6548.44 13.24 0 20
2003/04 4905.00 24.70 0.32
Source: Export Promotion Bureau. Different ssucs of Monthly Statistics.
However, exporting horticulture products benefits the rural poor by increasing their
income and through generating rural employment in performing marketing functions lor
channeling products from to the export point.
1.2.2.S Production, consumption and potentials of vegetables in Bangladesh

rhe per capita daily production of vegetables in Bangladesh is considerably lower than
those of other countries like Japan. USA, UK, Egypt, Thailand. Malaysia and the
Philippines. Table 1.5 shows that the per capita per day production of cereals and
vegetables in Bangladesh takes place in the ratio of 5:1 whereas this ratio is 2:1 in the case
of other developing countries of Asia and 1:2 in the case of developed countries.
6
Table 1.5 per capital daily average productions of vegetables and cereals (gm)
Country lereals (gms) Vegetables (gms)
Japan 380 550
USA 200 556
UK 177 402
Egypt 551 330
Malaysia 392 210
lltailand 412 199
Philippines 342 174
Bangladesh 528 104
Source: Siddique and Aditya 1997)
Per capita consumption of vegetables in Bangladesh is the lowest amongst the countries of
South Asia and South-East Asia.
Table 1.6 Per capita consumption of vegetables in some Asian countries

Country Per capita consumption of vegetables
(gm/day)
Bangladesh 50
China 292
India 80
Indonesia 117
Japan 432
Thailand 257
Source: Ahmed 2001
It can be seen from Table 1.6 that the daily per capita consumption of vegetables in this
country is only 50 gms against the required amount of 200 gms. This gap causes
malnutrition among the people of Bangladesh, since almost all vegetables are rich in
Vitamins and minerals.
The rate of adoption and sustainability of commercial production of a crop depends upon
its economic performance, especially on its profitability. Economic viability is one of the
important criteria for assessing the suitability of a new crop technology. Profitability will
7
give direction of adjustment required in the long run to improve the level of economic
efficiency by resource allocation.
1.3 Production of lady’s finger, cabbage and white gourd

In this study area, lady's finger, cabbage and white gourd vegetables are mainly grown by
the farmers. The farmers produced these vegetables commercially and it is economically
important for their livelihood.
The problems of malnutrition and ill health can be reduced to a great extent by taking
leafy and fleshy vegetables like lady’s finger, cabbage, and white gourd which supply
sufficient quantities of carbohydrate, vitamins, minerals, and protein in the human diet.
The present study was conducted to examine the share of contribution of these vegetables
namely lady's finger, cabbage and white gourd to food consumption and calorie intake by
the members of farm households in Bangladesh.
1.3.1 Lady’s finger

Okra or lady's finger (Abelmoschus esculentus L.) is a nutritious and delicious vegetables
crop grown in the tropics and sub-tropics. It is locally known as "Dherosh" or Bhendi"
which belongs to the family Malvaceae. The crop is well distributed throughout the Indian
sub-continent and Fast Asia (Rashid. 1999). Tender green fruits of okra used as vegetables
are fairly rich in vitamins and minerals. It is an important vegetables crop of Bangladesh
grown commonly in the kharip season. Okra is also cultivated in limited area in Rabi
Season in our country. It covers an area of 7.69 thousand hectares with a production of
26000 mt in 2004-05 (BBS, 2006).
1J.2 Cabbage
Cabbage is grown in all the districts of Bangladesh. It covers an area of 13.69 thousand
hectares with a production of 137000 mt in 2004-05 during the growing season in
Bangladesh (BBS. 2006). The edible portion of cabbage is the compact head which is
formed by several fleshy leaves overlapping one another. Head of cabbage contains about
71 gm water. From the nutritional point of view, the edible portion of lOOgm cabbage
contains 24.0 calories. 1.5 gm protein. 4.8 gm carbohydrate. 40.00 mg calcium. 0.6 mg
iron. 600 pg vitamin ’A'. 0.3 mg niacine, 0.6 mg vitamin ‘C’ and 0.10 mg vitamin 'IV.
The edible portion of cabbage is the storage organ and fleshy. In Bangladesh, it is
consumed as curry and sometimes eaten as salad.
8
1.3J White gourd
White gourd (Benincasa ceriferu) is one of the best summer vegetables in Bangladesh. No
body knows the origin of white gourd. However, it is sure that it was first grown in South
East Asia. From long ago it is being cultivated in this area. It is known that it was grown in
the forest of Java Island in Indonesia. At present it is grown sufficiently in Bangladesh,
Indian and China. Green white gourds are used as curry and ripe white gourds are used as
halua specially for making candy. White gourd covers an area of 4.04 thousand hectares
with a production of 28000 mt in 2004-05 in Bangladesh (BBS 2006).
1.4 Changing Land llse Pattern and Food Security

Before a couple of decade farm households were mainly produced rice, jute and wheat in
the country. Then due to introduction of new technologies and innovative ideas about
agricultural business, farm household engaged in crop diversification process. Only rice
based cropping system is under change, at the same time area under non-cereal crops,
fniits and vegetables has been expanding. As a result land use pattern as well as allocation
of land for crops, vegetables and fruits has increased over the last decade to increase food
production and have greater food security. However, food security may be considered to
have three main components such as availability of food, access to the food and utilization
of food which is as follows:
Availability of food: Bangladesh has made steady progress in the expansion of domestic
food production. Total food grain production increased from less than 10.0 million tonnes
in early 1970s to more than 20.0 million tonnes in late 1990s. This growth in production
has been achieved through expansion ol irrigation lacililies. the spread of modem varieties
and increase of cropping intensity.
Access to the food: Income levels of the poor may be insufficient to enable them to
purchase the necessary foods at the prevailing market prices. Households may also lack
the necessary assets or access to credit to overcome the periods of hardship. They may
also remain outside any public assistance or other programmes that would provide them
with cash or kind income to supplement their food acquisition capacity.
Utilization of food: Improving availability of access to food are necessary conditions but
not sufficient to ensure the people will be secured of food in the sense of leading an active
9
and healthy life. Thus, there is need for paying attention to utilization of food which is
governed by a number of factors such as people's food preference, general health
condition and the overall environment under which food is prepared and consumed. All
these factors have an impact on the absorption of food and the consequent nutritional
status of people.
I.S Justification of the Study

Rice and vegetables are important crops in Bangladesh. Rice is a staple food whereas
vegetables are used as curry. These two crops are grown independently but as a cropping
pattern, alternate rice and vegetables production are expanding in Bangladesh. However,
vegetables are the other main sources of many essential nutrients. Vitamins such as
vitamins A. vitamin C, niacine. riboflavin and thiamin and minerals like calcium and iron
to make human diet complete and balanced. Vegetables are the most less expensive and
rich sources of the nutrients.
Vegetables are widely cultivated in different regions of Bangladesh along with rice
production. The demand of vegetables has been increasing day by day and more number
of farm households is coming forward to produce vegetables providing a wider range of
nutrition. The vegetables are used by different forms by all level of families of the country.
A wider use as different forms of vegetables are not only in Bangladesh but also in the
world. The demand for rice and vegetables is increasing in Bangladesh. Realizing these
situations, the government of Bangladesh has been pursuing a crop diversification strategy
to reduce the dependency on rice. Rice supplies more carbohydrates in combination with
many other items of food and on the other hand, vegetables supply more nutrition. It is
essential to increase the vegetables production which will obviously ensure the food
security of the farm households along with providing significant cash income also. To
sustain the vegetables production and increase the production efficiency, it is needed to
provide necessary support to the vegetables farmers. In this regard, profitability and
management of vegetables cultivation as well as rice production need to be studied.
The results of this study will be helpful to the farmers as well as policy makers by
providing a base line data and information for taking appropriate decision in respect of
production of both rice and vegetables. This study may also help extension workers to
learn the various problems of the alternate rice and vegetables production.
10
It is expected that the result of the present study will contribute in adding new knowledge
in alternate rice and vegetables production and will greatly benefit the farming
communities and will be of great use for scientists to undertake fruitful research
programme in future. In this regard, the following objectives have been set.
1.6 Objectives of the Study

Following arc the specific objectives:
i) To document the sociodemographic profile of alternate rice and vegetables
producing farm households:
ii) To determine the costs and returns of producing rice and vegetables;
iii) To determine the food consumption and nutritional status of the targeted farm
households;
iv) To examine the factors influencing the farm income and food security of the farm
households; and
v) To suggest the policy implication.
II
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
A good number ol studies have been conducted on food security as a whole but a little
research was conducted on alternate rice and vegetables production aiming to food
security in the area under study. I he aim of this chapter is to review the previous studies,
which are related to the present one.
Rahman and Schmitz (2007) conducted a study on food security. Food security is achieved
if adequate food is available and accessible for a satisfactory utilization by all individuals
at all times to live a healthy and happy life.
Akhter (2006) conducted a research on economics of some selected winter vegetables

production in an area of Thrishal Upazila in Mymensingh District. The selected vegetables
were cauliflower, cabbage, bean and bottle gourd. The major findings of the study
revealed that all the selected vegetables were profitable. Per hectare gross cost of
production of cauliflower, cabbage, bean and bottle gourd were Tk. 66554. Tk. 69684.
Tk. 83395 and Tk. 91376 respectively and the corresponding gross return were Tk.
116300. Tk. 111200, Tk. 145600 and Tk. 166400 respectively. The per hectare net returns
of producing cauliflower, cabbage, bean and bottle gourd were 49 Tk. 49746. Tk. 41516.
Tk. 62205 and Tk. 75024. respectively. The results of undiscounted BCR also showed that
bottle gourd cultivations was the most profitable among, bean, cauliflower and cabbage.
Sultana el al. (2005) carried out economic study on winter vegetables produced by
difTcrent categories of farms. The comparative profitability of selected winter vegetables
(potato, cauliflower and tomato) in Bangladesh was assessed. Data were collected in 2000
from a sample of 75 farmers. The per hectare costs of production of potato, cauliflower
and tomato were Tk. 5139.79, Tk. 64406.06 and Tk. 61663.87 respectively. The
corresponding gross incomes were 99401.44. 119± 65.12 and 93442.24 Tk. respectively
the estiamted net return was highest for cauliflower (Tk. 54004.65) followed by potato
(Tk. 48004.65) and tomato (Tk. 31778.37). It is concluded that production of cauliflower
is more profitable than the other two vegetables.
12
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
A good number ol studies have been conducted on food security as a whole but a little
research was conducted on alternate rice and vegetables production aiming to food
security in the area under study. The aim ot this chapter is to review the previous studies,
which are related to the present one.
Rahman and Schmitz (2007) conducted a study on food security. Food security is achieved
if adequate food is available and accessible for a satisfactory utilization by all individuals
at all times to live a healthy and happy life.
Akhter (2006) conducted a research on economics of some selected winter vegetables

production in an area of Thrishal Upazila in Mymensingh District. The selected vegetables
were cauliflower, cabbage, bean and bottle gourd. The major findings of the study
revealed that all the selected vegetables were profitable. Per hectare gross cost of
production of cauliflower, cabbage, bean and bottle gourd were Tk. 66554, Tic. 69684.
Tk. 83395 and Tk. 91376 respectively and the corresponding gross return were Tk.
116300. Tit. 111200, Tk. 145600 and Tk. 166400 respectively. The per hectare net returns
of producing cauliflower, cabbage, bean and bottle gourd were 49 Tk. 49746. Tk. 41516.
Tk. 62205 and Tk. 75024, respectively. The results of undiscounted BCR also showed that
bottle gourd cultivations was the most profitable among, bean, cauliflower and cabbage.
Sultana et al (2005) carried out economic study on winter vegetables produced by

JilTcrcnt categories of farms. The comparative profitability of selected winter vegetables
(potato, cauliflower and tomato) in Bangladesh was assessed. Data were collected in 2000
from a sample of 75 farmers. The per hectare costs of production of potato, cauliflower
and tomato were Tk. 5139.79, Tk. 64406.06 and Tk. 61663.87 respectively. The
corresponding gross incomes were 99401.44, 1I9± 65.12 and 93442.24 Tk. respectively
the estiamted net return was highest for cauliflower (Tk. 54004.65) followed by potato
(Tk. 48004.65) and tomato (Tk. 31778.37). It is concluded that production of cauliflower
is more profitable than the other two vegetables.
12
Nahcr (2005) conducted a study on export of fresh vegetables from Bangladesh. The study
found that in exporting marketing channels the vegetables fanners sold their major portion
of vegetables to the Beparis/sected agents. The study revealed that it was more profitable
to export vegetables to Asian countries compared to middle East countries. Although
profit was the highest in Exporting vegetables to EU countries. There exist a lot of
formalities and risks for exporting in those countries. The fresh vegetable exporters were
facing problems in exploiting export market due to lack of adequate air cargo facilities and
high fright rate charged by the Biman Bangladesh Airlines limited. Packaging was one of
the major marketing problem.
Kashem and Sarker (2004) conducted a study on food security in Bangladesh. Household
food security in Bangladesh is characterized by considerable regional variations. However
factors are considered such as tendency to natural disasters, distribution and quality of
agricultural land, access to education and health facilities, level of infrastructural
developm ent and em ploym ent opportunities o f household m em bers
Zaman (2002) conducted a study to accomplish a comparative analysis of resource

productivity and adoption on modem technology under owner and tenant farms in selected
area of Dinajpur District. It was found that total cash expenses as well as total gross cost
for producing HYV Boro rice were the highest in owner farms and the lowest in tenant
farms. Owner operators used more hired labour where tenant operators used more family
labour. The maximum return over total cost per hectare was obtained by owner operators
and minimum by tenant operators. It was also observed that owner operators were more
efficient than tenant operators. It was also observed that owner operators and minimum by
tenant operators. It was also observed that owner operators were more efficient than tenant
operators. It was also found that the degrees of adequacy level in the application of
modem farm inputs were higher in owner farms than in tenant farms.
Rahman, el ul. (2002) attempted to measure the technical efficiencies obtained by owner-
operated farming and share cropping using Cobb-Douglas stochastic production function.
Mean technical efficiencies obtained by owner operators for Boro. Aus and Aman rice
crops were 8 6 percent 93 percent and 80 percent respectively whereas mean technical
efficiencies obtained by share croppers for Boro, and Aman rice were respectively 73
percent and 72 percent. The study revels that owner-operators were technically more
13
efficient than share croppers in the production of all the rice crops. To reduce the
difference of technical efficiencies between owner operator and share cropper a perfect
share leasing system is inevitable.
Ahmed (2001) conducted a study during the period of January to February 2000 on "A
Comparative Economic Study of Potato and Cauliflower Production in a Selected Area of
Commila District”. The study was undertaken to analyze the comparative profitability of
potato and cauliflower production. 60 households were selected of which 30 were potato
and 30 were cauliflower farmers. It was estimated that per hectare costs of production of
potato were (71c. 71860.23 and Tk. 59054.31 on full costs and cash costs basis
respectively) higher than cauliflower (Tk. 48642.44 and Tk. 31708.69 on lull costs and
cash costs basis respectively). While per hectare gross return of potato (Tk. 102761.38)
was less than cauliflower (Tk. 186643.60). In case of per hectare net returns from potato
(Tk. 30901.15 and lie. 43707.07 on full costs and cash costs basis respectively) were less
than cauliflower (Tk. 137843.82 and Ik. 154934.91 on full costs and cash basis
respectively). Evidence showed that production of cauliflower was more profitable than
potato on basis of full costs and cash costs.
Islam (2000) carried out a study on economic analysis of winter vegetables like brinjal
cabbage, radish and tomato in the village sutiakhali. sultiakhali Union in sadar Thana of
Mvmensingh district. He showed that per hectare of brinjal production was Tk. 66.653.95
of which cash and non cash expenses amounted to Tk. 32.216 and 34.407 respectively.
Gross expenses for producing per hectare of cabbage was Tk. 67, 248.10 of which 47.23
and 52.77 percent were cash and non-cash expenses respectively. While net returns above
cash and gross expenses were Tk. 45.481 and 15,719 respectively.
Ali (2000) attempts to measure and compare resource use and land productivity within
tenure groups. The findings of the study reveal that the average family size in the study
area stood at 6.4. 5.76 and 5.30 members for owner, owner-eum-tenant and tenant farm
families. Total gross cost for producing Aman. Bora and Aus were the highest in owner
farms and lowest in tenant farms. It observed that owner operations used higher level of
inputs than owner-cum-tenant and tenant operators. The owner-cum-tenant operators
obtained higher yield in Aman and Aus production obtained higher yield than owner and
owner-cum-tenant operators. In Boro paddy production owner-cum-tenant operators
14
obtained higher yield than owner and owner-cum-tenant operators. In Boro paddy
production owner-cum-tenant operators in a rented land and tenant operators obtained
maximum net return than owner operators and owner-cum-tenant operators in owned land.
Finally it was concluded that tenancy afTects positively on resource use and production in
a predictable fashion even in small scale peasant agriculture.
Riely et al. (1999) conducted a study on food security. Food security is related to food
availability and access to food. Food availability and access to food. Food availability is a
function of the combination of domestic food stocks, commercial food imports, food aid
and domestic food production, as well as the underlying determinants of each of these
factors food access in influenced by the aggregate availability of food through the latter's
impact on supplies in the market and therefore on market prices. Again, the access is
further determined by the ability of households to obtain food from their own production
and stocks, from the market and from other sources.
M uwlu ( l ‘W8) conducted a research on sonic selected wmiei vegetables in a selected aiea
of Norshingdi district. He studied winter vegetables namely cauliflower, cabbage, tomato,

radish, bean and bottle gourd. He conducted his study in three village namely Jalalabad
Baroycha and Hossen Nagar of Narayanpur union under Balabo thana of Norshingdi
district. He found that the per hectare gross expenses of production of cauliflower stood at
Tk. 50875. while the per hectare gross return and net returns were rk 68580 and 17750.
Gross expenses for producing per hectare cabbage was Tk. 5 1794 of which cash and non
cash expenses shared 49 and 51 percent, respectively. Gross expenses for producing per
hectare of tomato was estimated at Tk. 45365, while the per hectare gross return and net
return were estmated at Tk. 61870 and 16505. respectively. Per hectare gross expenses of
production of radish was Tk 3370, while per hectare gross return and net return of bean
production were estimated at Tk. 38772 and 47513 while the per hectare net returns
amounted to Tk 8741. Gross expenses for producing bottle gourd per hectare stood at Tk
43614. while the per hectare gross return and net return were Tk 58480 and 14866.
respective.
Choudhury (1996) estimated the growth rates and instability of area, production, yield and
prices of some winter crops in Bangladesh. She divided the study period into two sub
periods: period I which enjoyed subsidy on most agricultural inputs and period II during
15
obtained higher yield than owner and owner-cum-tenant operators. In Boro paddy
production owner-cum-tenant operators in a rented land and tenant operators obtained
maximum net return than owner operators and owner-cum-tenant operators in owned land.
Finally it was concluded that tenancy affects positively on resource use and production in
a predictable fashion even in small scale peasant agriculture.
Ricly el ul. (1999) conducted a study on food security. I ood security is related to food
availability and access to food. Food availability and access to food. Food availability is a
function of the combination of domestic food stocks, commercial food imports, food aid
and domestic food production, as well as the underlying determinants of each of these
factors food access in influenced by the aggregate availability of food through the latter's
impact on supplies in the market and therefore on market prices. Again, the access is
further determined by the ability of households to obtain food from their own production
and stocks, from the market and from other sources.
M owlu (1‘JVK) conducted a rc.scojcli on .sonic .selected wiiilei vegetables in a selected aiea
of Norshingdi district, lie studied winter vegetables namely cauliflower, cabbage, tomato,
radish, bean and bottle gourd. He conducted his study in three village namely Jalalabad
Baroycha and llossen Nagar of Narayanpur union under Balabo thana of Norshingdi
district, lie found that the per hectare gross expenses of production of cauliflower stood at
Tk. 50875. while the per hectare gross return and net returns were Tk 68580 and 17750.
Gross expenses for producing per hectare cabbage was Tk. 51794 of which cash and non
cash expenses shared 49 and 51 percent, respectively. Gross expenses for producing per
hectare of tomato was estimated at Tk. 45365, while the per hectare gross return and net
return were estmated at Tk. 61870 and 16505. respectively. Per hectare gross expenses of
production of radish was Tk 3370, while per hectare gross return and net return of bean
production were estimated at Tk. 38772 and 47513 while the per hectare net returns
amounted to Tk 8741. Gross expenses for producing bottle gourd per hectare stood at Tk
43614, while the per hectare gross return and net return were Tk 58480 and 14866.
respective.
Choudhury (1996) estimated the growth rates and instability of area, production, yield and
prices of some winter crops in Bangladesh. She divided the study period into two sub
periods: period I which enjoyed subsidy on most agricultural inputs and period II during
15
which subsidy was gradually withdrawn. She found that the area and production of HYV
boro and wheat had a positive growth rate during the overall period. In period II, growth
rate of HYV boro and wheat production were negative. Rest of the growth rates of HYV
boro and wheat in period I and II were positive.
Shewli (1993) conducted a research on some socioeconomic aspects of homestead summer

vegetables production in selected areas of Mymensingh District. She included vegetables
namely white gourd and snake gourd. It was estimated that per hectare total cost or
production of white gourd was Tk. 67963 while gross return and net return per hectare
were Ik. 178429 und Ik. IIU460 respectively. I’cr heelurc lolul cost o! production ol
snake gourd was Tk. 61152 while gross return and net return per hectare were Tk. 114075
and Tk. 52922 respectively. The result indicated that whit gourd was more profitable in
the study area than snake gourd.
Dhakal (1993) studied growth and acreage response of some selected crops of Bangladesh.
He used the time series data of 1977-78 to 1990-91. He estimated growth rate of area and
production of 9 minor crops. The findings showed except tuber crops, all other crops
recorded significant positive growth in area and production.
The above review and discussions indicate that there are large number of studies
conducted on food security as a whole but a little research conducted on alternate rice and
vegetables production indicating food security. The present study aims to examine the
profitability of alternate rice and vegetables production in some selected areas of
Mymensingh district. Thus the results of the study are expected to provide useful
information which would help fanners and researchers.
16
Chapter 3
M E T H O D O L O G Y OF THE STUDY
3.1 Introduction
A socioeconomic research by its nature essentially involves collection of primary data

from the respondents. There are various methods of collecting information for a
socioeconomic research. Fhe selection of particular methods depends on many
considerations such as the nature of research problems, time constraints, availability of
founds etc. The present study is based on field level primary data which were collected
from randomly selected farmers practicing alternate rice and vegetables farming in
Mymensingh Sadar Upazila of Mymensingh district. The survey method was followed to
collect field level data and information.
3.2 Selection of the Study Area

Selection of the study area is an important step for farm management study such a study
usually requires selection of an area for collecting data in accordance with the objectives
set for the study. The area in which a farm business survey is to be made depends on the
particular purposes of the survey and possible cooperation from the farmers. Two villages
from Mymensingh Sadar Upazila namely Boyra and Bailala Bazar were purposively
selected for data collection. The reasons for selecting the village's area as follows:
i) Rice and vegetables are grown abundantly in the study area.
ii) These villages had some identical characteristics like topography, soil and
climate conduction for producing rice and vegetables.
iii) Easy accessibility and communication in the villages.
iv) Cooperation from the respondents is expected to be high and therefore, reliable
data are expected to be obtained.
v) Most of the farmers produced alternate rice and vegetables commercially.
3J Land Use Pattern and Crops Selected for the Study

Bangladesh has been striving for self sufficiency in food grain production for a long time.
But the land area is very limited and hence productivity needs to be increased for feeding
the growing number of population every year. To be self-sufficient in food and to
maximize crop production, intensification of land use is also necessary by practicing
17
diversification of cropping system. Following the agricultural development most of the
farmers in Bangladesh have introduced new enterprises and also changed their enterprise
and also changed their enterprise combination and crop rotation for the last 2-3 decades.
However, at present the production practices and major land use patterns followed h\
farmers in different areas of Bangladesh. In the study areas, agricultural crop lands have
been shifted and are being used to produce vegetables along with rice. Rice is the main
food item for the people of the country. Rice alone cannot solve the demand for balance
diet. Vegetables are the sources of vitamin A. vitamin C, carbohydrates, niacin,
riboflavin, calcium, iron and minerals. They provide dietary fibre necessary for digestion
and health and curing nutritional disorders. Vegetables are considered to be protective
food. Hence vegetables constitute essential part of balance diet.
3.4 Selection of Sample and Sampling Technique

It is not possible to make a farm business survey covering all farms. For this reason,
sampling technique was followed to select representive farms to minimize time and cost of
the study.
A stratified random sampling technique was followed to classify the alternate rice and
vegetables farmers depending on size of holdings.
Farmers were classified into four groups which are as follows.

i) Marginal fanners holding land less than 1.0 acre.
ii) Small farmers holding land between 1.00 to 2.49 acre
iii) Medium farmers holding land between 2.5 to 7.49 acre
iv) Large farmers holding land above 7.50 acre.
The size of farm has also been defined as

Farm size = Own cultivable land + rented in + mortgaged in - rented out- mortgaged out +
homestead area.
The sample frame was prepared by classifying the households according to their size of
holding. Then 20 marginal farmers, 19 small farmers. 17 medium farmers and 4 large
farmers were selected purposively. Thus, in total 60 alternate rice and vegetables
producing farmers were chosen to collect dulu
The sampling design and distribution of sample farmers are shown in Table 3.1 in details.
18
Table 3.1 Sampling design and distribution of sample farmers
Categories of farms No. of tarmers
Marginal farmers 2 0
Small farmers 19
Meuium farmers 17
Large farmers 4
All farms 60
Source: Field survey 2008
3.5 Preparation of Interview Schedule and Pre-testing

For collecting data through survey method, preparation of interview schedule is of crucial
need. Before preparing the final interview schedule is of crucial need Before preparing the
final interview schedule a draft interview schedule was developed keeping in view the
objectives of the study. Then it was pretested in the study area by interviewing some
alternate rice and vegetables farmers. The interview schedule was then changed modified
and rearranged according to the field observations.
The final interview schedule was developed in logical sequence so that the alternate rice
vegetables farmers could answer systematically. The data regarding socioeconomic aspect
of the farmer's production costs and returns of alternate rice and vegetables farming and
the problems of alternate rice-vegetables farming and their feasible solutions were
collected through the interview schedule.
3.6 Data Collection and Used FAO Project Data

The present study used necessary data and information from the FAO funded Program
Research entitled “Changing land use pattern and its impact on food security for farm
household in Bangladesh”. The author herself worked as a Research Fellow for this
project.
Accordingly, collected data from that research project which are necessary and essential
for the present study were also being used with the permission of FAO project. I he
researcher herself collected the relevant data from the selected farmers through face to
face interview. Before taking actual interviews the main purpose of the study was clearly
explained to the sample farmers. Initially, the farmers hesitated to answer the question; but
when they were assured that the study was purely an academic one and it would not affect
them adversely then they were cooperative with the researcher. At the time of interview.
19
the researcher asked questions systematically and explained the questions whenever it was
felt necessary. Farmers were requested to provide correct information as far as possible.
After each interview was over, the interview schedule was cheeked so as to ensure that
information to each of the items had properly been recorded. If there were such items,
which were overlooked or contradictory, were corrected by another interview In order to
minimize the errors, data were collected in local unit, but later those were converted into
standard international units.
Thus the farmers were convinced and thus, correct information was collected from the
sampled farmers. Data were collected during January to February in 2008.
3.7 Analytical Technique

Data were analyzed in accordance with the specified design to accomplish the objectives
set for the study. In the present study the following techniques were used
3.7.1 Tabular analy sis

Tabular technique is a well known and widely used technique to show the results of farm
management study because it is simple, convenient and very easy to understand, labular
technique is the technique that is commonly followed to find out the crude association or
differences between variables and output. This technique was applied with the help ot
some statistical measures like the sum, average, percentage etc., to show the relationship
among the selected variables. To address first three objectives tabular analysis was done.
3.7.2 Statistical analysis

Many factors might affect household income and per capita consumption of farm
household but it is quite difficult to include all the variables in a model due to theoretical
and economic considerations. So, important variables were included to keep the model as
simple as possible.
The multiple regression function was specified as follows:
Y = f(X l.X 2 .X 3 .X4.X5.X6)
Household income
Y = aX|bl X2 b 2 X, b 3 X4 M X, b 5 X* " 6 eu
20
Ilic equation may be alternatively expressed as log-linear form.
lnY = lna+b,lnXh + b2 lnX2l + b3 lnX3l + b4 lnX4, + b,lnX5i + b6 lnX6i + Ui
Where,
Y - Household income (Tk/yeur)
X| = Non farm income (Tk./year)
X2 = Production of non cereal crops (Kg/year)
Xj = Production of cereal crops (Kg/year)
X4 = Cultivated land (Decimal)
X5 = Family size (No.)
X* = Education of household head
ln=Natural logarithm
a = Intercept
(b|.... b6 )= Coefficients of respective variables and
Ui = Error term
Per capita consumption

Y = aX,bl X2“ X3 b 3 X4 M XjM eu
The equation may be alternatively expressed as log-linear form.
InY = lna+b|lnX|, + b2 lnX2, + bdnXi, + b4 lnX4, •*- h<lnX<i ■+■ Ui
Where,
Y = Per capita consumption (Tk/ycar)
X| = Production of cereal crops per capita (kg/year)
X2 = Cultivated land (Decimal)
Xj = Family size
Xj = Per capita expenditure (Tk/year)
a = Intercept
ln-natural logarithm.
(b|-bj) Coefficients of respective variables and
Ui = Error term
Detailed information on the selected model and its interpretation are given in chapter 7
21
Chapter 4
S O C IO E C O N O M IC CHA RA CT ERISTICS
OF THE SAMPLE HOUSEHOLD
C hapter 4
S O C I O E C O N O M I C CH \R A C T E R I S T I C S OF THE SAMPLES
H OSUEHOLDS
4.1 Introduction
In this chapter the socioeconomic characteristics of alternate rice and vegetables farmers
have been discussed. I he major socioeconomic characteristics were considered in this
chapter were age distribution, education level, occupation, dependency ratio, family size
and size of land holdings of the selected farmers.
4.2 Age Distribution of the Selected Farmers

In this study, the farmers were classified into four age groups such as 18 to 25 years. 26 to
45 years, 46 to 60 years and above 60 years. No farmer was found aged below 18 years.
The age group 26 to 45 years was the largest among all age groups. As per distribution of
the sampled farmers. 26 to 45 years was 40 percent considering all farms. Only 13.33
percent farmers were aged above 60 years. It was found that the age group 26 to 45 >ears
was the largest group in all the cases (Table 4. 1 ).
Table 4.1 Distribution of sample farmers according to age groups
Age group Marginal Small farm Medium I^arge farm All farms
farm farm
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %
18 to 25 years 3 15 40 21.05 5 29.41 - - 12 2 0
26 to 45 years 10 50 8 42.11 5 29.41 1 25 24 40

46 to 60 years 5 25 4 21.05 5 29.41 2 50 16 26.6
7
Above 60 years 2 10 3 15.79 2 11.77 1 25 8 13.33
Total 2 0 100 19 100 17 100 100 60 100
Source: Field Survey 2008
22
C hapter 4
S O C I O E C O N O M I C C H AR ACTER IS TICS OF THE SAMPLES
H OSUEHOLDS
4.1 Introduction
In this chapter the socioeconomic characteristics of alternate rice and vegetables fanners
have been discussed. The major socioeconomic characteristics were considered in this
chapter were age distribution, education level, occupation, dependency ratio, family size
and size of land holdings of the selected farmers.
4.2 Age Distribution of the Selected Farmers

In this study, the farmers were classified into four age groups such as 18 to 25 years, 26 to
45 years, 46 to 60 years and above 60 years. No farmer was found aged below 18 years.
The age group 26 to 45 years was the largest among all age groups. As per distribution of
the sampled farmers, 26 to 45 years was 40 percent considering all farms. Only 13.33
percent farmers were aged above 60 years. It was found that the age group 26 to 45 years
was the largest group in all the cases (Table 4 .1).
Table 4.1 Distribution of sample farmers according to age groups

Age group Marginal Small farm Medium Large farm All farms
farm farm
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %
18 to 25 years 3 15 40 21.05 5 29.41 - - 12 2 0
26 to 45 yean 10 50 8 42.11 5 29.41 1 25 24 40

46 to 60 years 5 25 4 21.05 5 29.41 2 50 16 26.6
7
Above 60 years 2 10 3 15.79 2 11.77 1 25 8 13.33
Total 2 0 100 19 100 17 I0 U 100 60 100
22
4 3 Education Level of Sample Farmers
The literacy level was classified into six groups such as illiterate, primary, secondary,
SSC, HSC and BA and above (Tabic 4.2).
About 40 percent marginal larmers were illiterate. Considering all farmers 48.33 percent
tanners were illiterate and only 5 percent farmers were graduate. Both marginal and large
fanners were less educated compared to medium and small farmers (Table 4.2).
Table 4.2 Education level of sample farmers

Age group Marginal farm Small farm Medium Large farm All farms
farm
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %
Illiterate 8 40 10 52.63 8 47.06 3 75 29 48.33
Primary 5 25 3 15.79 1 5.89 I 25 10 16.67
Seconaary 5 25 2 10.52 3 17.65 - - 10 16.67
(6-9)
SSC 2 10 3 15.79 2 11.76 - - 7 11.67
HSC - - - - 1 5.89 - - 1 1 .6 6
BA and above - - 1 5.26 2 11.76 - - 3 5

Total 20 100 19 100 17 100 4 - 60
4.4 Main Occupation of the Farmers

The occupation of the farmers was classified into: i) farming, li) farming and small
trading, iii) fanning and govt, service, iv) farming and private service (poultry farms, rice
miles), v) farming and services (NGO) and vi) fanning and others.
23
Table 4.3 Main occupation of samples fanners
Occupation Marginal Small Medium Large All farmers
farmers farmers farmers farmers
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %
Farming 11 55 16 84.21 13 76.47 3 75 43 71.67
Farming and 8 40 1 5.26 2 11.76 • 11 18.33
small trading
Farming and 1 5.89 1 1.67
Govt, service
farming and 1 5 1 5.26 2 3.33
private service
Farming and 1 5.26 1 5.89 2 3.33
service (NGO) ' '
Farming and 1 25 1 1.67

others
Total 2 0 1 00 19 - 17 100 4 - 60 100
Table 4.3 shows the occupational structure of the farm households. It appears from the
table that as a whole 71.67 percent of the farmers had farming as their only profession
The rest of the farmers had small trading, government service, private service (agro based
industries), NGO service and others along with farming activities. Considering all sample
farms percentages of farmers were engaged with farming and small trading, farming and
government service, farming and private services, farming and NGO, farming and others
were 18.33, 1.67,3.33,3.33, and 1.67. respectively. About 55. 84.21.76.47 and 75 percent
marginal, small, medium and large farmers respectively were engaged in farming only.
About 40 percent of marginal 5.20 percent of small and 11.76 percent of medium fanners
were engaged in small trading along with farming while 5.89 percent medium farmers
were employed in government service along with (arming.
24
About 5.00 percent murginal and 5.26 percent small farmers were engaged in private
service and farming. About 5.26 percent small and 5.89 percent medium farmers were
employed in NGO services along with fanning.
4.5 Family Size and Age Distribution of Household Members of the Farm Families
Family members with age of below 18 years, 18 to 60 years and above 60 years for all
farms were 36.97, 58.98 and 4.06 percent respectively. Average family size oi all farmers
was 5.67 which were relatively higher than national average (4.48). Percentages of family
members below 18 years were 42.86, 43.95, 36.46 and 26.92 for marginal, small, medium
and large farmers, respectively. Age braket of 18 to 60 years of family members were
57.14, 51.42, 56.28 and 69.23 percent for the marginal, small, medium and large farmers
respectively whereas family members above 60 years of age were 4.63, 7.26 and 3.85
percent for the small, medium and large farms respectively (Table 4.4).
Table 4.4 Family size and age distribution of household members of farm families.
Medium
Age groups Marginal farmer Small farmer Large farmer All farmer
farmer
(years)
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %
<18 2 .1 0 42.86 2.47 43.95 2.06 36 46 1.75 26.92 2.09 36 97
18-60 2.80 57.14 2.89 51.42 3.18 56.28 4.50 69 23 3.34 58 988
>60 0 .0 0 - 0.26 4.63 0.41 7.26 0.25 3.85 0.23 4.06
Total 4.9 100 5.62 100 5.65 100 6.5 100 5.67 100
4.6 Dependency Ratio

Each and every family is rationally composed of both income earners and dependents.
Table 4.5 presents the depending members per income earner among different sizes of
farms. It appears from the table that dependency ratio for large farmers were higher,
compared to marginal, small, medium and large farm households. The dependency ratio
was 1.70 for the all farm. The average dependency ratio of the marginal, small, medium
and large farmers was 1.75, 1.95, 1.78 and 1.44, respectively.
25
Table 4.5 Dependency ratio of sample households
Farm size Earning members Family members Depending ratio
Marginal 2.80 4.9 1.75
Small 2.X9 S 62 1 9S
Medium 3.18 5.65 1 .7 8
Large 4.50 6.5 1.44

All farms 13.37 22.67 1.70
Total Families members
Note: Dependency ratio =
Total Earning members
4.7 Size of Holding and Tenurial Arrangement

Land is the most important asset for farm households because farm families depend
mainly on their land for the production of different crops.
Table 4.6 Size of holding and tenurial arrangement of sample farm households
Land in decimal
Farm Owned Rented in Rented out Homestead Fish pond Farm size
types (decimal) (decimal) (decimal) (decimal) (decimal) (decimal)
Marginal 61 11 10 10 2 62
Small 138 25 11 16 5 152
Medium 513 4 117 27 7 400
Large 834 0 0 39 0 834
All 306 13 46 2 0 5 273
It appears from Table 4.6 that on an average, a farm family had 273 decimal of land.
According to farm category, the average size of farm was 62, 152. 400 and 834 decimal
for the marginal, small, medium and large farmers respectively. Considering all farms, out
of 273 decimal of total land, the farmer used only 2 0 decimal of land for homestead area.
A major portion of land was used for producing crops which increased their food security.
26
Chapter 5
C O ST S A N D R E T U R N S O F PR O D U C IN G A L TE R A N TE RICE
AND VEGETABLES
5.1 Introduction
1 he aim of this chapter is to estimate and analyze per hectare costs and returns of rice
(Boro and Aman) and vegetables (Lady’s finger. Cabbage and White gourd) production.
An attempt was made to determine the per hectare costs and returns of Boro rice. Aman
rice, Lady's linger, Cabbage and White gourd production.
5.2 Estimation of Costs of Boro rice, Aman rice, Lady’s finger, Cabbage and White
gourd production
Estimation of cost was exclusively necessary for enterprise costing and subsequently
determining the viability of the enterprise from the viewpoint of producers. The farmers
used different inputs for rice and vegetables production. Some of these inputs were
purchased and some w ere hom e supplied. fo r the convenience ol analysis, the usual com
items for producing rice and vegetables are discussed under the following heads.
5.2.1 Cost of human labour

Human labour was one of the most important and largely used in producing rice and
vegetables in the study areas. In the case of Boro rice, human labour was used 228 man-
days per hectare of which 6 8 man- days were family supplied and 160 man-days were
hired labour (Table 5.1).
Total cost of human labour amounted to Tk. 27360 per hectare (Table 5.1) for Boro rice
which was 46.43 percent of the total cost. In the case of Aman rice total human labour
requirement was 152 man-days per hectare of which 38 man days were family supplied
and 114 man-days were hired and the total cost of human labour amounted to Tk. 18240
per hectare. In the case of Lady’s finger the total human labor requirement was 450 man-
days per hectare of which 130 man-days were family supplied and 300 man-days were
hired and the total cost of human labour was Tk. 51,600 per hectare (Table 5.3). The
27
highest amount of cost was incurred for human labour in producing Lady’s finger which
shared 55.42 percent of the total cost.
In the case of cabbage, the farmers used 250 man-days family human labour and 100 man-
days as hired human labour per hectare of land. The cabbage farmers spent I k. 42000 per
hectare for human labour.
The total human labour requirement was 330 man-days per hectare for producing white
gourd. Per cost the total for employing human was Tk. 39600 for white gourd.
5.22 Cost of power tiller
In the study area farmers used power tiller only for tillage operation. Power tiller was
mainly used for land preparation. Per hectare power tiller cost of Boro nee. Aman rice.
Lady's finger, cabbage and white gourd were Tk. 6850, Tk. 6840. Tk. 6000, Tk. 6500 and
Tk. 6500, respectively for land preparation (Tables 5.1,5.2, 5.3. 5.4 and 5.5).
5.2.3 Cost of seed/seedlings

Farmers purchased a major portion of seeds/seedlings. The average seed price of both
Boro rice and Aman rice were estimated to be Tk. 25 per Kg. Per kg price of seed of
Lady's finger was estimated at Tk. 150 while per kg price of white gourd was Tk. 800
only.
The average price of cabbage seedlings was estimated at Tk. 0.50 per number. Tables
(5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4 and 5.5) indicate that per hectare total costs of seed/seedlings of Boro
rice, Aman rice. Lady’s finger, Cabbage and White ground were Tk. 1200 Tk. 10800. Tk
300 Tk. 19,000 and Tk. 2400, respectively.
28
5.2.4 Cost of chemical fertilizer
In the study area, fanners used Urea, TSP, DAP MP and Gypsum for
rice and vegetables production. All types of fertilizers were purchased in cash. Market
prices of Urea, TSP, DAP, MP und Gypsum were I k. 6.5, I k. 40, I k. 40, I k. 36 and I k. 7
per kg, respectively.
Table 5.1 Per hectare costs and returns of Boro rice
Items Unit Quantity Price per Total value Percent of

unit (Tk) (Tk) gross cost
Gross returns
i) Main product kg 6500 12 78000
ii) By product (straw) 4500
A. Gross return (i+ii) 82500
Variable cost:
Family labour Man-days 68 120 8160 13.84
Hired labour Man-days 160 120 19200 32.59
Total labour Man days 228 27360
Draught animal power 6850 11.63
/power tiller
Seeds/seedling (purchased) kg 8 25 200 0.34
Seeds/seedling kg 40 25 1000 1.69
(home supplied)
I olal seed kg 48 3000
Fertilizer
Urea kg 560 6.5 3640 6.18
TSP kg 100 40 4000 6.79
MP kg 60 40 2400 4.07
Gypsum kg 20 40 800 1.35
Cowdung kg 1400 0.5 700 1.18
Irrigation charge 5700 9.67
Insecticides 800 1.35
ft. Total variable cost sliSD
Fixed cost
Land use cost 5000 8.48
Interest on operating capital 469 0.79
C. Total fixed cost 5469
D. Gross cost (B+C) 58919
E. Gross margin (A-B) 29050
F. Net return (A-D) 23581
Benefit cost ratio (A/D) 1.40
(undiscounted) ■ ,--—- -J
29
5.2.5 Coat of manure
In the study area, most of the farmers used cowdung. The farmers used oilcake as manure
in vegetables production. Per kg. price of cowdung and oilcake were Tk. 0.5 and Tk. 22,
respectively.
5.2.6 Insecticides
In the study area, the fanners applied insecticides to protect their crops from pests and
diseases. The cost of insecticides was calculated on the basis of actual money paid by the
farmers.
5.2.7 Cost of irrigation
Irrigation water was used both for producing rice and vegetables. For irrigation, farmers
mainly used deep tubewells (DTWS) water on hired basis. Irrigation cost was calculated
on the basis of hiring rate paid by the farmers. Generally, no inigation was needed for
producing Aman rice.
5.2.8 Interest on operating cost
Interest on operating capital was charged at the rate of 8 percent for 3 months. Interest on
operating capital (IOC) was charged on cash cost only. The IOC was calculated using the
following formula.
Operating capital* rate of interest *period of production

Interest on operating capital = 2
The 3 months period was considered for both rice and vegetables production
30
Tabic 5.2 Per hectare costs and returns of aman rice
Items Unit Quantity Price per Total value Percent ot

unit (Ik) (Tk) gross cost
—
Gross returns
i) Main product kg 3220 12 38640
ii) By product (straw) 2000
A. Gross return (i+ii) 40,640
Variable c o st:
Family labour Man- 38 120 4560 12.41
days
Hired labour Man- 114 120 13680 37.23
days
Total labour 152 18240
Animal labor/ Power tiller 6840 18.61
Seeds/seedling (purchase) kg 8 25 200 0.54
Seeds/seedling (home kg 40 22 880 2.39
supplied)
Total seed kg 48 1080
Fertilizer
Urea kg 280 6.5 1820 4.95
TSP kR 35 40 1400 3.81
MP kg 20 40 800 2.17
Gypsum kg
____ I
1500 0.5 750
ri
C
T
Cow dung kg
Insecticides 500
B. Total variable cost 31430
F ix e d cost
Interest on operating 314 0.85
capital
F . Net return (A-D) 3896
(undiscountcd)
31
5.2.9 Lands use cost
Land use cost was calculated by using per hectare rental value of land. Per hectare rental
cost was Tk. 20000 in the study areas.
5.2.10 Gross cost
Costs of producing rice and vegetables (Tables 5.1,5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5) show that per hectare
gross cost of Boro rice, Aman rice. Lady’s finger. Cabbage and White gourd were Tk
58919, Tk 3644 Tk. 93102. Tk. 102360 and Tk. 101000, respectively.
5.2.11 Gross return
Tables 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.3 show that the per hectare gross return of Boro rice, Aman
rice, Lady's finger, Cabbage and white gourd amounted at Tk. 82500, Tk. 40,640, Tk.
180,000, Tk. 192,000 and Tk. 200.000. respectively and net returns were Tk. 36081 Tk
3896, Tk. 86898, Tk. 89640 and Tk. 122908 respectively. Profits of vegetables production
was relatively higher compared to rice.
Tables 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4 and 5.5 show that the undiscounted benefit cost ratio (BCR) of
Boro rice, Aman rice. Lady's finger. Cabbage and White gourd were 1.40, 1.11, 1.93. 1.87
and 1.98, respectively.
32
Table 5.3 Per hectare costs and returns of lady's Finger production
Items Unit Quantity Price per total value Percent of
unit (Tk l (Tk) gross cost
Gross Returns
i) Main product number — to 15000 12 180000
ii) By product ------------------------------------ 1
------------------- ------------- ^
A. Gross Return (i+ii) 180000
Variable c o st:
days
Hired labour Man- 300 1 2 0 36000 38.67
days
Total labour 430 51600 55.42
Draught animal power/ 6000 6.45
Power tiller
Seeds (purchased) 1 S iso 225 0 ?4
Seeds (home supplied) kg 1.5 150 75 0.08
Total seed k g _
Fertilizer
Urea kg 240 6.5 1560 1 .6 8
TSP kg 70 40 2800 3.00

Diamonium phosphate kg 120 40 4800 5.16
(DAP)
MP kg 40 36 1440 1.55
Gypsum kg 30 7 2 1 0 0 23
Cowdung kg 10500 0.5 5250 5.64

Oil cake kg 35 2 2 770 0.82
Irrigation charge 6000/- 6.44
Fence 3000 3.22
Fixed cost
capital
F. Net return (A-D) 86898
(u n d i .c o u n te d )
33
I able 5.4 per hectare costs and returns of cabbage production
Items Unit Quantity Price per Total value Percent of

Gross returns
i) Main product Number 19200 10 192000
ii) By pruiuct
A. Gross return (i+ii) 192000
Variable c o st:
days
Hired labour Man- 100 120 12000 11.72
days
P o w er tiller
Seedling (purchased) kg 38000 0.50 19000 18.56
Seedling (home supplied) kg
Total seed kg
Fertilizer
Urea kg 320 6.30 2016 1.97
TSP kg 170 40 6800 664
Diamonium phosphate kg 220 40 8800 8.59
(DAP)
MP kg 60 36 2160 2.11
Gypsum kg 70 7 490 0.47
Cowdung kg 1500 0.5 750 0.73
Oil coke kg 40 22 880 0 86
Irrigation charge 4000 3.90
Filed cost
capita]
C- Total fixed cost 5963
D. 102360
i Gross-------
cost ----------
(B+C)
95604
E. Cross margin (A-B)
89640
P. Net return IA-D)
1.87
B crtcfit c o st r a tio (A/D)
(undiscounted)
34
I able 5.5 per hectare costs and returns of white gourd production
Items Unit Quantity Price per Iotal value Percent of
Gross returns
i) Main product Number 25000 8 2 0 0 0 0 0
ii) By product
A. Gross return (i+ii) 25000 8 2 0 0 0 0 0
Variable c o st:
Family labour Man- 130 120 15,6000 15.44
days
Hired labour Man- 2 0 0 120 24000 23.76
days
Power tiller
Seedling (purchased) kg 3 800 2400 2.37
Seeding (home supplied) kg
Total seed kg
Fertilizer
Urea kg 400 6.30 2520 2.49
TSP kg 80 40 3200 3.16
Diamonium phosphate kg 2 0 0 40 8000 7.93
(DAP)
MP kg 60 36 2160 2.13
Gypsum kg 30 7 2 1 0 0 .2 0
Cowdung kg 10800 0.5 5400 5.35

Oil cake kg 30 2 2 660 0.65
Irrigation charged 6000 5.94
Fence 16000 15.84
B. Total variable cost 9S030
Fixed cost 4.95
Land use cost 5000
Interest on operating 950
capital
C. T o ta l fixed cost 5950
1 0 1 0 0 0
D. Gross cost (B+C)
104950
E. Gross margin (A-B) ____ — \
99000
F. Net return (A-D)
(undiscounted)
35
3.5 Comparative Profitability of Boro rice, Amao rice, Lady’s finger, Cabbage and
White gourd
In this section, a comparison has been made to assess the per hectare profitability of
growing Boro rice, Aman rice, l ady’s finger. Cabbage and White gourd. The summary
results of per hectare gross return, gross cost, gross margin, net return and BCR
(undiscounted) ol Boro rice, Aman rice, Lady's finger, Cabbage and white gourd are
presented in Table 5.6 and Figures (5.1 and 5.2) which shows that per hectare gross return
of white gourd was higher than those of Boro rice, Aman rice. Lady’s finger and cabbage.
It also shows that per hectare cost ol production was higher for white gourd than those of
Boro rice, Aman rice Lady's linger and cabbage, fable also shows that gross margin and
net return of white gourd was also higher than those of Boro rice, Aman rice. Lady's
finger and Cabbage. Benefit cost ratio was higher in white gourd compared to in Boro rice.
Aman rice, Lady's finger, and Cabbage. From the above discussion it is clear that White
gourd production was most profitable than those of Boro rice. Aman rice. Lady's finger
and cabbage.
Table 5.6 Relative profitability of per hectare boro rice, aman rice, lady’s finger, cabbage
and white gourd production.
Particulars Boro rice Aman rice Lady’s Cabbage White

finger gourd
Gross return (Tk.) 82500 40640 180000 192000 2 0 0 0 0 0
Gross cost (Tk.) 58919 36744 93102 102360 1 0 I0 U0
Gross margin (Tk.) 29050 15210 92770 95604 104950
Net returns (Tk.) 23581 3896 86898 89640 99000
BCR (undiscounted) 1.40 1 .1 1 1.93 1.87 1.98
Sources: Adapted from Tables 5.1,5.2, 5.3, 5.4 and 5.5.
36
On the basis of above discussion it could cautiously be concluded that the cultivation of
Boro rice, Aman rice. Lady's finger and Cabbage were profitable. However, cultivation of
White gourd was the most profitable among Boro rice, Aman rice, Ladys finger and
Cabbage. Nevertheless, fanners also reasonable net returns in producing Boro rice, Aman
rice, Lady’s finger, Cabbage and White gourd in the study areas.
37
90000-1
80000
7 0000
60000
5 0000
Tk/ha
40000
3 0000
20000
10000
0-
Gross return Gross cost Gross margin Net returns
Particular
Figure 5.1 Gross return, gross cost, gross margin and net returns of boro nee and
aman rice production
f - Qlo2>^
38
200000-
180000
160000
140000
120000
Tk/ha
100000
80000
60000
40000
20000
0 -
Gross return Gross cost Gross margin Net returns
Particular
Figure 5.1 Gross return, gross cost, gross margin and net returns of lady's finger,
cabbage and wtiite gourd production
39
Chapter 6
FOOD CONSUMPTION AND NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF FARM

HOUSEHOLD UNDER CHANGING LAND USE PATTERN
Consumption o( different levels and composition of food does not mean much except that
it satisfies instant and apparent hunger and meets possibly some social and psychogenic
needs. A more objective basis of food consumption is the improvement and/or
maintenance of nutritional status which, of course, is determined by the level and
composition of food intake. A distinction needs to be drawn because a relatively greater
volume of food may mean a lower nutrition level while the same volume consumed by
different persons may yield varying levels of nutrition; depending on what people eat.
given their status of health and sanitation and other physical and socioeconomic
environment.
Table 6.1 Daily per capita food intake by the member of targeted household
Farm households Food intake (grams)
Marginal farms 982

Small farms 977
Medium farms 1107
Large farms 1566
All farms 1069
6.1 Intake of Food

It appears from Table 6.1 that daily per capita food intake for the number of large farm
households was higher (I566gm) than those of the marginal, small and medium farm
households. Poverty Monitoring Survey (PMS). 2004 reported that average per capita per
day food consumption was %6.U gms whereas it was 947.8 gms in Household Income and
Expenditure Survey (HIES). 2005. The average per capita per day food intake was 1069
gms for all farm households. This average per capita per day food intake was relatively
higher than that of national average reported by PMS. (2004) and HIES (2005).
40
Item wise per capita per day lood intake by the members of farm households have been
presented in l ablc 6.2.
Table 6.2 Item wise tood intake by the member of (arm households under the present land
use pattern.
food intake gm/day/capita

Farm household category
Marginal Small farm Medium Large farm All farm
Food item
farm household farm household household
household household
Rice 498.5 441.7 460.5 2286 1561
Potato 66.7 83.1 73.8 112.54 73.37
Leafy vegetables 39.8 48.6 56.5 22.94 15.52
Cabbage/Cauliflower 37.3 40.6 39.6 24.89 17.98
Cucumber 39.1 40.2 46.4 22.87 15.06
Brinjal 27.5 44.7 50.4 11.96 10.07
Lentil 8.9 8.9 10.6 50.31 32.80
Mukulii/khesari 10.4 8.0 9.0 50.76 31.27
Mustard oil 3.5 5.2 5.0 3.03
169 !
Soyabean oil 15.6 12.4 16.2 84.88 63.72
Beef/mutton 6.7 11.3 16.9 39.77 20.59
Poultry meat 20.8 17.5 23.6 32.75 25.04
Egg 15.0 12.0 13.1 38.48 24.20
Fish 66.7 79.2 82.2 105.35 84.09
Onion 15.3 17.7 19.8 9.95 8.48
□■Hie 5.5 8.2 6.8 13.62 10.06

--------------- 1
Chilli 7.0 7.7 6.5 28.99 17.83
Fruits 8.6 9.0 10.8 9.48 6.22
Sugar 10 1 10.6 8.1 42 78 16 50
Milk 78.9 70.2 151.5 121.10 71.6V

981.8 976.7 1107.4 3112 2127
Total l
Source: Field survey (2008)
41
Rice was the main item ol food for almost all the selected farm households and usually
they take three time meals in a day. The second item was observed to be vegetables and its
consumption was about 139 gms (leafy vegetables cabbage/cauliflower, cucumber, brinjal)
was 51.7 capita day per day at the aggregate level. The next important food item were
potato, fish, edible oil, poultry meat, egg, respectively.
Considering all farms food consumption was the highest for large fanners (I566gm)
followed by 1107 gm for medium farmers 982gm for marginal farmers, 987 gm for small
farmers.
6.2 Intake of Calorie

The value of food energy intake is measured by the unit of kilo calorie. Every food items
has its own calorie value and they are different from one to another. Total calorie intake is
derived from total consumption of food and is presented in terms of per capita per day
basis. Average daily per capita intake of calorie for all food items is shown in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3 Average daily per capita caloric intake by households (in K. calorie)
Farm categories Calorie intake (K. cal)
Marginal farms 2119
Small farms 1951
Medium farms 2097
Large farms 3112
All tarms 2127
Source: Field survey (2008).
The average calorie intake reported by the PMS 2004 and HIES 2005 were 2308 K. cal.
and 2238.5 K cal, respectively. Present study shows that caloric intake was the highest for
the large farm households. Average daily per capita calorie intake was 2119 K. cal. 1951
K. cal, and 2097 K. cal for marginal, small and medium farm households respectively. The
overall average daily per capita calorie intake by households was observed to be 2127 K
cal.
42
6J Intake of Calorie from Food Items
The average food energy received from individual food items was the highest for rice
followed by fish, potato, milk, edible oil. vegetables and sugar respectively (Table 6.4).
Table 6.4 Intake of calorie from food items (K. cal)
K.cal/day/capita
Farm household category
Food items Marginal Small farm Medium Large farm All farm
farm household farm household household
household household
Rice 1620 1435 1497 2286 1561
Potato 61.33 76.41 67.85 112.54 73.37
Leary vegetables 11.93 14.58 16.95 22.94 15.52
Cabbage/cau 1iflower 16.42 17.85 17.41 24.89 17.98
Cucumber 13.31 13.68 15.78 22.87 15.06
Brinjal 6.33 10.29 11.58 ll.9t> 10.07
Lentil 29.18 29.12 34.92 50.31 32.80
Maskalai/khesari 34.52 26.72 29.86 50.76 31.27
Mustard oil 1.16 1.70 1.66 0.03 1.69
Soyabean oil 66.60 52.92 69.13 84.88 63.72
Bccf/mutton 10.29 17.24 25.87 39.77 20.59
Poultry meat 24.75 20.88 28.04 32.75 25.04
Lgg 26.38 21.06 23.05 38.48 24.20

Fish 70.67 83.94 87.14 105.35 84.09
Onion 7.11 8.23 9.20 9.95 8.48
Garlic 7.54 11.25 9.36 13.62 10.06
Chilli 16.67 18.31 15.35 28.99 17.83
Fruits 5.31 5.59 6.69 9.48 6.22
Sugar 37.64 39.62 30.87 42.78 36.50

52.07 46.32 99.97 121.10 71.69
Milk
2119 1951 2097 3112 2127
Total
Considering all farms per capita per day calorie intake from rice was observed to be 1561
K cal. which was about 73 percent of the total energy intake.
43
C hapter 7
FACTORS INFLUENCING HOUSEHOLD INCOME AND FOOD
SECURITY
7.1 Introduction
Household income comes from different sources and different members of family who
remain engaged in income generating activities. The household incomes were influenced
by different factors. Consumption pattern (CP) differs among different categories of
households. This difference of consumption patterns vary in different ways like amount of
food, quality of food, choice of food. etc. A significant number of factors influence the
consumption pattern of households and it is necessary to find out the factors and its
contribution to consumption pattern of farm households.
7.2 Selection of the Model
Various functional models can be used in multiple regression analysis. Functional analysis
was used to reveal the quantitative relationships between dependent variables and set of
explanatory variables (Gujarati. 2003 and Koutsoyinnis, 2002). To determine the effects of
the explanatory variables, linear and log linear model were initially estimated for
household income and per capita consumption. Ihe log linear model was better in terms of
expected signs and magnitudes of the coefficient, R (adjusted) and F- values. So the
parameter estimates obtained from log linear model were selected for interpretation.
7.3 S p e c i f i c a t i o n a n d M e a s u r e m e n t o f V a r i u h l e f a c t o r s
simple as possible.
The multiple regression function was specified as follows.
Y = f(X ,.X 2.X3.X4.Xj.X*)
44
C hapter 7
FACTORS INFLUENCING HOUSEHOLD INCOME AND FOOD
SECURITY
7.1 Introduction
Household income comes from different sources and different members of family who
remain engaged in income generating activities. The household incomes were influenced
by different factors. Consumption pattern (CP) differs among different categories of
households. This difference of consumption patterns vary in different ways like amount of
food, quality of food, choice of food. etc. A significant number of factors influence the
consumption pattern of households and it is necessary to find out the factors and its
contribution to consumption pattern of farm households.
7.2 Selection of the Model
Various functional models can be used in multiple regression analysis. Functional analysis
was used to reveal the quantitative relationships between dependent variables and set of
explanatory variables (Gujarati, 2003 and Koulsoyinnis, 2002). To determine the effects of
the explanatory variables, linear and log linear model were initially estimated for
household income and per capita consumption, rhe log linear model was better in terms of
expected signs and magnitudes of the coefficient, R' (adjusted) and F- values. So the
parameter estimates obtained from log linear model were selected for interpretation.
7.3 Sp ecificatio n and M easu rem en t of V aria b le fa c to rs
simple as possible.
The multiple regression function was specified as follows.
Y = f(X,.X2.X3.X4.X5.X«)
44
Household income
Y = aX|bl X2b2 X3bJ X a" X5b5 X*”6 eu
InY = b|lnXh + b2lnX2l + bjInXj, + b4lnX4l + bdnX5i + b6lnX,,i + Ui
Where,
Y = Household income (Tk/year)
X| = Non farm income (Tk /year)
X2 = Production of non cereal crops (Kg/year)
X3 = Production of cereal crops (Kg/year)
Xj = Cultivated land (Decimal)
X3 = Family size (No.)
ln=Natural logarithm
a = Intercept
(b|.... b6)= Coefficients of respective variables and
Ui = Error term
Per capita consumption

Y = aX|bl X2b2 X3b3 X4 M X5bS e11
lnY = lna+b,lnXh + b^nX* + b,lnX3l + b4lnX4 , + bdnXd + Ui
Where,
Y = Per capita consumption (Tk/year)
X, = Production of cereal crops per capita (kg/year)
Xi Cultivated land (Decimal)
X3 = Family size
Xj = Per capita expenditure (Tk/year)
45
a = Intercept
In-natural logarithm.
(b|-b5) Coefficients of respective variables and
Ui = Error term
In = Natural logarithm
a "Intercept
(b|-b6) =C'oefTicients of respective variables and

Ui = Error term
7.4 Factors Influencing Household Income- Interpretations of the results
Different (actors such as amount of crop produced, size of cultivable land, family size,
education level of household head, no-farm income and involvement in subsidiary
occupations were considered for influencing household income.
From the Table 7.1 it appears that the value of adjusted R 2 was 0.68 indicating that after
taking into account the degree of freedom (df) 68 percent of the variation in the dependent
variable explained by the 6 explanatory variables included in the model.
The measures of the overall significance of the estimated regression F value was 22.25 and
it was significant at 1 percent level implying that all the explanatory variables are
important for explaining the variation of the dependent variable.
7.4.1 Non-farm income (Xi)

The coefficient of non-farm income shows that non-farm income had a significant
contribution to increase total household income of larm households. The coefficient ot

non-farm income was 0.036 and significant at less than 1 percent level indicates that
household income might increase 0.036 percent if non-farm income was increased by 1
percent in the study areas ( I able 7.1).
7.4.2 Production of non cereal crops (X2)

The estimated regression coefficient for production of non cereal crops in the household
was 0.470 which was significant at 5 percent level (Table 7.1). It indicates that keeping
46
other variables constant, 1 percent increase of crop production would help increase 0.47
percent of household income. Households produced more crops had higher household
income in the study areas. By producing more cereal crops farmers increased their
household income.
I able 7.1 Estimated values ol coefficients and related statistics of household income
Factors Coefficients Std. Error t-value Sip

Constant 3.764 1.479 2.55 0.014
Non-farm income (Tk/year) 0.036' 0.009 4.09 0.000
m _______________________
Production of non cereal crops 0.470" 0.229 2.06 0.045
(Kg/year) (X j )
Production of cereal crops 0.534' 0.116 4.612 0.000
(Kg/year) (X3)
Cultivated land (Decimal) (X«) 0.033 0.137 0.245 0.808
Family size (Number) (X<) -0.082 0.265 -0.309 0.750
Education of household head -0.033" 0.014 -2.350 0.023
(year of schooling) (X6)
F-value 22.25*•
R square 0.716
Adjusted R square 0.684
N ote:
* Significant at I percent level of confidence
•• Significant at 5 percent level of confidence
7.4 J Production of cereal crops (Xj)

The value of the coefficient of cereal crops produced was 0.53 which was significant at I
percent level. It indicates that 1 percent increase of cereal crops production of household
will increase 0.53 percent of total household income (lable 7.1). It is significant and
cereal crops production had positive contribution to increase total household income.
7.4 .4 A r e a o f c u l t i v a t e d l a n d (X»)
The coefficient of area of cultivated land shows the weak relationship between area of
cultivable land and annual household income. Il indicates that larger area of cultivated
land was not the dominant contributor to increase total household income.
47
7.4.4.1 Family size (X*)
I here was no significant impact of family size on total household income in the study
areas. The relationship between family size and household income was not statistically
significant.
7.4.5 Education of household head
17ie coefficient ol the education level ol household head was -0.033. standard error was
0.014 which was statistically significant at 5 percent level. The coefficient of the education
level of household head indicates the poor educated vegetables cum rice producers
comparatively earned more income.
7.5 Factors Influencing Household Food Security - Interpretation of the results
Different factors such as amount of cereal crop production, per capita household
expenditure, area of cultivable land, family size and education level of household head
were considered which may influence the household food security.
From the Table 7.2. the value of adjusted R 2 was 0.56 indicating that after taking into
account the degree of freedom (df) 56 percent of variation in the per capita consumption
explained by the production of cereal crops, per capita household expenditure, are of
cultivable land, family size and education of household head.
The measures of the overall significance of the estimated regression F value was 15.72
obviously highly significant at less than 1 percent level implying that all the explanatory
variables are important for explaining the variation of the per capita consumption. I he
factors which influence the household food security described bellow under respective
heads.
7.5.1 Production of cereal crops (X|)
There was direct relationship of per capita food consumption with amount of cereal crops
produced by alternate rice and vegetables producing households. The coefficient of cereal
crops production was 0.34 which was statistically significant at less than 1 percent level. It
indicates that per capita consumption may increase by 0.34 percent if production of cereal
48
7.4.4.1 Family size (X<)
rhere was no significant impact ol family size on total household income in the study
significant.
7.4.5 Education of household head
I he coefficient of the education level of household head was -0.033. standard error was
0.014 which was statistically significant at 5 percent level. The coefficient of the education
level of household head indicates the poor educated vegetables cum rice producers
comparatively earned more income.
7.5 Factors Influencing Household Food Security - Interpretation of the results
Different factors such as amount of cereal crop production, per capita household
expenditure, area of cultivable land, family size and education level of household head
were considered which may influence the household food security.
From the Table 7.2. the value of adjusted R 2 was 0.56 indicating that after taking into
account the degree of freedom (df) 56 percent of variation in the per capita consumption
explained by the production of cereal crops, per capita household expenditure, are of
cultivable land, family size and education of household head.
The measures of the overall significance of the estimated regression F value was 15.72
obviously highly significant at less than 1 percent level implying that all the explanatory
variables are important for explaining the variation of the per capita consumption. The
factors which influence the household food security described bellow under respective
heads.
7.5.1 Production of cereal crops (X|)
crops production was 0.34 which was statistically significant at less than I percent level. It
48
crops increased by I percent. To increase the per capita consumption farmers could
increase the production of cereal crops in the study area.
7.5.2 Cultivated land (X2)
The estimated regression coefricient of cultivated land was 0.299 which is significant at 10
percent level. It indicates that keeping other variables constant, one percent increase of
cultivated land of tarm household would result to increase the per capita consumption by
0.299 percent. Large area of cultivable land may encourage the farmers to produce more
crops which may help increase per capita consumption ( I able 7.2).
7.5J Family size (Xj)
Hie estimated regression coefficient of family size showed negative value and it was
-1.098 which was significant at 1 percent level. It indicates that keeping other variable
constant, increase number of family members would help to decrease in per capita
consumption by 1.099 percent. The data confirms that more number of family members
decrease the household food security.
Table 7.2 Estimated values of coefficients and related statistics of household per capita
consumption.
Factors Coefficients Std. Error t-value Sig.
Constant 7.686 2.043 3.76 0.000

(Kg/year) (X|)
Cultivated land (Decimal) (X2) 0.299"' 0.155 1.92 0.060
Family size (Number) (Xi) -1.098 0.231 -4.76 0.000
Education of household head -0.006 0.015 -0.379 0.706

(yem of schooling) (X4 )
Per capita expenditure (kg/mon) -0.294 0.218 -1.347 0.184
1(Xs) --------- ---

F-value 15.72'
R s |u « e 0.59
Note:
* Significant at 1 percent level of confidence
*** Significant at 10 percent level of confidence
49
crops increased by I percent. To increase the per capita consumption farmers could
7.5.2 Cultivated land (X2)
The estimated regression coefficient of cultivated land was 0.299 which is significant at 10
percent level. It indicates that keeping other variables constant, one percent increase of
cultivated land of farm household would result to increase the per capita consumption by
crops which may help increase per capita consumption t fable 7.2).
7.5J Family size (Xj)
The estimated regression coefficient of family size showed negative value and it was
-1.098 which was significant at I percent level. It indicates that keeping other variable
constant, increase number of family members would help to decrease in per capita
consumption by 1.099 percent. Die data confirms that more number of family members
decrease the household food security.
Table 7.2 Estimated values of coefficients and related statistics of household per capita
consumption.
Factors Coefficients Std. Error t-value Sig.
Constant 7.686 2.043 3.76 0.000

(Kg/ycar) (X|)
Cultivated land (Decimal) (X2) 0.299” ' 0.155 1.92 0.060
Family size (Number) (Xj) -1.098' 0.231 -4.76 0.000
Education of household head -0.006 0.015 -0.379 0.706

(year of schooling) (X«)
Per capita expenditure (kg/mon) -0.294 0.218 -1.347 0.184
(XO
F-value 15.72'
R . aunre 0.59
Note:
* Significant at I percent level of confidence
•** Significant at 10 percent level of confidence
49
7.5.4 Education level of household head (X*)
The coefficient of education level indicates that there was no significant relationship
between education level of household head and per capita consumption of farm.
7.53.1 Per capita expenditure (Xj)
There was no direct relationship between per capita consumption and food intake.
50
Chapter 8
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS
8.1 Introduction
This chapter attempts to summarize the major findings of the study. Section 8.2 presents a
summary ot the major findings of the study, conclusions and policy recommendations of
the study are given in Sections 8.3 and 8.4. respectively.
8.2 Summary
Bangladesh is one of the densely populated countries in the world. The challenge to
maintain food-population balance is great because practically all cultivable land is in use.
The pressure of increasing population reduced the average size of farm holding from 1.70
to 1.48 acres in the period 1996-2005. About 20 percent of the rural households have no
cultivable land and another 38 percent have less than 0.5 acre.
Agriculture is the foundation of Bangladesh economy and rice is the main food item for
the people of the country. Rice alone cannot solve the demand for balanced diet.
Nutritional deficiency is a very serious problem of the people of Bangladesh today. Rice
and vegetables are important crops in Bangladesh. Rice is a staple food whereas
vegetables are used as curry. Vegetables are widely cultivated in different regions of
Bangladesh along with rice production. The demand for rice and vegetables is increasing
in Bangladesh. Rice supplies more carbohydrate in combination with many other items of
food and on the other hand, vegetables supplies more nutrition. Vegetables are the sources
of Vitamin A, Vitamin C, carbohydrates, niacin, riboflavin, calcium, iron and minerals.
They provide dietary fibre necessary for digestion and health and curing nutritional
disorders. Vegetables arc considered to be protective food. Hence, vegetables constitute
essential part of balance diet.
The specific objectives to the study were as follows:

1. To docum ent the sociodem ographic profile o f alternate rice and vegetables
producing farm households.

2. I o determ ine the costs and returns ol producing rice and vegetables.
51
3. To determine the food consumption and nutritional status of the targeted farm
households.
4. To examine the (actors influencing the farm income and food security of the farm
households
5. To suggest the policy implications.
Hie area selected for the study covered two villages namely Boyra and Batlala Bazar in
Mymensingh district. Required data were collected by direct interview method. The
collected data were summarized, tabulated and analyzed according to the objectives of the
study. For conducting the present study, the selected farmers were 60, of which 20
marginal farmers. 19 small farmers, 17 medium farmers and 4 large farmers were selected.
In studying socioeconomic characteristics, age distribution, educational status, occupation

and farm size were considered. It was found that the age group above 25 to 45 years was
the largest group in all the cases. Out of 60 fanners 48.33 percent farmers were illiterate
and only 5 percent farmers were graduate.
In the study area 71.67 percent of the farmers had farming as their only profession.
Considering all farms out of 273 decimal of total land, the farmer owned only 20 decimal
of land for homestead area. A major portion of land was used for producing crops which
increased their food security.
In the production process human labour was the most important factor. On an average per
hectare human labour required for Boro rice. Amon rice. Lady’s finger Cabbage and
White gourd were 228 man days, 152, man days, 430 man days. 350 man days. 330 man
days respectively. The per hectare costs of human labour for Boro rice, Aman rice. Lady's
finger. Cabbage and White gourd were Tk. 27360. Tk. 8240. Tk. 51600. Tk. 42000 and
Tk. 39600 respectively.
In the study area farmers used power tiller. The per hectare power tiller cost of Boro rice
Aman rice. Lady’s finger, Cabbage and White gourd were Tk. 6850. Tk. 6840. I k. 6000.
Tk. 6500 and Tk. 6500 respectively for land preparation. Per hectare total costs of
52
seed/seedlings of Boro rice, Aman rice. Lady’s finger cabbage and white ground were Tk.
1200, Tk. 10800, Tk. 300, Tk. 19.000 and Tk.2400, respectively.
Per hectare gross cost of Boro rice. Aman rice. Lady’s finger. Cabbage and White gourd
were Tk. 58919. Tk. 36744. Tk. 93102, Tk. 102360 and Tk. 101000. respectively.
Per hectare gross return of Boro rice. Aman rice. I.adys finger. Cabbage and White gourd
amounted Tk. 82,500 Tk. 40.640. Tk. 180.000. Tk. 192.000 and Tk. 200.000. nspectively
and their estimated net return were found to be Tk. 23589 Tk. 3896, Tk. 86898. Tk. 89640
and Tk. 99000, respectively. Undiscounted benefit cost ratio of Boro rice, Aman rice.
Lady's finger. Cabbage and White gourd production per hectare came out to be 1.40. 1.11.
1.87 and 1.98 respectively.
The daily per capita food intake was 982 gms. 977gms. 1107 gms and 1566 gms for
marginal, small, medium and large farm households respectively. The daily per capita
food intakes for the member of large households were higher than those of the marginal,
small, medium farm households.
The caloric intake was the highest for the m em bers o f large farm households which was
3112 k.cal. Average daily per capita calorie intake was 2119 k.cal 1951 k.cal. 2097 k.cal
for marginal, small and medium farm households.
Results of empirical analysis reveal that among the six independent variables, t namely
production cereal crops, production of non cereal crops, family size, cultivable land.
education of household head and non farm income. The value of adjusted /?' was 0.68 in
case of household income function. This indicates that 68 percent of the variation in the
dependent variable explained by the 6 explanatory variables included in the model. The
measures of the overall significance of the estimated regression F value was 22.25 and it
was significant at 1 percent level implying that all the explanatory variables are important
for explaining the variation of the dependent variable.
Ihe coefficient of non-farm income shows that non-farm income had a significant
contribution to increase total household income of farm households. I"he coefficient of
non-farm income was 0.036 and significant at less than 1 percent level indicates that
53
household income might increase by 0.036 percent if non-larm income was increased by I
percent in the study areas.
The estimated regression coefficient for production of non cereal crops in the household
was 0.470 which was significant at 5 percent level (Table 7.1). It indicates that keeping
other variables constant, 1 percent increase of crop production would help increase 0.47
percent ol household income. Households produced more crops had higher household
income in the study areas. By producing more cereal crops farmers had increased their
household income.
The value of the coefficient of cereal crops produced was 0.53 which was significant at I
percent level. It indicates that I percent increase of cereal crops production of household
will increase 0.53 percent of total household income (Table 7.1). It is significant and
cereal crops production had positive contribution to increase total household income.
The coefficient of area of cultivable land shows the weak relationship between area of
cultivable land and annual household income. It indicates that larger are of cultivable land
was not the dominant contributor to increase total household income.
There was no significant impact of family size on total household income in the study
significant.
The coefficient o f the education level o f household head was -0.033. standard error was
0.014 which was statistically significant at 5 percent level. The coefficient o f the education
level o f household head indicates the poor educated vegetables cum rice producers
com paratively earned m ore income.
The value of adjusted R 2 was 0.56 in case of household food security. I his indicates that
56 percent of the variation in the dependent variable explained by the 5 explanatory
variables included in the model. The measures of the overall significance of the estimated
regression F value was 15.72 and it was significant at I percent level implying that all the
explanatory variables are important for explaining the variation of the dependent variable.
54
crops production was 0.34 which was statistically significant at less than I percent level. It
crops increased by 1 percent, lo increase the per capita consumption farmers could
The estimated regression coefficient of cultivated land was 0.299 which was significant at
10 percent level. It indicates that keeping other variables constant, one percent increase of
cultivated land of farm household would result to increase the per capita consumption by
crops which may help increase per capita consumption (Table 7.2).
The estimated regression coefficient of family size showed negative value and it was
1.098 which was significant at I percent level. It indicates that keeping other variable
constant, higher the number of family members would help to decrease in per capita
consumption. The data confirms that more number of family members decrease the
household food security.
The coefficient of education level indicates that there was no significant relationship
between education level of household head and per capita consumption of farm.
There was no direct relationship between per capita consumption and food intake.
8 J Conclusion
The farmers earned higher profit from vegetables compared to other crops. Considering
food security average daily per capita calorie intake was higher for the member of large
farm household than those of other categories of farmers. Non-farm income, production of
crops and education of household head were the significant factors to increase household
income. On the other hand, cereal crops, cultivated land and family size had significant
effect to increased per capita consumption for the members of farm households. It was
observed that alternate rice and vegetables production were profitable and it could
generate income earnings and employment opportunity to the rural people of Bangladesh.
55
8.3 Policy Recommendations
Based on findings of the study, following recommendations were made:
• Policy makers and extension workers should take all possible steps to
encourage farmers to introduce alternate rice and vegetables production where
this pattern is feasible.
• Government should provide all possible help to supply required inputs and
other necessary support to the farmers to produce more vegetables rather than
cereal crops.
56
8.3 Policy Recommendations
Rased on findings of the study, following recommendations were made:
• Policy makers and extension workers should take all possible steps to
encourage farmers to introduce alternate rice and vegetables production where
this pattern is feasible.
• Government should provide all possible help to supply required inputs and
other necessary support to the farmers to produce more vegetables rather than
cereal crops.
56
r efer en c es
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in a selected area of Comilla district M S. (in Ag. Econ.) Thesis. Bangladesh
Agricultural University, Mymensingh.
Akhter, F., (2006), Economics ot some selected winter vegetables production in an area of
Trishal upazila in Mymensingh district. M.S. (in Ag, Econ.) Thesis, Bangladesh
Agricultural University, Mymensingh.
Ali, H. (2000). Impact of land tenurial arrangements on costs, returns and household
income of paddy growing farmers of sadar upazila in Mymensingh district. M.S.
Ag. Econ. Thesis, Bangladesh Agricultural University. Mymensingh.
BBS, (2005), Statistical Pocket Book of Bangladesh. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics,

Statistical Division. Ministry of Planning. Government of the People's Republic of
Bangladesh. Dhaka.
BBS, (2006). Statistical Pocket Book of Bangladesh. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics,

Statistical Division. Ministry of Planning, Government of the People’s Republic of
Bangladesh, Dhaka.
BBS. (2006).. Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics.

Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh. Dhaka.
BER (2006), Bangladesh Economic Review (Bl R). Ministry of Finance. Government of
the Peoples Kcbublics of Bangladesh.
BER (2008), Bangladesh Economic Review (BER). Ministry of Finance. Government of

the Peoples Rebublics of Bangladesh.
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AN ECONOMIC STUDY OF ALTERNATE RICE AND

VEGETABLES PRODUCTION IN SELECTED

MST. SH AH NAZ PARVIN

MASTER OF SCIENCE (M.S.)

DEPARTM ENT OF A G R I C U L T U R E ECONOMICS

NOVEM BER 2008

Exam ination Roll No. 07 Ag. Econ. (PE) JJ-13M

Submitted to the Department of Agricultural Economics (Production

MASTER OF SCIENCE (M.S.)

DEPARTM ENT OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS

NOVEM BER 2008

Approved as to the style and content 6y:

(Prof. Dr. M. Serajul Islam) (Prof. Dr. Md. Akteruzzaman)

(Prof. Dr. M. Harun-Ar Rashid)

Exam ination Roll No. 07 Ag. Econ. (PE) JJ-13M

Approved as to the style and content by:

(Prof. Dr. M. Serajul Islam) (Prof. Dr. Md. Akteruzzaman)

(Prof. Dr. M. Harun-Ar Rashid)

supreme ruler o f the unnerse, who enabled me to complete the thesis.

I w o u ld (the to acknowledge the untiring inspiration, encouragement and in valuable guidance

provided by my respected teacher a n d supervisor (Professor (Dr. M. Serajul Islam, ‘Department o f

A gricultural‘Economic, ‘Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh. ‘H is scholastic criticism,

research were instrum ental fo r the successful completion o f this study.

I am highly indebted to my respected teacher a n d co-supervisor professor ‘Dr. M d AKteruzzaman,

(Department o f A gricultural (Economics. ‘Bangladesh Agricultural University, ‘M ymensingh, f o r his

1 w o u ld (the to express my deepest gratitude to (Dr. M. Harun-Ar (Rflshid, (Professor a n d Head,

Department o f Agricultural (Economics <Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh f o r his

kjnd-hearted help a n d advice in completing the thesis.

I f e e l happy to express sincere gratitude to (Professor (Dr. M .A ■Sattar MandaC Vice-chancellor,

(Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, (Professor M d T ofazzalH ossam Miah, (Dean

‘Kjiandafyr Md. M ostafizur (Rphman, (Department o f Agricultural Statistics f o r their constant

encouragement a n d valuable suggestions fo r completing this thesis timely.

pattern an d its impact on fo o d security f o r farm household in (Bangladesh"

suggestion f o r completing the thesis.

operation, inspiration a n d affectionate feeling f o r the successful completion o f my study.

1 am also grateful to the M inistry o f Science and Information a n d Communicatum Technology,

government o f (Bangladesh f o r granting a !NSICT (Fellowship to undertake this research program.

fo r theirfinancial support, patience help, inspirations, encouragement a n d endless love to complete

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

1.2 Importance o f Rice and Vegetables Production 2

1.2.2 Importance o f vegetables 3

1.2.2.3 Employment opportunity 4

1.3.3 White gourd 9

1.4 Changing Land Use Pattern and Food Security 9

1.5 Justification of the Study 10

1.6 Objectives o f the Study 11

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

3.4 Selection o f Sample and Sampling Technique 18

3.5 Preparation o f Interview Schedule and Pre-testing 19

3.6 Data Collection and Used FAO Project Data 19

3.7.1 Tabular analysis 20

3.7.2 Statistical analysis 20

4 SOCIOECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 22

4.2 Age Distribution o f the Selected Farmers 22

4.3 Education Level o f Sample farmers 23

4.4 Main Occupation o f the Farmers 23

4.5 Family Size and Age Distribution o f Household 25

Members of the Farm Families

4.6 Dependency Ratio 25

4.7 Size o f Holding and I cnurial Arrangement 26

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

5 COST AND RETURNS OF PRODUCING 27