FUNDAMENTALS OF CURRICULUM THEN AND NOW

Curriculum – Latin word meaning “a running,” “a course,” “race-course,” “a career”

Four major definitions:

1. As a plan of achieving goals – sequence of steps (purpose, design, implementation and

assessment)
2. As dealing with the learner’s experiences – planned activities of the learner inside and
outside the school with the supervision of the school
3. As a field of study – foundation, knowledge, domains, research, theory

Two Categories (Villena, 2015)

1. Prescriptive Curriculum – what should happen

2. Descriptive Curriculum – what is actually happening (experience-based)

Types of Curriculum (Allan Glathom, 2000)

1. Recommended Curriculum – recommended by scholars or professional organizations

(oughtness)
2. Written Curriculum – to ensure har educational goals are being accomplished; more specific
and comprehensive (curriculum of control)
3. Taught Curriculum – the actual curriculum that teachers deliver day by day (delivered
curriculum)
4. Supported Curriculum – resources that support the curriculum (textbooks, softwares, media)
5. Assessed Curriculum – tests and performance measures
6. Learned Curriculum – the curriculum that the learner learns (changes of values, perceptions
and behavior)
7. Hidden Curriculum – unintended curriculum (what students learn from the physical
environment)

Characteristics

1. The curriculum is continuously evolving – continuous monitoring and evaluation for it to be

effective
2. The curriculum is based on the needs of the people – reflects the needs of the people and
society
3. The curriculum is democratically conceived – efforts of a group of individuals
4. The curriculum is a result of a long time effort – product of a long and tedious process
5. The curriculum is a complex of details – proper instructional equipment and meeting places
that are conducive to learning
6. The curriculum provides for the logical sequence of the subject matter – learning is
developmental; a good curriculum provides a continuity of experiences
7. The curriculum complements and cooperates with other program of the community –
responsive to the needs of the community
8. The curriculum has educational quality – individual’s intellectual and creative capacities for
social welfare and development
9. The curriculum has administrative flexibility – ready to incorporate new and innovative
things to meet the demands of globalization
10. The curriculum can adhere to any emergency situation – can adapt to restrictions posed by
an emergency like this COVID-19 pandemic
FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM

 Philosophy means love of wisdom

 Philosophy becomes the criteria for determining the aims, selection, organization and
implementation of the curriculum in the classroom
 It helps us answer general question like “What are schools for?”, “What subjects are of
value?”, “How should students learn the content?”

Major Philosophies
1. Perennialism
 Means “everlasting”
 It believes that humans are rational and the aim of education is “to improve man as
man”
 Curriculum fits all; conservative and inflexible
2. Essentialism
 Comes from the word “essential” which means the main things or the basics
 Instilling in students with the essential or basics of academic knowledge and
character development that they need to become model citizens
3. Progressivism
 Education must be based on the fact that humans are by nature social and learn best
in real life activities with other people
 Focuses on personal experiences, children’s interests and needs, relevant to children
 John Dewey is the most influential progressivist
4. Reconstructivism
 It favors reform and argue that students must be taught how to bring about change
 Rebuilding of social and cultural infrastructures
 Students are to study social problems and think of ways to improves society

Learning Theories and Curriculum

1. Behaviorism – deals with various aspects of S-R and reinforcement

2. Cognitivism – studies how the learner relates himself to the total environment
3. Humanism – emphasizes on effective domain of learning

 Psychology – derived from the Greek word “psyche” which means soul; a discipline devoted
to the study of behavior, mind, and thought
 Ralph Tyler – anything to be taught in classroom should be subjected to a psychology
“screen” to establish whether they are congruent with how humans learn

Three Psychological Perspectives

1. Behaviorism – mastery of subject matter is given more emphasis, so learning is organized in

a step-by-step process
 Ivan Pavlov
- Theory of classical conditioning
 - An organism can associate a particular stimulus with a particular response
- Food (stimulus) and animal salivating (response)
- Later, could substitute food with the sound of a bell (a neutral stimulus)
 Edward Thorndike
- A hungry cat placed in a box and could escape and eat the food by pressing a lever
inside the box
- Pressing the lever (stimulus) and opening the door (response)
- Three Laws of Learning
 Law of Effect – if a response is followed by a pleasurable or rewarding
experience, the response will be strengthened and becomes habitual
 Law of Exercise – connections between stimulus and response is
strengthened with practice and weakened when practice is discontinued
 Law of Readiness – certain behaviors are more likely to be learned than
others because the nervous system of the organism is ready to make the
connection leading to a satisfying state of affairs. It is preparation for action
 Frederick Skinner
- Learning is a function of change in overt behavior.
- Operant – to act upon
- A hungry rat in a box and each time the rat pressed the lever, a food pellet
would be given, and resulted to the rat pressing the lever each time it wanted
food
- Reinforcement is the key element
- A reinforcer could be anything and can be a positive reinforcer or negative
reinforcer
 Walter Bandura
- Importance of observing and modeling behaviors, attitudes and emotional
reactions of others
2. Cognitivism – focuses on how individuals process information, monitor and manage their
thinking
 Information Processing Approach
- Information is received, processed and stored in three different stages (Atkinson
and Shriffin, 1968)
 Sensory Memory – affiliated with the transduction of energy (change from
one energy to another); less than ½ second for vision; about 3 seconds for
hearing
 Short-Term Memory – working memory or conscious memory; relates to
what we are thinking about at any given moment in time; last for 15-20
seconds unless repeated (called maintenance rehearsal) which may be
available up to 20 minutes
 Four major types of organization
1. Component (part/whole) – by category or concept
2. Sequential – chronological (cause/effect, building to climax)
3. Relevance – central unifying idea or criteria
4. Transitional (connective) – relational words or phrases used to
indicate qualitative change over time
 Long-Term Memory – Preconscious and unconscious memory
 Preconscious – information is relatively easily recalled (minutes to
hours)
  Unconscious – data that is not available during normal
consciousness
 Meaningful Learning – subject has an active role to restructure and organize
information, and it implies linking new information to existing knowledge
- “The most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner
already knows” – David Ausubel
 Levels of Cognitive Development
- Piaget’s Cognitive Theory
 Schemas – building blocks of knowledge
 Adaptation processes
 Assimilation – using an existing schema to deal with a new object
 Accomodation – when existing schema doesn’t work and needs to
be changed to deal with a new object
 Equilibrium - encompasses assimilation (people transform incoming
information so that it fits within their existing thinking) and
accommodation (people adapt their thinking to incoming
information).
 Stages of Cognitive Development
 Sensorimotor (Birth to 18-24 months) – object permanence
 Preoperational (Toddlerhood – 18-24 months to early childhood age
7) – symbolic thinking and egocentric thinking
 Concrete operational (7-11) – beginning of logical and operational
thought
 Formal operation (11-adulthood) – ability to think about abstract
concepts, and logically lest hypotheses

 Metacognition
- Thinking about thinking and involves your knowledge of the task, awareness of
your own ability and the action you will take; it also encompasses the regulation
of these thoughts – the ability to change them
- Three Components
 Metacognitive Knowledge – a) learning processes and your beliefs about
how you learn and how you think others learn, b) the task of learning and
how you process information, and c) the strategies you develop and when
you will use them
 Metacognitive Experience – one cannot have knowledge without having
emotions; there are feelings and emotions present that are related to the
goals and tasks of learning (feedback systems)
 Metacognitive Strategies – what you design to monitor your progress
related to your learning and the tasks at hand

3. Humanism – focuses on personal needs, not on the subject matter; and clarifying
psychological meanings and environmental situations; learners are human beings who are
affected by their biology, culture, and environment (neither machines nor animals).

 Abraham Maslow’s Theory – Hierarchy of Needs

  Carl Roger’s Theory – He developed a personality theory (“self” or “self-concept”)
 Three Components of the Self-Concept
1. Self-image – how individuals see themselves
2. Self-worth – the value individuals place on themselves
3. Ideal self – the person an individual would want to be
 Arthur Comb’s Theory – Phenomenal Field Theory
 All behavior is determined by the conscious self, described as “the phenomenal
field” of the behaving organism, and can only be understood if the researcher
sees the world through the individual’s eyes and mind

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

 Curriculum remains the tool for regulating educational efforts all over the world

Models of Curriculum Development

1. Tyler’s Means-Ends Model (Ralph Tyler) – the curriculum developer should start with a
decision of what purpose/s the curriculum is/are to have and then plan accordingly
 ENDS – Philosophy, Aims, Goals and Objectives
 MEANS – Curriculum Content and Activities
- LEARNER AS A SOURCE – learner’s needs and wants
- SOCIETY AS A SOURCE – society as the student’s learning laboratory
- SUBJECT MATTER AS A SOURCE – to master a subject, one must understand its
underlying structure
- PHILOSOPHY AS A SOURCE – sound curriculum development begins with sound
thinking, and sound thinking begins by formulating a philosophy
- PSYCHOLOGY AS A SOURCE – effective curriculum development requires
understanding the level of development and the nature of the learning process
2. The Aim Model – the simplest and clearest model is the AIM
- OBJECTIVES > CONTENT > MATERIALS > TEACHER ACTIVITIES > STUDENT ACTIVITIES
> TEST ACTIVITIES
3. Taba’s Inverted Model – the grassroots approach (starts with the classroom with the
teacher as differentiated with other models
4. The Olivia Model (Peter Oliva)
- STATEMENT OF PHILOSOPHY > STATEMENT OF GOALS > STATEMENT OF OBJECTIVES
> DESIGN OF PLAN > IMPLEMENTATION > EVALUATION
5. Saylor and Alexander Model (Galen Saylor and William Alexander) – a plan for providing
sets of learning opportunities consisting of four steps
GOALS AND OBJECTIVES > CURRICULUM DESIGNING > CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION >
EVALUATION
6. MacDonald’s Model – teaching is a personality system, teaching acting in a professional role
and student performing task related behaviors; instruction is a social system within which
formal teaching and learning process takes place; used a Venn diagram to illustrate model’s
parts and their relationship
7. Eisner’s Model (Elliot Esner) – combination of interests in art education and curriculum; the
enacted curriculum and the experienced curriculum cannot be considered the same and also
emphasizes the significant role of teachers
 8. Diamond Model (Robert Diamond) – easy to use, sequential and cost-effective
9. Walker’s Naturalistic Model – deliberative approach
 Three Phases
1. Platform Phase – conceptions, theories, and aims
2. Deliberation Phase – beliefs, problematic circumstances and potential solutions
3. Design Phase – creation of the planned curriculum

Participants in Curriculum Development and Planning

1. Teachers – they decide which parts of the curriculum, newly developed or ongoing, to
implement in a particular class
2. Students – their input is significant in its own right and letting them participate in curriculum
development inspires them and encourages them to take responsibility for matters that
concern them
3. Principals – efficiently schedule time for curricular activities, arrange for in-service trainings,
sit on curriculum advisory committees as a resource manager and refine the school’s mission
4. Parents – they serve as financial resources, monitoring and evaluation of the
implementation of the curriculum by constant checking the lessons of their children
5. Curriculum Specialists – they have broad knowledge of curriculum and considered experts in
the creation of quality, relevant and innovative curriculum that can answer the demands of
the stakeholders of the society
6. Superintendents – to respond to matters before the school board, initiate curricular
activities and start programs for in-service trainings of teachers
7. School Boards – the school’s legal agents and responsible for the school’s overall
management headed by the President or Chief
8. The National Government and Its Agencies – they frequently enact laws, policies and orders
and publish guidelines to govern the implementation of a new curriculum

CURRICULUM DESIGN

1. AIMS, GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

2. CONTENT OR SUBJECT MATTER
3. LEARNING EXPERIENCES

1.
a. AIMS – are lifetime aspirations; they are purposely stated generally because they are
developed and are developed for a general level of education and by the society
 INTELLECTUAL AIMS – acquisition and comprehension of knowledge, problem-solving
skills and methods of thinking
 SOCIAL/PERSONAL AIMS – ways in which people relate to other individuals
 PRODUCTIVE AIMS – center on educating students to function within the home, on the
job, and as a citizen
b. GOALS – these are group expectations, which may take weeks, months or years to
attain; they differ from aims in that they are attainable, yet may remain unattained, and
doesn’t require each and every student to succeed
c. OBJECTIVES – most specific statement of outcomes
 EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES – stretch from objectives for specific curriculum areas
  BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES – stated in terms of observable or measurable
accomplishment
 NON-BEHAVIORAL GENERAL OBJECTIVES – use words such as appreciate, know and
understand
2. CONTENT OR SUBJECT MATTER
 CRITERIA FOR SELECTING CONTENT
1. SELF-SUFFICIENCY – furnishing content that enables learners to connect their
intellectual, emotional, and spiritual selves
2. SIGNIFICANCE – content must contribute to the basic ideas, concepts, principles,
generalizations and so on of the overall aims of the curriculum
3. VALIDITY – authenticity of the content selected
4. INTEREST – students’ interest must be weighted and adjusted to allow for
students’ maturity
5. UTILITY – concerns the usefulness of the content
6. LEARNABILITY – optimal placement and appropriate organization and
sequencing of content
7. FLEXIBILITY – generate content in light of the time allowed, the resources
available, the expertise of current staff, the nature of the political climate, the
existing legislation and the amount of public monies available
3. LEARNING EXPERIENCES – content is the meat of the curriculum plan, learning experiences
planned for the students is the heart of the plan; it is the interaction between teacher,
student, and the content and is divided into teaching methods, learning activities and
learning environments

Qualities of Curriculum Design

1. Scope – refers to the breadth and depth of curriculum content – at any level or at any given
time (horizontal dimension)
2. Sequence – concerned with the order of topics overtime (vertical dimension)
3. Continuity – refers to the smoothness or absence of disruption in the curriculum over time
4. Integration – it is linking all types of knowledge and experiences contained within the
curriculum plan
5. Articulation - refers to the smooth flow of the curriculum on both vertical and horizontal
dimension; the ways in which curriculum components occuring later in a program’s
sequence relate to those occuring earlier
6. Balance – it is where the necessary weight to each part of the design is provided; it is dificult
because we are striving to localize and individualize the curriculum while trying to maintain
a common content

Types of Curriculum Design

A. SUBJECT-CENTERED DESIGN
1. Subject Design – the oldest and best known design because of its constant pressure for
standards and accountability; curriculum is organized according to how essential
knowledge has developed in various subject areas
2. Discipline Design – the basis is with content’s inherent organization and it emphasizes
undertaking the conceptual structures and processes of the discipline
3. Broad fields design – multidisciplinary design which provides learners a comprehensive
understanding of all content areas
 4. Correlated Design – attempts to identify ways in which subjects can be linked yet
maintain their own identities
5. Process Design – teaching students how to process thoughts is the main goal of this
design; teaching students how to think
B. LEARNER-CENTERED DESIGNS
1. Child Centered Design – believes that students must be enthusiastic in their learning
environment and that learning should not be detached from student’s lives
2. Experience Centered Design – children’s needs and interests cannot be planned all the
time and everything must be prepared on the spot as a teacher responds to each child’s
needs
3. Romantic/Radical Design – Education should inform the masses about their oppression,
provoke them to feel their dissatisfaction; individuals must learn ways of involvement in
an analysis of knowledge
C. PROBLEM CENTERED DESIGNS
1. Life-Situation Design – stresses activities that sustain and enhance life, aid in rearing
children and enhance leisure and feelings (problem solving procedures)
2. Reconstructionist Design – promotes social action that aims to restructure society

Phases of Curriculum Development

1. CURRICULUM PLANNING
- process concerned with making decisions about what to learn, why, and how to
organize the teaching and learning process taking into account existing curriculum
requirements and the resources available
- process whereby the advance arrangement of learning opportunities for a particular
population of learners is created
 Characteristics of a Curriculum Planner
1. OPEN-MINDED
2. WILLING TO LISTEN
3. READY TO ADAPT
2. CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION
- refers to how teachers deliver instruction and assessment through the use of
specified resources provided in a curriculum
 Two Extreme Views on Curriculum Implementation
o LAISSEZ-FAIRE APPROACH –this is the left-alone approach; gives teachers
absolute power to determine what they see best to implement in the
classroom; no monitoring and no control of outside authorities
o AUTHORITARIAN APPROACH – teachers are directed by authority figures
 Models of Curriculum Implementation
o Overcoming Resistance to Change Model - overcoming resistance to change
that is present immediately before or at the time the innovation is
introduced
o Leadership-Obstacle Course Model – gathering of data to determine the
extent and nature of the resistance in order to deal with it appropriately
o Linkage Model – cycle of diagnosis, search and retrieval, formulation of
solution, dissemination and evaluation
o Organizational Development Model – information-processing strategy that
enables the system to improve its operation
 o Rand Change Agent Model – based on the principle that success of the
implementation of new program depends of the characteristics of proposed
change
3. CURRICULUM EVALUATION
- refers to the formal process of determining the quality, value, or effectiveness of a
curriculum
 Curriculum Evaluation Models
o Tyler’s Objectives-Centered Model – rational and systematic
o Bradley’s Effectiveness Model
o Stufflebeam’s Context, Input, Process and Products (CIPP) Model – provides
a means for generating data relating to four stages of program operation
 CONTEXT EVALUATION
 INPUT EVALUATION
 PROCESS EVALUATION
 PRODUCT EVALUATION
o Scriven’s Goal-Free Model – to redirect the attention of evaluators and
administrators to the importance of unintended effects
o Stake’s Responsive Model – based explicitly on the assumption that the
concerns of the stakeholders – those for whom the evaluation is done –
should be paramount in determining the evaluation issues
o Eisner’s Connoisseurship Model - emphasizes qualitative appreciation