LECTURE 1:

INTRODUCTION

Lubrication : To reduce friction & wear
 What is Tribology ?
What is Tribology
– TRIBOS (Greek word) = RUBBING (English word)
TRIBOS (Greek word) RUBBING (English word)
– triboLOGY (term coined in 1966) = Science of 
Rubbing
– A science that deals with friction, lubrication and 
A science that deals with friction lubrication and
wear in all contacting pairs.
– Tribological knowledge helps to Improve service 
life safety and reliability of interacting machine
life, safety and reliability of interacting machine 
components; and yields substantial economic 
b
benefits.
fi
Few Examples requiring tribological knowledge

Adh i wear
Adhesive

Carbon Graphite Seal

Example 2: Cam
Example 2: Cam

Pitting wear of cam surface

 Ex: Journal Bearings
Ex: Journal Bearings

Abrasive Wear Rubbing Wear

Ex: Magnetic Bearing
Ex: Magnetic Bearing
Wear scar

Wear scar due to edge loading

Ex: Multi row Roller Bearing
Ex: Multi‐row Roller Bearing

. 

Failure of large size roller bearing

 Pit

Pit on gear surface

Studyy of fluid Film bearings,

g rolling
g element
bearings, seals, gears, cams, and brakes are
some of the applications in which lubrication
play key role.
 HISTORY of TRIBOLOGY
• September 1964 -- Conference on Lubrication in
Iron and Steel Works in Cardiff ((UK)) : Realization of
considerable losses due to lack of knowledge
related friction and wear of machine components.
• Formation of committee by UK Minister of State for
science to investigate
g the q
questions of lubrication
education, research and need of industry.
• Conclusions of Committee: Interdisciplinary
approach embracing solid & fluid mechanics,
chemistry,
y and material science is essential to
address lubrication related problems. New name
“Tribology” was coined in 1966.
 HISTORY of TRIBOLOGY
HISTORY of TRIBOLOGY
• After 1966, the word “Tribology” has been used for
– Basic mechanisms governing interfacial behavior.
– Basic theories quantifying interfacial mechanisms.
– Solutions to important friction and wear problems.
• 1981: Development of “Scanning tunneling
microscope” and systematic theory based on
microscope
“Contact mechanics”.
• 1985: Development of Atomic Force Microscope
– Measurement of surface topography & friction force
of all engineering
g g surfaces.
– Studies of adhesion, scratching, wear, lubrication,
surface temperatures and measurements of
elastic/plastic mechanical properties
properties.
 Various disciplines in Tribology
• Solid Mechanics: Focus is on
expressions
i off contact
t t stresses
t and
d
surface temperatures due to sliding.
• Fluid
Fl id Mechanics
Mechanics: StudySt d of lubricant
l bricant
film formed between various
geometric shapes of sliding surfaces
surfaces.
• Material Science: Focus is on atomic
and micro scales mechanisms
whereby solid surface degradation or
alteration occurs during relative
motion.
• Chemistry: Deals with reactivity
b t
between llubricants
bi t andd solid
lid
surfaces. 11
 Solid Mechanics Æ TRIBOLOGY
Solid Mechanics Æ
• Response of solid material to applied force
force.
– Elastic, Viscoelastic and Plastic materials.
• Storage & Loss modulus
– Hertzian contact pressure.
– Surface
S f roughness
h anddRReall area off contact
t t
between surfaces.
– Behavior
B h i modelingd li off thi
thin llayer coatings
ti h
having
i
different elastic properties than the substrate.
– Heat
H t source and dhheatt conduction
d ti equations.ti
– Theories related to crack nucleation, crack
propagation,
ti and d delamination.
d l i ti
 Fluid Mechanics Æ TRIBOLOGY
Fluid Mechanics Æ
• Hydrodynamic,
y y aerodynamic,
y
hydrostatic, and aerostatic
theories of fluid film lubrication.
• Theories related to convective
heat transfer.
• Rheological
g behavior of liquid
q to
semi-solids.
• Boundary, mixed and
Elastohydrodynamic lubrication
mechanisms.
• Viscosity thinning and thickening
effects.
• Mathematical modeling of thin
l bi
lubricant t fil
film.
 Material Science Æ Tribology
Material Science Æ
• Surface hardening/treatment.
• Development of high/low
temperature coatings to provide
non-stick surfaces in molds and
dies, gears, bearings and military
weapons.
weapons
• Manufacturing processes to apply
nanometer to micrometer thick
coating on various materials
(material compatibility).
• Modeling of thin and thick
coatings.
 Chemistry Æ TRIBOLOGY
Chemistry Æ
• Synthesis of additives:
– Antiwear additives
– Extreme Pressure additives
• Compatibility of lubricants with process fluids
and contacting surfaces.
• Shelf life of lubricant and its additives.
• Performance of lubricant layer as a function of
temperature, sliding, etc.
• Optimizing concentration of lubricant additives
• Covalent, metallic and Van der Waal bonds.
 Lecture Plan
Lecture Plan
• Lecture 2: INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH &
ECONOMIC BENEFITS.
• Lecture 3: FRICTION
• Lecture 4: FRICTION ESTIMATION
• Lecture 5: FRICTION INSTABILITY
• Lecture 6: WEAR
• Lecture 7: ADHESIVE WEAR
• Lecture 8
8-9:
9: WEAR MECHANISMS
• Lecture 10: WEAR ANALYSIS
Lecture Plan…
• Lecture 11: Lubrication and Lubricants
• L t
Lecture 12: Boundary Lubrication
• Lecture 13: Lubrication Mechanisms
• Lecture 14: Hydrodynamic Lubrication
• Lecture 15: Lubricant Classification
• Lecture 16: Solid & Semi-Solid Lubricants
• Lecture 17: Liquid Lubricants
• Lecture 18: LUBRICANT ADDITIVES
• Lecture 19: Fluid Film Lubrication
• Lecture 20: Reynolds’ Equation
Lecture Plan…
• Lecture 21: SOLUTION OF Reynolds’ Equation
• Lecture 22: HYBRID SOLUTION APPROACH
to solve Reynolds’ Equation
• Lecture 23: FINITE DIFFERENCE METHOD
to solve Reynolds’ Equation
• Lecture 24: VISCOSITY VARIATION
• L t
Lecture 25:
25 ELASTO-HYDRODYNAMIC LUBRICATION
• Lecture 26: THERMO-HYDRODYNAMIC LUBRICATION
• L t
Lecture 27:
27 APPLICATIONS OF TRIBOLOGY
• Lecture 28-30: ROLLING ELEMENT BEARINGS
• Lecture 31: SELECTION OF ROLLING ELEMENT
BEARINGS
• Lecture 32: FRICTION OF ROLLING ELEMENT BEARINGS
Lecture Plan…
• Lecture 33: BEARING CLEARANCE
• Lecture 34: BEARING LUBRICATION
• Lecture 35: TRIBOLOGY OF GEARS
• Lecture 36-37: FRICTION & LUBRICATION OF GEARS
• Lecture 38: SURFACE FATIGUE OF SPUR GEARS
• Lecture 39: JOURNAL BEARINGS
• Lecture 40: HYDROSTATIC BEARINGS
• Lecture 41: HYDRODYNAMIC JOURNAL BEARINGS
• Lecture 42: DESIGN OF HYDRODYNAMIC JOURNAL
BEARINGS
 TRIBOLOGY

LECTURE 2:
INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH
& ECONOMIC BENEFITS
 Example to demonstrate the role of 
various disciplines in TRIBOLOGY 
• Motion under load
induces stresses:
– breakage/elastic bending
of surface asperities
– plastic deformation ⎛ E′ ⎞ σ
ψ = 0.6⎜ ⎟
(grooving) of soft surface. ⎝H⎠ β
 Role of Elastic Deformation
Role of Elastic Deformation

⎛ E′ ⎞ σ
ψ = 0.6⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ β
H

Fig. Using elasticity to smooth the ride

• Elastically deformed substance fills the irregular surfaces

and provides smooth ride.
• Cyclic loading Æ limiting life
• Roughness
F
stress on smooth surface =
A
F
stress on rough surface =
δA
 Surface Roughness
g
• Surface roughness is vertical deviations from nominal 
surface/line. Larger the deviations, rougher the surface. 

Roughness
changes with
operating time.
Average Roughness (R
g g ( a)
Root Mean Square Roughness (Rq)
Quantification of Surface Roughness
Quantification of Surface Roughness

Ra = ( z1 + z 2 + ... z n −1 + z n ) / n z ( x ) dx
1 l 2
Rq = ∫
l 0
Rq (root mean square) roughness is preferred over Ra
(Average) roughness.

Based on lower value of Rq for second surface, that

surface perform better than first surface.

Segmented surfaces.
surfaces
25
• Dimensionless film Boundary Lubrication

t Λ (“Specific
parameter (“S ifi fil
film Mixed Lubrication
Hydrodynamic Lubrication
thickness)

te
WEAR Rat
hmin
Λ=
2
Rrms ,a + R 2
rms ,b

W
• Boundary lubrication, Λ<1
LOAD/TEMPERATURE
• Mixed lubrication, 1<Λ<3
• Hydrodynamic lubrication,
Λ 5
Λ>5
• Elastohydrodynamic,
3<Λ<5
 Interdisciplinary Approach
Interdisciplinary Approach
• Under boundary lubrication condition material science,
solid
lid mechanics
h i and d chemistry.
h i t
• Under mixed lubrication condition, all four disciplines.
• Under hydrodynamics only fluid mechanics.
• Under elastohydrodynamic lubrication solid and fluids
mechanics.
h i
• Hydrostatic/Aerostatic/Aerodynamic ??
 Economic Benefits
Economic Benefits
• Saving by reducing energy loss due to friction, 
g y g gy ,
loss due to breakdowns, reducing depreciation of 
machinery, 
machinery,
– Jost Report (1966) saving of about £515M/year by 
implementing tribology in UK industry. 
implementing tribology in UK industry
• There are a number of examples (i.e. I.C. engines, 
t b
turbomachinery, gears, cam‐followers, bearings, 
hi f ll b i
seals) where attempts have been made to reduce 
wear and friction to enhance service life and 
reduce loss of energy/materials.
 Economic Benefits: Examples
p

Inside a disk drive, a slider with read/write recording head

flies over a rotating disk.
disk Reduction in spacing between
head sensor & magnetic medium by implementing
tribological guidelines, increases the areal density and
larger data can be stored in relatively smaller space.
 Economic Benefits: Examples
Economic Benefits: Examples
Lubricant between cylinder liner and rings

Combustion
Cylinder liner Approximately
pp y
space
Direction

15% energy is
lost through
n of piston motions

Piston Lubricant f
friction due to
rings injection
holes motion of
pistons valve
pistons,
trains, bearings
Piston
etc.

Piston rod
 Economic Benefits: Examples
Economic Benefits: Examples

Number of Vehicles (in world) > 700 million. Average

power of engine
p g ≅ 30 BHP. If we assume 2%
improvement in BHP, then 420 million HP can be saved.
 Economic Benefits: Examples
Economic Benefits: Examples
• Average Iron and Steel industry
allots Rs. 3-5 million for
maintenance / Replacement of
b i
bearings.
• A rough estimation indicates that
10% percent of bearing life can be
improved by better lubricant,
lubricant additive,, proper
p p bearing g
installation.
• Implementation of tribological
knowledge in iron and steel
industries of INDIA can save 3 to 5
million rupees per year
year.
 Economic Benefits
Economic Benefits
Success u implementation
Successful p e e tat o o
of ttribological
bo og ca knowledge
o edge in
INDIA can save 1 to 1.5% of GNP ($ 3.4 Trillion) Æ Rs.
1500 million.

If 50% of this cost needs to be invested in unsuccessful

trials and fruitless hypotheses,
hypotheses still INDIA will gain from
practicing tribology.
 Some Typical Values of Coefficient of
Friction for Metals sliding on themselves
M t l Sliding
Metals Slidi on themselves
th l µ
Aluminum 1.5
Copper 15
1.5
Copper((oxide film not penetrated) 0.5
Gold 2.5
Iron 12
1.2
Platinum 3
Silver 1.5
St l( ild steel)
Steel(mild t l) 08
0.8
Steel(tool steel) 0.4

Observations:
1. μ > 1.0
2 Mild steel vs Tool steel
2.
3. μ depends on environment.
Coefficient of friction for various Metals

Observations:
1 Under dry lubricant
1.
conditions, μ ranges
between 0.1 to 1.0 for
most of the materials.
2. Very thin lubrication
reduces
d coefficient
ffi i b
by 10
times.
Comparison
p among
g various Material Pairs

Observation:
Ob i Si il materials
Similar i l hhave hi
higher
h tendency
d
of adhesion.
 Static & Kinetic Friction
Static & Kinetic Friction
μ for wood-on-wood reported
μ = 0.5 in various articles.

60
N)
on Force (N

50
40
30
Fricito

20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100

Applied Force (N)
Difference between the static and
kinetic friction may initiate ‘stick-slip’.
 Observations
1. μ > 1.0.
1 10
2. μ depends on environment, hardness, and
chemical composition
composition.
3. Very thin and thick lubrications reduce μ by 10
and 100 times
times, respectively
respectively.
4. Tribo-pair consisting of similar materials have
higher tendency of μ.
5. Difference between μ may initiate friction
instability.
y

Th
There is
i a need
d to
t understand
d t d science
i off friction.
f i ti
 Dry
y FRICTION

¾ Leonardo da vinci(Earliest experimenter, 1452-

1519):
¾ “Friction made by same weight will be of equal
resistance at the beginning of movement, although
contact
t t may beb off different
diff t breadths th” F ≠ A
b dth or length”.
l
¾ “Friction produces the double the amount of effort if
weight be doubled”.
doubled” F α W
¾ G.Amontons, 1699:
¾ Rediscovered Leonardo da vinci laws. F ≠ A; Fα N
¾ μ = 0.3 for most of materials.
¾C.A.Coulomb 1781 (1736-1806):
1)Clearly distinguished between static & kinetic friction
2)Contact at discrete points. μ static ≥ μ kinetic
3)Friction due to interlocking of rough surfaces

4)f ≠ func(A)
5)f ≠ func(v)
f ( )
TOMLINSON’s Theory of Molecular attraction:
1929
• Relation between friction coefficient & elastic properties
of material involved.
f = 1 . 07 * [θ I +θ II ]2 / 3 E is young modulus, Mpsi
3 . E + 4 .G
θ = G is modulus in shear, Mpsi
G (3 .* E + G )

• Clean Steel E=30 Mpsi, G=12 Mpsi 0.6558

• Aluminum E=10 Mpsi, G=3.6 Mpsi 0.742
• Titanium E=15.5 Mpsi G=6.5 Mpsi 0.5039

• Due to molecular attraction between metal, cold weld

jjunctions are formed.
 Scientific Explanation of Dry Friction
Scientific Explanation of Dry Friction
• Two friction sources
• Deformation a
• Adhesion
• Resulting friction force (F) is
sum of two contributing (Fa &
Fd) terms. Fd

• Lubricated
L b i t d tribo-pair
t ib i case -- ,
negligible adhesion
• Smoother surfaces under
light load conditions –
Negligible deformation.
 ADHESION

Carbon Graphite and Stainless Steel

 Theory of ADHESIVE Friction

• Two surfaces are pressed together under load W.

• Material deforms until area of contact (A) is sufficient to
support load W. A = W/H.
• To move the surface sideway,
sideway must overcome shear strength of
junctions with force Fa Fa = A s

Fa s Observation: Shear strength (s) and Hardness (H)

μa = = of soft material decides the value of μ. This means
W H whatever properties of the other harder pairing
material, μ would not change.
 Theory of ADHESIVE Friction ……
s
• For most of untreated  μ=
materials  H = 3σy & s = σy H
/1.7321 
– Expected value of μ =.2

• Theory is unable to 
estimate different μ for 
steel on indium and steel 
on lead alloy
on lead alloy. 
• Theory related to 
deformation needs to be
deformation needs to be 
explored.
 FRICTION due to DEFORMATION
FRICTION due to DEFORMATION
• Contact between tribo-pairs only
occurs at discrete points.
• Slop of asperities governs the
friction force.
• Harder asperities penetrate into 2 r
th softer
the ft surface.
f
• Assume n conical asperities of hard metal in contact with 
flat soft metal, vertically project area of contact:
(
A = n 0.5 * πr 2 )
W = n(0.5 * πr ) H 2
F = n (rh) H
2
μd = cot θ
π
 Cone Angle vs
g μd
θ μ
5 7.271
7 271 • Generally slopes of real 
y p
10 3.608 surfaces are lesser than 
20 1.748 10° ((i.e. θ> 80°), therefore 
),
30 1.102 μd ≅ 0.1. 
40 0.758
50 0 534
0.534
60 0.367 • Conclusion: Total μ ,
70 0 231
0.231 should not exceed 0
0.3.
3
80 0.112 • Spherical asperity ??
85 0.055
 Ploughing
g g by Spherical Asperity
y p p y
• Vertical projected area of contact
(
A = n 0.5 * πr 2 )
or (
A = n 0.5 * π (0.5 d )
2
)
π d2
or A=n
8
πd 2
W =n H 2hd
8 F =n H
3
2hd 8 16 h 16 h h
μd = = = = 0.6
3πd 2
3π d 3π 8h R R
 Ploughing by Spherical Asperities ………
by Spherical Asperities
h/R (%)
h/R (%) μ
1 0.060
2 0 085
0.085
3 0.104
4 0 120
0.120
5 0.134
• Generally h << R,  
6 0 147
0.147
μd ≅ 0.1. 
therefore μ
7 0.159
8 0 170
0.170 • Conclusion: Total μ ,
9 0.180 should not exceed 0.3.
10 0 190
0.190
 Friction Theories

Adhesion a
s
μa =
H

Deformation by
Conical Asperities
2 h
μd = cotθ = 0.64
π r
Deformation by
Spherical Asperities

h
μ d = 0.6
R
Determining coefficient of friction using
Solid Mechanics --- Junction Growth

δW δF

μδW
δ
W
Fig: Two contacting surfaces
2 σx = 0
σx + σy ⎛ σx − σy ⎞ σ y = δW δA
σ1,2 = ± ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + τ xy
2

2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ τ xy = δF δA
 2
δW ⎛ δW ⎞
δA σ 1 = + ⎜ ⎟ + δF
2
(1)
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
w here σ 1 is first principal stress, and
δ A is elemental area
2
δW ⎛ δW ⎞
δA σ 2 = − ⎜ ⎟ + δF
2
(2)
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
where σ 2 is second principal stress
2
⎛ δW ⎞
δA (σ1 − σ2 ) = 2 ⎜ ⎟ + δF
2

⎝ 2 ⎠
 Junction Growth
If yyield
e d st
strength
e gt oof material
ate a issa d σ y = σ1 − σ 2
and
shear strength
τ y = 0.5σ y
2
⎛ δW ⎞
δA. τ y = ⎜ ⎟ + δF
2
F =f ((A)) ????
⎝ 2 ⎠
Constant
Friction increases area of contact

Area of contact will increase with increasing

friction force, till force reaches its limiting value.
Assume τi is shear stress of fractured interface.
 Limiting Junction Growth
2
Flimiting = τ i A max ⎛ δW ⎞
δA. τ y = ⎜ ⎟ + δF
2

⎝ 2 ⎠
Flimiting 1 0.005
μ= 2

⇒ (A max τ y )
⎛ W ⎞10 0 0502
0.050
= ⎜ ⎟ + (A max τ i )
2
W
⎝ 2 ⎠20 0.102
τ i A max 30 0.157
μ= 40 0.218
2 ( τ y2 − τ i2 )A max
2
50 0.289
τi 05
0.5 60 0.375
μ= = 70 0.490
2 (τ − τ )
2
y
2
⎛ τy ⎞
i
2
80 0.667
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1 90 1 032
1.032
⎝ τi ⎠ 99 3.509
Observation: Ratio of shear strengths decides μ
 How to reduce Junction Growth
• Contamination: A few molecules thick oxide
layer (encountered with metals in air) on the
surface can reduce the friction (i.e. μ = 0.1 to
0 3)
0.3).

Observation : Rough surface (Rq > 0.2 μm) may

damage protective layers.
 Possible situations
• Weak (ductile) metal,
weak oxide
– Film easily broken, rapid
junction growth, and high μ.
Example Indium
Indium, gold
• Weak metal, strong oxide
– Transition from low to high
g
μ as load increases.
Examples: Copper, Iron
• Strong metal
metal, strong
Note: Both Junction
oxide growth and ploughing
– Low μ at all loads. ((two/three)) effects p
play
y
E
Examples:
l St
Strong steel,
t l
role, and either of them
Chromium
may dominated friction
behavior.
 Example
• Determine coefficient of friction between
SMOOTH surfacesf off aluminum
l i and
d steel
t l
metals under dry, oily and solid-lubricated
conditions Assume shear strength of steel
conditions.
as 300 MPa, and shear strength of
aluminum as 100 MPa.
MPa Interface shear
strength of 2MPa, 150 kPa and 50 kPa has
been observed for dry,y, solid-lubricated,,
and oil lubricated conditions respectively.
05
0.5
μ= 50
0.01
2
⎛ τy ⎞ 667 0.00075
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1 2000 0 00025
0.00025
⎝ τi ⎠
 Friction Induced Vibrations (Instability)
Difference between static and kinetic friction
coefficients, initiates a “stick-slip” process.
80
Instantaneous sliding 70
speed of an object 60 00 amp
does not remain close 50 .2amp
2

to rq u e
to the average sliding 40 .4 amp
speed. 30 .6amp

• Vibration- Shock 20
• Braking noise. 10

• Rate of friction force 0

0 200 400 600 800 1000
p
speed
Observation: friction coefficient decreases as velocity increases.
 Friction Induced Vibrations (Instability)
Possible reasons for
stick-slip
ti k li phenomenon:
h
• Interlocking of
asperities during stick
phenomenon
• Adhesion during
g stick
action
• Electrostatic charge
during stick event

To avoid this phenomenon either

• increase operating speed or
• reduce the difference between μs and μk.
 Stiction Case

Unbalance force (static –

dynamic friction force) cause a
sudden acceleration. The
velocity of M increases until the
drive force falls to dynamic
friction force. Eventually M
comes to rest.
Overall stick-slip
p behavior of systems
y depends
p on stiffness,
inertia, damping and magnitude of unbalance force.
Friction force can be modeled in two ways,
((a)) Stiction case and
(b) Negative gradient case
 D
Damped
d vibration
ib ti
d2 x dx
M 2 +C + Kx = 0
dt dt
C K d2 x dx
ζ = ; ωn = ⇒ 2
+ 2 ζ ω n + ω nx = 0
2

2 MK M dt dt

p d,, ζ < 1
Case I : Underdampe
[
x = Ae − ζωn t Sin ωn t 1− ζ 2 + φ ( ) ] ?ζ<0

Case II : Overdamped , ζ > 1

⎛⎜ − ζ + (ζ −1) ⎞⎠⎟ω t
2 ⎛⎜ − ζ − (ζ −1) ⎞⎟⎠ω t
2

x = A 1e + A 2e
n n
⎝ ⎝

Case III : Critical damped, ζ = 1

x = (A 1 + A 2 t )e − ζωn t
 Positive damping

20
Displacement vs time
Negative damping
10

0
displacement

-10

-20

-30

-40
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
time
 Forced damped
p vibrations
d2 x dx
M 2 +C + Kx = F (t )
dt dt
present case external force, F(t ), is friction force.
In the p
Negative
d2 x dx
M 2 +f + kx = −F(t)
() sign
dt dt

Let us assume friction force is represented as

dx
F(t ) = Fs − λ
dt
 Negative gradient case
d2 x dx ⎛ dx ⎞
M 2 +C + Kx = −⎜ Fs − λ ⎟
dt dt ⎝ dt ⎠

d2 x dx
R i g M 2 + (C − λ ) + Kx
Rearrangin K = −Fs
dt dt

If system damping, C, is low and λ is large then

overall negative damping results, and motion may
become instable.
instable

[ ( )
x = Ae − ζωn t Sin ωn t 1− ζ 2 + φ ]
 Friction instability
.8

.6
.4
.2

0
placement
-.2
-.4
-.6
6
disp

-.8
-1
-1.2
-1.4

-1.6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
time

• Increase the system damping

• Lubricate or otherwise form a surface film to
ensure positive friction versus velocity
relationship.
 Defining Wear
Defining Wear
Undesirable removal of material from operating
p g solid
surface.
Zero wear
Measurable wear

Formation of pit
 Effect of clearance on load
700

600

500
1
400
Load ∝ 2

Load
300 Cr
200

100

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 001 R * Factor
0.001

Loss of dimensions, change in clearance values.

3
 Defining Wear
Defining Wear
Removal of material from operating
p g solid surface by:
y
‰ Solid
ƒLoad,, Velocity,
y, Environment,, Materials
‰ Fluid (liquid/gas)
y p
ƒVelocity, pressure, Environment, Materials

Wear increases:
1. Power losses,
2. Oil consumption, and
3. Rate of component replacement
 Wear Mechanisms
• More than 34 mechanisms
• Abrasive Wear
– Polishing, scouring, scratching, grinding, gouging…
• Adhesive
Adh i W Wear
• galling, scuffing, scoring
• Cavitation (interaction with fluid)
• Corrosive Wear (Chemical nature)
• Erosive Wear Wear an be classified based on the ways that
the frictional junctions are broken, that is, elastic
• Fatigue displacement, plastic displacement, cutting,
– Delamination destruction
d t ti off surface
f films
fil and
dddestruction
t ti off
bulk material.
• Fretting Wear

5
 Wear Mechanisms
• More than 35 mechanisms
• Abrasive Wear
– Polishing, scouring, scratching, grinding, gouging…

6
 Wear Mechanisms
In present course
• Abrasive Wear
• Adh i W
Adhesive Wear
• Corrosive Wear
• Erosive Wear
• Fatigue
• Fretting Wear

7
 Abrasive Wear
Abrasive Wear
• Caused by the passage of relatively hard 
particles/asperities over a surface
particles/asperities over a surface. 
– Micro‐cutting:  sharp particle or hard asperity 
cuts the softer surface. Cut material is removed 
as wear debris. 
– Micro‐fracture:  abraded material is brittle, e.g. 
ceramic. Fracture of the worn surface occurs 
i F t f th f
due to merging of a number of smaller  cracks. 
– Micro fatigue: When a ductile material is 
Micro fatigue: When a ductile material is
abraded by a blunt particle/asperity then 
cutting is unlikely and the worn surface is 
repeatedly loaded and unloaded
repeatedly loaded and unloaded.  
– Removal of material grains: Happens in 
materials (i.e. ceramics) having relatively week 
grain boundaries.
 Abrasive Wear
Abrasive Wear
• Two
Two other mechanisms, very similar to 
other mechanisms, very similar to
abrasive wear are:
– Erosive wear:  Impact of particles against a solid 
surface. 
– Cavitation wear: Localized impact of fluid against a 
surface during the collapse of bubbles.
• Two basic modes of abrasive wear are:
– Two body abrasion
b d b
– Three body abrasion
Three body abrasion
 2 Body Abrasion
2 – Body Abrasion
Ex: Polishing by emery paper
• Two interacting asperities in
physical contact, and one of
them is harder than other.
• Normal load causes penetration
of harder asperities into softer
surface thus producing plastic
deformations.
• To slide, the material is
displaced/removed from the
softer surface by combined
action of microploughing &
micro-cutting.

10
 “Rabinowicz’s Quantitative Law for 2
Quantitative Law for 2‐‐B 
B Abrasive Wear
Abrasive Wear

Assume  conical asperities indenting soft 
surface during traverse motion
surface during traverse motion.
Assumed that all the material displaced by the 
cone is lost as wear debris.

• Load
Load carried by nth asperity
Load carried by 
carried by nth asperity
nth asperity
wn = H (0.5 * πa 2 )
• Volume
Volume swept by penetrated asperity: 
swept by penetrated asperity:
Δv = a.x.L x is depth
p of p penetration
or, Δv = a.a / tan α.L L is distance travelled.

or Δv = wn /(0.5 Hπ tan α ).L

or, L
11
 Quantitative
Quantitative Law for 2
Quantitative Law for 2‐
Law for 2‐B Abrasive Wear
B Abrasive Wear
Total wear is sum of the wear caused by individual asperity
n
L ∑ wn
V= i =1
0.5 H π tanα
LW Dependence on:
V=
0.5 H π tanα Normal Load
V 2 W Hardness
Q= = Micro-structure
L π tanα H
W
Q=K
H
 Homogeneous phase
g p
Weear ratte

Heterogeneous phase
Heterogeneous  phase

Harder/Softer
13
 Three Body Abrasion
Three Body Abrasion
• Material
Material removal from softer surface by hard loose 
removal from softer surface by hard loose
particles.
– Lesser sliding distance (< 20%).
Lesser sliding distance (< 20%)
– K2B = 5*10‐3 to 50*10‐3; K3B = 5*10‐4 to 50*10‐4

• Generated locally by oxidation or wear‐out. 
– Iron
Iron oxides wear debris produced during adhesive wear 
oxides wear debris produced during adhesive wear
cause further damage by abrasion
• Clearance
Clearance larger than particle size and filtration reduce 
larger than particle size and filtration reduce
chances.
Shape of Abrasive Particles

Such shape
difference may
result in differences
in wear rate by
factor of ten or
more.

Roundness Factor
4πA
F= 2
P
P = Perimeter

15
Abrasion by M. R. Particles
 Adhesive Wear
Very common in metals.
 Adhesive Wear
• Real area of contact, A = W/H.
For elastic-plastic deformation A = (W/H)n 2/3 < n<1.
Adhesive wear arises from the shearing of the friction
junctions.
• Weaker junction: Shearing occurs in the interface
itself. Mild wear.
• Stronger junction: Shearing will occur a little
distance within
ithin the softer metal.
metal Severe
Se ere wear.
ear

19
 Steps leading to Adhesive Wear
– D
Deformation
f i off contacting
i asperities
ii
– Removal (abrasion) of protective oxide surface film
– Formation of adhesive junctions
junctions. Work hardening of metal
around junction, which than becomes stronger than
cohesion of soft metal.
– Failure
F il off jjunction
ti b by pulling
lli outt llarge lumps
l and
d
transfer of materials
– Modification of transferred fragments.
g
– Removal of transferred fragments and creation of loose
particles
 Steps
p leading
g to Adhesive Wear

Observation:
Ob ti W
Wear may be
b ddefined
fi d as th
the gradual
d l removall off di
discrete
t
particles from a surface as a result of mechanical action.
 Laws of Adhesive Wear
¾ Wear Volume proportional to
sliding Distance of travel (L)
¾ True for wide range of conditions
except where back transfer
occurs.
¾ Wear Volume p
proportional
p to the
load (W)
¾ Dramatic increase beyond
critical load
¾ Wear Volume inversely
proportional to hardness of softer
material

K 1 WL
V = A = (W/H)n
3H
 Archard’s Wear Equation
• Assumptions:
– Contact between two surfaces at asperities
∑ (i )
n
th
– Real area of contact = asperity contact area
i=1

– Local deformation – Plastic deformation

(
δ W = k 1H πa 2 ) δV = k (2 π a /3)
3

( )
2
δV
W = k 1H ∑ πa ( 2
) δv = = k 2 πa 2 /3
2a
v = K 1 W/3H (
v = k 2 ∑ πa 2 /3 )
W L
V = K1
3H
 Understanding of wear constant K1
– K1 = 1. Every junction involved in the friction
process produces a wear fragment
fragment.
– K1 = 0.1. One tenth of the friction junctions
produce
d wear ffragments.
t For
F cleanl gold
ld surfaces
f
K1 is between 0.1 and 1. For clean-copper
surfaces K1 is between 00.1
1 and 0 0.01.
01
• Clean gold surfaces wear about ten times more rapidly
than clean copper
pp surfaces.
– K1 = 10-7 means that of the junctions responsible
for friction onlyy one in ten million produces
p a
wear fragment.
Observation: K1 is a dimensionless constant expresses
the probability of removing a wear particle.
Relation between Coefficient of friction &
Wear constant
Rubbing materials µ K1
Gold on gold 2.5 0.1 to 1
Copper on copper 1.2 0.01 to W
v = K m 1+ μ 2 β
01
0.1 H
Mild steel on mild steel 0.6 0.01
Observation: Three 
B
Brass on hard
h d steel
t l 03
0.3 0 001
0.001 constants compared 
Teflon on hard steel 0.15 2*10-5 to one constant.
Stainless steel on hard 05
0.5 2*10
2 10-55
steel v = K 1W/3H
Tungsten carbide on 0 35
0.35 10-6
tungsten carbide ⎛h⎞
K 1 = 2⎜ ⎟ P
Polythene on hard steel 0.6 10 -7 ⎝l ⎠
 Some experimental observations
• In general K metal −metal > K nonmetal −metal
K metal −metal > K nonmetal −nonmetal

Depends on degree of Tribological

compatibility of two metals

K metal A −metal A > K metal A −metal B

COMPATIBILITY Æ Reluctance of opposing surfaces

to form a strong interfacial bond
Some Guidelines based on Adhesive Wear
• For longer service life or reliability of
devices/machines,, wear behavior must be in mild
regime.
– Choose Dissimilar metals.
– Under constraint of identical metals, choose the
maximum hardness, so no further work hardening is
p
possible.
• If severe wear behavior cannot be avoided, such
as in ore processing or earth moving equipments,
routine maintenance is essential
• Many plastics undergo a transition from mild to
severe wear as a function
f ti off sliding
lidi speed d (th
(thatt
increase temp.) or combination of sliding and
contact pressure.
Example: To find the best material for a dry journal bearing
few tests were conducted on pin on disk machines. Disk
material remained AISI 1040 steel. While pin materials were:
A (225),
(225) B(30),
B(30) C(50),
C(50) D (70),
(70) and E (100)
(100). Find the best
material for following experimental results.

π d4
V = Observation: Maximum d =
64 R 20.mm. Minimum d= 8.81.
W
Wear volume,
l V=k
V k1 W L/3H=πd
L/3H d4/64R
Sliding distance, L = test duration * sliding speed
4
k 1 WL = πd
3H 64R
d 4 .H
H
or, k 12345 =
time * speed * load
K12345
1.8971
2 259
2.259
225 20.5312
0.5301
30
0.5664
50 1.1068
70
100 2.2879
0.9978
 Mild Wear
Mild Adhesive Wear: Small wear fragments (0.01 to
1 μm).
m) Mostly metal oxides
– Low contact pressure (below transition limit) and
sliding
g velocity.
y Formation of black p
powdered oxide.
– At higher velocities. More oxidation replenishes losses
due to break-away of oxide fragment as wear debris.
– At higher loads, a hard surface layer (most likely
martensite) is formed on carbon-steel surfaces
because of high
g flash temperatures,
p , followed by
y rapid
p
quenching as heat is conducted into underlying bulk
 Severe Wear

Severe Adhesive Wear : If load increases, the oxide

film cracks off
off, exposing fresh metal which welds and
wear rate may increase several hundred fold.
– 20 to 200 μm metallic particles
 Seizure
• “to
to bind
bind” or “fasten
fasten together”
together .

¾ Causes:
ƒ Poor heat dissipation
ƒ Poor lubrication or improper
l bi
lubricant.
t
ƒ Smaller Clearance.
ƒ Installation error (Excessive load)
load).

Observation: Excessive loading

& heating govern the Seizure
phenomenon.
Wear
Map
sum of all
the wear
mechanisms
 Corrosive Wear
Chemical reaction + Mechanical action =
Corrosive wear
Corroding medium: chemical reagent, reactive
lubricant or even air.

Iron oxide
z Stages
1. Sliding surfaces chemically interact
with environment (humid/industrial
vapor/Acid)
2. a reaction product (like oxide,
chlorides copper sulphide)
chlorides,
3. Wearing away of reaction product
film.

NOTE: Particles of reaction product may act as abrasive.

 Observation related Corrosive Wear
Observation related Corrosive Wear
Thin corrosive layers
play protective role.
– Growth in thickness
b
becomes liliable
bl ffor
brittle fracture. Soft
debris!!
– High temperatures
enhance surface
energy, thereby
th b
increase thickness.
• EP additives are
designed based on
CWM.
 Erosive Wear
Erosive Wear
• Caused by the impact of particles (solid/liquid)
against a solid surface.
– Dust particles impacting on gas turbine blades.
– Slurry impacting on pump impeller.
• Erosive wear is function of:
– Particles velocity (K.E.),
– impact
i t angle,
l and d
– size of abrasive Ve = K A(α) i(v) M
i(v) = (particle_v
particle vel)
n

n = 2 to 2.5 for metals

n = 2.5 to 3 for ceramics
M = (particle_size)3
 Erosive Wear
Erosive Wear Ve = K A(α
( ) i(v)
( )M
i(v) = (particle_vel)
n

n = 2 to 2.5 for metals

• Angle between eroded n = 2.5
2 5 to
t 3 for
f ceramicsi
surface & trajectory of M = (particle_size)3
particle immediately before
impact.
– low impact angle -- cutting
wear prevails. Hardness
resists wear.
– At large angle, fatigue wear
prevails. Soft (ductile)
material may be suitable.
K is the p
probability
y of wear
particle formation
Ex: Pneumatic Transportation
p : Steel pellets
p
damage (wear out) elbow. Larger speed, lower
life

Ve = K A(α) i(v) M
i(v) = (particle_vel)
n

n = 2 to 2.5 for metals

M = (particle_size)3
 Case study: pneumatic transportation……………………

Use magnetic
U ti or
electromagnetic field for
interaction with object

Conclusion: Magnetic field to provide a

protective layer within pipe elbow and reduces
the value of K
Ex: Engine particle (sand) separator

Filter
 Ex: Engine particle (sand) separator

US Patent 5,139,545

Light weight materials to absorb particle energy.

 Fatigue Wear
• Fatigue
g is attributed to multiple p reversals of
the contact stress.
• Occurs due to cyclic loading:
• Rolling bearings, gears, friction drives, cam &
follower.
follower
• localized fatigue on an asperity scale.

NOTE: Abrasive &

Adhesive wear involve a
large contribution from
fatigue.
 FATIGUE WEAR DURING SLIDING
FATIGUE WEAR DURING SLIDING
• “t”
t depends on the coefficient of friction
friction.
– Grain structure orients parallel to sliding.
– Maximum shear strain at surface
surface.
• Formation of dislocation cells (void formation,
crack nucleation).

Surface
cracks !!
FATIGUE WEAR DURING
SLIDING.....

NOTE: High μ,
μ but low V and low μ,
μ but high V can be
explained.
 Rubbing materials µ K1
Gold on g
gold 2.5 0.1 to 1
Copper on copper 1.2 0.01 to
0.1
Hi h μ,
NOTE: High
NOTE Mild steel on mild steel 0.6 0.01
but low V and
Brass on hard steel 0.3 0.001
low μ,
μ but high V
Teflon on hard steel 0.15 2*10-5
can be
explained.
p Stainless steel on hard 0.5 2*10-5

Planes of steel
weakness. Tungsten carbide on 0.35 10-6
I l i
Inclusions tungsten carbide
Polythene on hard steel 0.6 10 -7
FATIGUE WEAR DURING ROLLING

• Steps leading to generation of

wear particles:
‰ Application of normal load that
induce stresses at contact points
‰ Growth of plastic deformation per
cycle
‰ Subsurface crack nucleation
‰ Expansion of crack due to
reversal of stress
‰ Extension of crack to the surface
due to traction force
‰ Generation of wear particles
 Cracking

¾ Meaning = breaking,
splitting, or snapping apart
¾ Results : Complete failure
¾ Causes : Excessive load
with vibration.
ƒ Loose fit, excessive impacts
p

¾ Solutions
ƒ Correction of fits
ƒ Vibration isolation
 Fretting Wear
¾ FRETTING:
¾ coined in 1927 by
Tomilson
¾ Refers to small (1 to 300

urf 1
μm)) high
μ g frequency
q y

Su
oscillatory movement
mainly originated by Surf 2
vibration
ib ti
¾Occurs in mech. Assemblies
(
(press fit parts,
t rivet
i t / bolt
b lt
joints, strands of wire ropes,
rolling element bearings)
 Fretting Wear
¾ResultsÆ Wear debris of very fine (0.01
to 0.1 μm) particlesÆ Loosening of jointsÆ
increased vibrationÆ accelerated wear
wear.
¾ Identification Æ discoloration of
mating surface
¾ Black color aluminum oxide
¾ Iron oxide:
¾ FeO,, ferrous oxide
¾ Fe3O4 black magnetic
oxide, relatively softer and
quite a good solid lubricant
lubricant.
¾ Fe2O3, red ferric oxide,
Hard and abrasive, “rust”,
cocoa

Some metals,
S t l notably
t bl tit
titanium
i and
d itits alloys,
ll are susceptible
tibl tto
fretting damage. Avoid their usage if fretting is likely.
 CAN ONE ESTIMATES WEAR RATE?

Yes .. By using Wear Equations.

• Quoting Ludema’s words [1991]

“Overall, it is probably accurate to say that there is little
incentive for a designer to use any of the wear-equations
available in the literature.
A scan of many wear models shows considerable
incongruity. Equation have either too many undefined
variables or too few variables to adequately describe the
system”.
Most of available equations are derived/made for
mild wear rate of components
components.

NOTE: To estimate wear Theoretical equations as

well as Experimental coefficients are required.
 Ex: Cam Wear Analysis
Ex: Cam Wear Analysis
• Systematic approach to estimate Pitting Life 
of Cam Follower mechanisms Can it be
of Cam‐Follower mechanisms. Can it be 
operated at higher rotational speed?

2/6/2011 H. HIRANI
 How does pitting failure occur?
How does pitting failure occur?
„ Pitting is a fatigue wear.
Reversible stresses are main
cause of such failure.

3000

2500
Normal load, N

2000

1500

1000

500

0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Cam angle, degrees
 Can dynamic load be reduced ?
Can dynamic load be reduced ?
60
50

40
30
angle, degree

20
10

0
Pressure a

-10 0 60 120 180 240 300 360

-20
3000
-30

-40 2500

Normal load, N
-50 2000
Cam angle, degrees
1500
• Angle between 1000

direction of motion
N

500

& axis of 0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
transmission. g , degrees
Cam angle, g

– φ=0 Æ Transmitted force is completely utilize to move the follower

– φ=90° Æ No motion of the follower. Gross sliding.

2/6/2011 H. HIRANI
 Can dynamic load be Eliminated ?
Can dynamic load be Eliminated ?

Cam (radial)
groove to trap
roller follower.

• Cam rotation pushes follower on the shaped geometry. 
Clearance for free movement of roller follower about its 
axis. Loading & Unloading is inherent in rolling contact. 
 Why loading & unloading is
inherent in rolling contacts ? 

The stresses in contact patch are termed as “contact

stresses” or “Hertzian stresses”.
1 1 Convex – Convex
σc ∝ ± Convex – Concave
R follower Rcam
 Convex / Concave
13 14
12
11 15

10 16

Interaction ? 9
17

18
8

• Divide rotational cycle (~ 25 7 0

19

divisions). 6
20 20

• Analyze
A l convex & concave
40
21
5
60

contacts:
22
4 80

3 100 23
– Convex from point 8 to 18
18. 2
25 120
24

– Concave from 1 to 7, and 19 to

1

25.
– Transition 7 to 8, 18 to 19.
• Transition from convex to
concave introduces sliding
– Sliding reduces cam life.

2/6/2011 H. HIRANI
 How Sliding reduces life?
How Sliding reduces life?
„ Pitting, a fatigue wear, initiates
on or near the surface of
component.
‰ Tangential force not only increases
τmax but also shifts position of τmax to
the surface.
‰ Pitti occurs if τmax > Sys
Pitting
‰ Total pitting life (Nf)= non-Cracking
life (N0)+crack propagation life (Np)

after N0 cycles after Nf cycles

 Finding Contact stress (Hertzian theory)
Cam contact radius, Normal load on cam Maximum normal stress,
Cam angle mm surface, N MPa
0 118.6 1195 Compressive -283
45 106.7 862 stress does not -242
60 86.2 1653 initiates fatigue -342
75 64 4
64.4 2174 failure
failure. -404
404
90 45.7 2489 -453
105 36.5 1794 -399
120 74 4
74.4 1344 -237
237
240 74 1258 Shear stress -229
255 74.5 1428 associated with -244
270 38.1 2553 compressive -473
285 55.2 2716 stresses causes -461
300 79.4 1510 crack formation. -329
315 99.1 1166 -283
330 113 866 -241
345 118.2 1008 -260
360 118.6 1196 -283
2/6/2011 H. HIRANI
 3 D stress analysis
3‐D stress analysis
When rolling and sliding are both present, stresses due
to normal and tangential loading need to be accounted.
Stress = Normal + frictional
σ x = σ xn + σ xt
σ z = σ zn + σ zt
σ y = ν (σ x + σ z )
τ xz = τ xzn + τ xzt

Sliding causes additional stress; therefore it increases

p
maximum compressive and shear stresses. μ μ=0.2.

2/6/2011 H. HIRANI
Failure of Cam System

• Reference strength
π
K= (max normall principal
i i l stress
t )2
E′
1 ⎛ 1 −ν 12 1 −ν 22 ⎞
= ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟
E ′ ⎝ E1 E2 ⎠

ς − log
l 10 N
log10 K =
λ
 Stress vs Cam life
Stress vs. Cam life

2/6/2011 H. HIRANI
 Conclusions
• Theoretical
Theoretical study shows 25‐30% reduction 
study shows 25 30% reduction
in cam life on increasing speed from 60 rpm 
t 65
to 65 rpm.  
• Nodular cast iron provide much higher life 
compared to CI 45 material. Therefore 
Nodular cast iron will be a better choice if 
cam is operated at higher rpm. 

2/6/2011 H. HIRANI
Almostt every relatively
Al l ti l moving
i componentt iin an
assembly requires LUBRICANT

A standard lock: On turning the key, the bolt slides into a

notch on the door frame.

Pendulum Clock

window lifting mechanism

 H
How L
Lubrication
b i i Helps
H l
• Instant failures
Reduces stress concentration.
• Fatigue failure
f
Transmission Parts
• Surface failures Bearings
Cams and Followers
Journals
Seal faces
Any situation involving metal to metal contact

Conclusion: Presence of lubricant reduces stress concentration.

Method of replenishing lubricant decides overall performance of the system.
What do we expect from lubricant
Lubricant between cylinder liner and rings

Combustion •Lubricant must form a

gases film to separate the
Lubricant
injection
surfaces
holes •Needs to adhere to the
Piston surfaces
rings
• Must neutralize the
corrosive products of
combustion
Piston
• Withstand high
temperature inside the
cylinder
Piston rod
Lubrication in journal bearings
• Supports heavy shaft
loads
• Absence of rolling
contact stresses
• Ability to dampen
vibrations

5
 Lubrication in Bone joints
Lubrication in Bone joints
SYNOVIAL FLUID
• Contain proteins that stick
to cartilage layer resulting Femur
in smooth sliding
• coefficient of friction ~ 0.01
Articular cartilage
Joint capsule
Ligament
Joint (synovial) fluid
• minerals that nourish the space
cartilage cells
• Increase viscosity with Tibia
increase in applied
pressure

NOTE: Lubricant properties are specific to the application.

 Thick & Thin Lubrications
Thick & Thin Lubrications

• Understanding thick lubrication by 
Reynolds lead removal of an oil hole from
Reynolds, lead removal of an oil hole from 
the load line of railway axle bearings 
(1890)Æ Lesser oil quantity, lesser friction.
Lesser oil quantity lesser friction
• Thin lubrication is far more complex. 
Requires scientific study at nano‐
f d to micro‐
level. 
 Lubrication Mechanisms

• Boundary lubrication, Λ=
hmin
Λ<1 2
Rrms ,a + R 2
rms ,b

• Hydrodynamic
lubrication, Λ>5 • Dimensionless film 
parameter Λ
parameter Λ ((“Specific
Specific film 
film
• Mixed lubrication, thickness)
1 Λ 3
1<Λ<3
• Elastohydrodynamic,
3<Λ<5

8
 Boundary Lubrication

• English
E li h Biologist
Bi l i “Sir
“Si H
Hardy”.
d ” 1922
1922.
•“Veryy thin adsorbed layers,
y , about 10 A° thick,, were sufficient to
cause two glass surfaces to slide over each other”.
• A veryy thin layer
y of lubricant (a
( few molecules thickÆ 1
to 10 nm) separates sliding surfaces, i.e. no direct contact
of the sliding parts.
• Engineering equipment such as steel gears, piston-rings and
metal -working tools depend on one or more of these lubrication
modes to prevent severe wear or high coefficients of friction and
modes,
seizure.

9
How thin layer is able to separate surfaces?
Surface Surface
1 1

Surface2 2
Surface

Boundary
lubricants: “Oiliness
Oiliness
additives”
Characteristics required for Thin Film Lubrication
• Longg chain molecules with an
active end group.
– Attaching itself to the solid surface
& building
b ildi a surface
f llayer
• Dissolvable in mineral/lubricating
oils.
oils
• Temperature stability:
– Typical fatty acids decompose at
temperature above 200°C and lose
their effectiveness.

Why boundary lubricants are required

when metals are covered with natural
protective layer of oxide?
Effect of Length of Molecule on Boundary lubrication
• Longer hydrocarbon chain, more effective separation 
between solid surfaces.
– High degree of slip. Low lubricant friction
• Sir William Hardy’s experimental results:

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 Mechanisms of Boundaryy Lubrication
• Physical adsorption (Physisorption)
– All
All petroleum and synthetic lubricants have some potential 
t l d th ti l b i t h t ti l
for forming boundary films under mild sliding conditions. 
Useful under light load and low temperature conditions.
– Useful under light load and low temperature conditions
• Chemical adsorption (Chemisorption):
– Bond
Bond energies are much greater than physisorption
energies are much greater than physisorption (> 
(>
40kJ/mol)
– With polar and paraffinic molecules, chemisorbed lubricants 
With polar and paraffinic molecules, chemisorbed lubricants
can be very closely packed on a surface. 
– Most effective boundary lubricants combine a chemical 
reaction with the surface and a cohesion interaction 
between lubricant species. 
Mechanisms of boundary
bo ndar lubrication
l brication are usually
s all controlled b
by
additives present in the oil.
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