Proposed Design of 55 MW Unit of Geothermal Power Plant

BATAAN HEROES COLLEGE
Roman Super Hi-way, Balanga City, Bataan

Tel. No. (047)237-2383 Fax No. (047)237-2383 Email@bhmc.edu.ph
Department of Engineering and Architecture- Mechanical Engineering
Proposed design of 55 mw unit

of geothermal power plant at
tiwi, albay
POWER PLANT DESIGN
Designed by:
Berińa, Joenel B.
Dela Cruz, Kim Gerald C.
Deniega, Ernesto Mike III C.
Malupa, Charl Lester A.
Soriano, Clint Bryan R.
Submitted to:
Engr. Desiderio V. Pepito
Date Submitted:
May 17, 2020
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
May 17, 2020

Engr. Desiderio V. Pepito PME
Program Chair of Mechanical Engineering Department
1
Bataan Heroes Memorial College

Dear Sir,
In completion of requirements for subject ME-525 (Power Plant Design). We are

presenting this book entitled Proposed Design of 55 MW Unit of Geothermal Power Plant at
Tiwi Albay.
This thesis book covers the design theories and principles that we have learned
from refrigeration, heat transfer, and machine design, presented in the simplest manner.
Tables and essential charts are provided to aid the unfamiliar reader in dealing with the
topics.
I hope this thesis book will meet your standards and expectations.
Sincerely Yours:
Berińa, Joenel B.
Dela Cruz, Kim Gerald C.
Deniega, Ernesto Mike III C.
Malupa, Charl Lester A.
Soriano, Clint Bryan R.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
2
Authors take this occasion to acknowledge with appreciation the

cooperation and support of special individuals whose interest and help made this book
possible:
First, we want to thank God for giving us strength, perseverance, and

knowledge while doing this book, even in the time of pandemic He give us knowledge to
finish this book.
To our lovable family that never stops supporting us, they keep on believing,
and give us the opportunity to finish our study. Their understanding and encouragement
To the BHMC library and faculty member for its undying services in helping
us out in researching the necessary illustrations and knowledge we need.
To our engineer friends who spent time, rendered helpful, and their
knowledgeable assistance in preparing this paper.
And also, we would like to take this opportunity and acknowledge with a
heartfelt appreciation to the person behind this challenging book Engr. Desiderio Pepito
PME, for his guidance and for assisting his knowledge to share with us the concepts and
practical essentials and principles of designing a geothermal power plant.
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION & POWERPLANT BACKGROUND

1.1 Introduction…..……..…………………………………………………………. 9
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1 .2 Geothermal Energy Status of the Philippines……………………………10

1.2.1 Geothermal Development in the Philippines…………………………………..11
1.3 Material Problems of Geothermal Power Plant in the Philippines…………12
Chapter 2: EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
2.1 Task and Importance in GTPP…………………..…………………15
2.1.1 Why Geothermal Power is Important in Philippines……....................15
2.1.2 How Geothermal Energy Convert to Electricity …………………17
2.1.3 Features and Principle of Geothermal Power Plants.........................18
2.1.4 Reliability of Geothermal Energy……………………………21
2.1.5 About Tiwi, Albay Geothermal Power Plant……………………………23
2.1.6 Why Tiwi is Good For Geothermal Power Plant……………….……...27
2.1.7 What is Electricity? .............................................................................30
2.2 Steam Characteristic at Tiwi ………..…..……………………………………30
2.3 Components of Geothermal Power Plant.……..…..……………………….33
2.3.1 Production Well……………………………33
2.3.2 Separator………………………………………………………………34
2.3.3 Heat Exchanger…………………………………………34
2.3.4 Steam Turbine ………………………………………....35
2.3.5 Condenser………………………………………….36
2.3.6 Injection Well…………………………………………37
Chapter 3: Design of 55 MW Geothermal Power Plant
Definition of Terms………………………………………………………39
3.1 System Design and Conditions of GTPP……………………………43
3.1.1 Resource Characterization…………………………………..43
3.1.2 Why Choose Double Flash GTPP……………………….43
3.1.3 Design and Thermodynamics Analysis……….………46
3.1.4 Mass Flow Rate from Production Well………………………………50
3.2 Steam Turbine Design…………………………………………………..51
3.2.1 Discussion on Steam Turbine……………………………………………51
3.2.2 Design Calculations of Steam Turbine…………………………………54
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3.3 Condenser Design……………………………………………………………..56

3.3.1 Discussion on Condenser……………………………………….56
3.3.2 Design of Condenser……………………………………………….
3.4 Design of Cooling Tower…………………………………………………………………..…………64
3.4.1 Discussion of Cooling Tower………………………………………………………………64
3.4.2 Cooling Tower Design Calculations……………………………………………………..

3.5 Production Well Design…………………………………………………………………..………….69
3.5.1 Discussion About Geothermal Well…………………………………………………….69
3.6 Steam- Water Separator Design…………………………………………………………………..84
3.6.1 Discussion About Separator………………………………………………………………...84
3.6.2 Design of Separator…………………………………………………………………………….88
3.7 Power System Analysis………………………………………………………………………………...90
3.8 Power Load Forecasting……………………………………………………………………………….91
3.9 Variable Load……………………………..........................82
Chapter 4: INSTALLATIONS
4.1 Plant Layout and Details…………………………………………………………………………....96
4.2 Production & Injection Well Drilling…………………………………..…….........…………97
4.3 Pad Preparation………………………………………………………………….………………………98
4.4 Setting Foundations…….………………………………………………………………………….....100
4.5 Air Cooler Assembly……………………………………………………………………………………101
4.6 Heat Exchanger Installation…………………………………………………………………………103
4.7 Pipeline Construction………………………………………………………………………………….105
4.7.1 Pipeline Location and Surrounding……………………………………………………..105
4.7.2 Pipeline Design and Construction……………………………………………..………..106
4.7.3 Production Well Pipelines…………………………………………………………………..106
4.7.4 Reinjection Pipelines……………………………………......................................106
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4.8 Transmission Line Construction………………………………………………………………….107
4.8.1 Construction Process…………………………………………………………………………108
4.9 Mechanical Construction…………………………………………………………………………….110
4.10 Control Room and Electrical Assembly……………………………………………………….111
4.11 Substation Assembly………………………………………………………………………………….113
4.12 Turbine Installation……………………………………………………………………………………115
Chapter 5: ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL
5.1 Economic Evaluation………………………………………….……………………………………….119
5.2 Financial Analysis ……………………………………………...……….…….……………….........120
Chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
6.1 Environmental Effect of GTPP in the Philippines…………………………..……………..128
6.2 Thermal Utilization in The Philippines………………………………………………………….129
6.3 Direct Use in the Philippines………………………………………………………………………..130
6.4 Relevant Direct Use of Technology………………………………………………………………131
6.5 Opportunities for Direct of Geothermal Resources……………………………………….132
6.6 Geothermal Studies Conducted……………………………………………………………………135
6.6.1 Coconut-Coir Sterilization…………………………………………………………………..136
6.6.2 Geothermal Amorphous Silica Suspension as Pesticide………………………..136
6.7 Effect of Geothermal Plant at Tiwi………………………………………………………………..137
Chapter 7: OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
7.1 Operation…………………………………………………………………………………………………139
7.1.1 Background……………………………………………………………………………………… 139
7.2 Conventional Plant Operating System…………………………………….………………….141
7.3 Plant Operations………………………………………………………………………………………..142
7.4 Plant Maintenance……………………………………………………………………………………..144
7.5 Operation and Maintenance Lever……………………………………………………………..145
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7.5.1 Staffing……………………………………………………………………………………………..145
7.5.2 Planning……………………………………………………………………………………………146
7.5.3 Performance Management……………………………………………………………….146
7.5.4 Root Cause Analysis…………………………………………………………………………..146
Reference……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………148
Abbreviation……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….149
Units……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………149
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUNDS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In 1904, Italian scientist Piero Ginori Conti invented the first geothermal electric power
plant in which steam was used to generate the power. With the above experiment, the first
geothermal plant in USA started in 1922 with a capacity of 250 kilowatts. It produced little
output and due to technical glitch had to be shut down. However, in 1946 first ground-source
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geothermal heat pump installed at Commonwealth Building in Portland, Oregon. During the
1960’s, pacific gas and electric began operation of first large scale geothermal power plant in
San Francisco, producing 11 megawatts. Today there are more than 60 geothermal power
plants operating in USA at 18 sites across the country.
In 1973, when oil crisis began many countries began looking for renewable energy
sources and by 1980’sgeothermal heat pumps (GHP) started gaining popularity in order to
reduce heating and cooling costs. As effect of climate change started showing results,
governments of various countries joined hands to fight against it, for which Kyoto Protocol
was signed in Japan in 1997, laid out emission targets for rich countries and required that
they transfer funds and technology to developing countries, 184 countries have ratified it.
Geothermal power today supplies less than 1% of the world’s energy in 2009 needs but it is
expected to supply 10-20% of world’s energy requirement by 2050. Geothermal power
plants today are operating in about 20 countries which are actively visited by earthquakes
and volcanoes.
Geothermal energy refers to heat energy stored under the ground for millions of years
through the earth formation. It utilizes a rich storage of unutilized thermal energy that exists
under the earth’s crust. Geothermal energy is site specific but can be very cheap especially
when used for direct heating. It is a challenge to estimate power from this source since it
occurs underground at extremely high temperatures. The earth’s crust has immense heat
(thermal) energy stored over millions of years. There exists a huge temperature difference
between the earth’s crust and the surface. The temperature difference is known
as geothermal gradient. This energy is sufficient to melt rock. The molten rock, called
magma, at times erupts through cracks on earth surface as volcanoes. Geothermal energy is
converted to produce to electricity.
Geothermal power is power generated by geothermal energy. Technologies in use

include dry steam power stations, flash steam power stations and binary cycle power stations.
Geothermal electricity generation is currently used in 26 countries, while geothermal
heating is in use in 70 countries.
As of 2015, worldwide geothermal power capacity amounts to 12.8 gigawatts (GW), of
which 28 percent or 3.55 GW are installed in the United States. International markets grew at
an average annual rate of 5 percent over the three years to 2015, and global geothermal
power capacity is expected to reach 14.5–17.6 GW by 2020. Based on current geologic
knowledge and technology the GEA publicly discloses, the Geothermal Energy
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Association (GEA) estimates that only 6.9 percent of total global potential has been tapped so
far, while the IPCC reported geothermal power potential to be in the range of 35 GW to
2 TW. Countries generating more than 15 percent of their electricity from geothermal sources
include El Salvador, Kenya, the Philippines, Iceland, New Zealand, and Costa Rica.
Geothermal power is considered to be a sustainable, renewable source of energy
because the heat extraction is small compared with the Earth's heat content. The greenhouse
gas emissions of geothermal electric stations are on average 45 grams of carbon dioxide per
kilowatt-hour of electricity, or less than 5 percent of that of conventional coal-fired plants. [7]
As a source of renewable energy for both power and heating, geothermal has the
potential to meet 3-5% of global demand by 2050. With economic incentives, it is estimated
that by 2100 it will be possible to meet 10% of global demand. [5]
1.2 Geothermal Energy Status of the Philippines

The Philippines is one of the world's top producers of geothermal power, owing to its
location along the Ring of Fire zone of Pacific volcanoes. The country commissioned the 12-
megawatt Maibarara Geothermal Power Plant-2 on March 9, 2018, in Santo Tomas,Batangas.
The Geothermal Education Office and a 1980 article titled "The Philippines geothermal
success story" by Rudolph J. Birsic published in the journal Geothermal Energy note the
remarkable geothermal resources of the Philippines.[3][4] During the World Geothermal
Congress 2000 held in Beppu, Ōita Prefecture of Japan held from May to June 2000, it was
reported that the Philippines is the largest consumer of electricity from geothermal sources
and highlighted the potential role of geothermal energy in providing energy needs for
developing countries.
According to the International Geothermal Association (IGA), worldwide, the
Philippines ranks second to the United States in producing geothermal energy. As of 2010,
the US had a capacity of 3093 megawatts of geothermal power, while that of the Philippines
was 1904 megawatts. The Philippines was followed by Mexico with 958 MW. Early statistics
from the Institute for Green Resources and Environment stated that Philippine geothermal
energy provides 16% of the country's electricity. By 2005, geothermal energy accounted for
17.5% of the country's electricity production. More recent statistics from the IGA show that
combined energy from the nation's six geothermal fields, located in the islands
of Luzon, Leyte, Negros and Mindanao, still accounts for approximately 17% of the country's
electricity generation. Leyte Island is where the first geothermal power plant, a 3 megawatt
wellhead unit, started operations in July 1977. Larger-scale commercial production of
geothermal power began in 1979 with the commissioning of a 110-megawatt plant at Tiwi field
in Albay province. IGA figures as of December 2009 show the nation's installed geothermal
capacity stands at 1904 megawatts, with gross generation of 10,311 gigawatt-hrs for all of
2009, representing 17% of the nation's total power generation mix.
As of 2017, the International Renewable Energy Agency estimates the Philippines' net
installed geothermal energy capacity to at 1.9 gigawatts (GW)—out of the global geothermal
installed capacity of 12.7 GW—ranking behind the United States (2.5 GW) and ahead of
Indonesia (1.5 GW). It also estimates that the country can potentially generate 2.1 GW from
geothermal sources by 2025.
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1.2.1 Geothermal Development in the Philippines

Geothermal development of power generating facilities in the Philippines began in
January 1979 with the inauguration of the 110 MW Tiwi Geothermal Plant, the first in a series
of three such facilities to be constructed there. By 1983, 330 megawatts of capacity had been
installed at Tiwi and a number of other large installations were being developed around the
country in seven primary geothermal producing regions in Luzon, Negros, Leyte, and
Mindanao. These installations quickly became among the largest in the world, such as the
588 MW Unified Leyte Geothermal projects developed by California Energy and Energy
Development Company and the 458 MW Makiling-Banahaw (Mak-Ban) Geothermal projects
developed by the National Power Corporation.
Today, the pace of geothermal development has slowed following the passage of the
Electric Power Industry Reform Act (EPIRA). This law mandated the Philippine Energy
Regulatory Commission to promote competition, encourage market development, and ensure
consumer choice in this restructured electricity market. The competitive retail electricity
market established as part of this rulemaking functions as a level playing field for all electric
generators to execute their energy sales. While development has slowed, geothermal
development continues with new capacity being added, such as the 20 MW Maibarara
Geothermal project that achieved commercial operation in 2014, with a 12 MW expansion
project coming on line in 2018.Geothermal development in the Philippines will continue to be
a challenge until the full implementation of the nation’s RE Law is set in place. The current
inventory of power generation projects under construction are expected to meet the country’s
increasing energy demand for the next five to seven years, which will maintain pressure on
economic margins for developers. Successful new projects will need to utilize multiple
strategies for profitability, including utilization of development grants, renewable energy
incentives, and design engineering that maximizes efficiency.
1.3 Material Problems of Geothermal Power Plant in the Philippines
Water passing through the exchanger equipment of cooling water system contains
and transport material problems. These problems are similar regardless of the size and
type of cooling tower used. They vary only in degree depending on the water used, and
the type of materials that come into contact with the cooling water.
Material problem8 occur in all water- carrying lines and system components that come
into contact with the cooling water. These material problems are classified into
1) scales
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2) sludge or deposits
3) corrosion,
4) micro-biological growths
5) turbine depositions.
Scales are coatings of predominantly inorganic materials due to supersaturation of

water-soluble minerals. Interfere with heat transfer thereby the efficiency of heat
exchangers. Scale formation depends on water temperature, alkalinity or acidity, and of
scale-forming materials in the cooling water. Typical consist of carbonate, calcium
sulfate, calcium phosphate, silica. And magnesium silicate.
Sludge or deposits are formed by suspended solids circulating water and accumulated
materials in heat-exchanger. There are also caused by products and the by-products of
on between and contaminants. Sludge occur or are produced artificially. They are present
n the atmosphere from in the cooling tower or originate from man-made through chemical
addition in the system. They decrease efficiency of heat exchanger through deterioration
of the equipment.
Sludge/fouling deposits occur in geothermal power plants due to increase of poor-

quality and contaminated water, waste recycling, high water temperatures and heat
transfer and system operation for longer periods between cleaning. Their formation is
affected by water velocity, temperature, equipment design, poor start-up techniques and
plant operation controls. Typical classes of sludge are lime-soda ash softening sludge,
coagulation-softening sludge, and alum-coagulation sludge.
Corrosion causes deterioration and perforation of equipment resulting to lost product,

inefficient operation and downtime for maintenance and replacement, and increased
production Corrosion varies with chemical composition, temperature and velocity of
geothermal steam: geothermal source, and power cycle chosen, Geothermal brines
contain hydrogen ion chloride. Hydrogen carbon dioxide, ammonia, sulfate, and oxygen
which produce significant corrosive effects on memetic components of the plant. The
corrosion of metals destroy costly equipment and results in heavy deposition of corrosion
products, considerable downtime, and costly production losses.
12
Microbiological growths are created by large and microscopic organisms, such algae,
fungi, slime, and bacteria. They grow within a cooling system, all pipes and heat-
exchanger. They plug water which to metal deterioration and cause under deposit
corrosion and destruction of materials of the cooling tower. Microbiological fouling occurs
either in the heat exchanger and intake discharge canals.
Turbine nozzle/blade depositions are due to the gradual build-up of hard chemical
deposits as steam temperature falls with expansion, thereby reducing the output of the
turbine and upsetting its dynamic balance.
Blade failure due to resonant vibration results from blade fractures caused by metal
fatigue. This is not a specific weakness of turbines, but can be by build-up of chemical
deposits on the blades and alteration of their natural resonant vibration frequency. Scale
depositions on steam parts affect unit efficiency, capacity and the impact of deposits on
turbine performance depends on their thickness, location and surface a layer of deposit
can substantially increase friction loss at the steam-flow boundary. If a portion of the
deposit flakes off, leaving an even rougher surface, friction loss increases and efficiency
loss may greater than for the amount of deposit distributed uniformly. Mechanical
hazards of deposit formation are governed entirely by the loss of unit capacity.
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CHAPTER II
Executive Summary
2.1 Task and Importance in GTPP
The major tasks in design and construction of geothermal power generating stations
are as follows:
1. Site Selection
2. Steam Characteristic and Well
3. Design of Equipment and Facility at Power Plant
4. Power Transmission and Storage
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5. Construction of Power Generating Stations
2.1.1 Why is Geothermal Power is Important in Philippines?
The geothermal energy industry in the Philippines is quite a huge one. In fact, it is the
largest producer of geothermal power in all of Asia-Pacific.
The country ranks second in the world in terms of geothermal energy production.
Geothermal energy accounts for a major share in the electricity generating technology for
Philippines. In the coming times ahead, the generation of geothermal energy is set to
increase to over 12,000 GWh in 2022.
Figure 2.1: Geothermal Electricity at Philippines
The government identifies potential sites of geothermal energy resources where investors
may undertake pre-development or exploration activities and assets belong to private entities
which have identified frontier areas by providing technical assistance in further determining if
these areas warrant the establishment of a power plant.
The Philippines is situated in the western flank of the Circum-Pacific Ring of Fire where
numerous active and dormant volcanoes can be found.
15
Under these volcanic centers, lie vast geothermal resources. It is this same Ring of Fire
which has made Japan, Indonesia, New Zealand, and the United States major players in
the geothermal industry.
Philippines being included at Pacific Ring Fire, there is a large potential of geothermal
steam because of our active volcanoes. Geothermal steam at this place can only take 900
meters of excavation to have a good source of geothermal steam, unlike in other place that
up to 3,000 meters.
Figure 2.2: Pacific Ring of Fire
2.1.2 How Geothermal Energy Convert to Electricity?
Geothermal power plants all have in common is that they use steam turbines to
generate electricity. This approach is very similar to other thermal power plants using other
sources of energy than geothermal.
Water or working fluid is heated (or used directly in case of geothermal dry steam
power plants), and then sent through a steam turbine where the thermal energy (heat) is
converted to electricity with a generator through a phenomenon called electromagnetic
16
induction. The next step in the cycle is cooling the fluid and sending it back to the heat
source.
Water that has been seeping into the underground over time has gained heat energy
from the geothermal reservoirs. There no need for additional heating, as you would expect
with other thermal power plants. Heating boilers are not present in geothermal steam
power plants and no heating fuel is used.
Production wells are used to lead hot water/steam from the reservoirs and into the
power plant.
Rock catchers are in place to make sure that only hot fluids are sent to the turbine.
Rocks can cause great damage to steam turbines.
Injection wells ensure that the water that is drawn up from the production wells returns
to the geothermal reservoir where it regains the thermal energy (heat) that we have used
to generate electricity.
Depending on the state of the water (liquid or vapor) and its temperature, different types
of power plants are used for different geothermal reservoirs. Most geothermal power plants
extract water, in its vapor or liquid form, from the reservoirs somewhere in the temperature-
range 100-320°C (220-600°F).
Advantages of GPP
 Comparatively ecologically clean. Unlike coal-fired power plants, geothermal ones

use a renewable heat source with a constant supply. Studies have shown that only 6.5% of
the total world potential is involved in the industry, which means that energy will last for
many years in advance. In addition, the amount of greenhouse gas from geothermal power
plants is only 5% in the contrary with coal-fired power plants.
 More energy. Geothermal power stations have great capacity – they can gravely help
in meeting the demand for energy that grows every year, both in developed and
developing countries.
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 Stable prices. Simple power plants depend on fuel, so the cost of their electricity is
varying, based on the market price of fuel. Since geothermal power plants do not use fuel,
they do not need to take into account its cost, and they can offer their customers stable
electricity costs.
 Low operating costs. Geothermal installations require minimal maintenance

compared to conventional power plants. As a result, they are reliable and cheap in
operation.
 Renewable and sustainable source. Geothermal energy will never end, unlike non-
renewable energy sources. As long as the earth supports our lives, geothermal energy will
exist and geothermal power will work.
 Permanent power supply. Unlike other renewable energy sources, geothermal one
can provide a constant supply of energy – 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, 365 days a
year, regardless of external factors. For example, solar panels can produce electricity only
during the day, and wind turbines produce energy only with sufficient wind.
2.1.3 Features and Principle of Geothermal Power Plants
It is believed that geothermal energy is one of the most profitable sources of energy. A
great amount of this energy is in magma. The Earth’s warmth is a real pearl, which has
several advantages over the energy of gas, oil and atom. If you transfer the amount of
underground heat into megawatt-hours which annually rises to the surface, then 100 billion
will turn out! It significantly exceeds the amount of consumed energy on the planet. More
and more households around the world are investing in geothermal energy by building
geothermal power plants to reduce their costs. These stations receive the Earth’s heat
through the drilling of steam or water wells and use this energy to heat the water or any
other type of liquid. It is necessary to rotate generating turbines that produce energy, which
then is distributed among consumers. Then the liquid is cooled by means of a condenser
and returned to the ground.
According to the typology of the International Energy Agency (IEA), five types of
sources of geothermal energy are distinguished:
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dry steam;
wet steam (hot water + steam);
geothermal water (hot water or steam + water);
dry hot rocks warmed by magma;
magma
There are three methods for converting geothermal energy into electricity (. And this is
due to two factors: the state of the environment (water or steam) and the temperature of the
breed.
Figure 2.3: Types of GPP
Dry steam plants (left side) - use hydrothermal fluids that are primarily steam. The steam
travels directly to a turbine, which drives a generator that produces electricity. The steam
eliminates the need to burn fossil fuels to run the turbine (also eliminating the need to
transport and store fuels). These plants emit only excess steam and very minor amounts of
gases.
Dry steam power plants systems were the first type of geothermal power generation
plants built (they were first used at Lardarello in Italy in 1904). Steam technology is still
19
effective today at currently in use at The Geysers in northern California, the world's largest
single source of geothermal power.
Flash steam plants(middle)- the most common type of geothermal power generation
plants in operation today. Fluid at temperatures greater than 360°F (182°C) is pumped under
high pressure into a tank at the surface held at a much lower pressure, causing some of the
fluid to rapidly vaporize, or "flash." The vapor then drives a turbine, which drives a generator.
If any liquid remains in the tank, it can be flashed again in a second tank to extract even more
energy.
Binary cycle geothermal(right) -power generation plants differ from Dry Steam and Flash
Steam systems in that the water or steam from the geothermal reservoir never comes in
contact with the turbine/generator units. Low to moderately heated (below 400°F) geothermal
fluid and a secondary (hence, "binary") fluid with a much lower boiling point that water pass
through a heat exchanger. Heat from the geothermal fluid causes the secondary fluid to flash
to vapor, which then drives the turbines and subsequently, the generators.
Binary cycle power plants are closed-loop systems, and virtually nothing (except water
vapor) is emitted to the atmosphere. Because resources below 300°F represent the most
common geothermal resource, a significant proportion of geothermal electricity in the future
could come from binary-cycle plants.
2.1.4 Reliability of Geothermal Energy
The Institute of Political Economy (IPE) at Utah State University has released a new set
of reports titled: Reliability of Renewable Energy. These reports are an examination of the
five most common sources of renewable electricity generation: wind, solar, biomass,
20
geothermal, and hydro. The studies assess each source’s economic, physical, and
environmental aspects.
IPE found that geothermal electricity production is physically reliable and more

environmentally friendly than fossil fuels, but it is not economically reliable without
government subsidies in many cases.
Economic Reliability
Much of the geothermal industry’s growth relies on government subsidies to overcome

high capital costs and to mitigate the financial risks of exploring for and developing
geothermal resources. Without subsidies, these high costs and risks often discourage
private investment in geothermal projects. After its initial startup costs, geothermal power
plants can produce electricity cost-effectively because they have zero fuel costs and low
operations and maintenance costs. New technologies that decrease the capital costs and
exploration risks associated with geothermal development would make geothermal power
more attractive to investors and, as a result, more economically reliable.
Physical Reliability
Geothermal power plants are physically reliable because they can produce electricity
without interruption and adjust output as electricity demands fluctuate. Geothermal power
production, however, is geographically constrained because only certain locations have
accessible geothermal reservoirs. This constraint can be overcome with Enhanced
Geothermal Systems (EGS), which produce geothermal power using man-made
underground reservoirs in areas with high underground temperatures. EGS is still an
emerging technology and is predicted to be more costly than traditional geothermal power.
As long as geothermal power plants are constructed in viable locations, they can reliably
meet consumer electricity demands.
Environmental Reliability
Geothermal energy has fewer environmental impacts than fossil fuels. Although
geothermal energy is one of the most environmentally friendly types of energy, it still has
some environmental impacts. Geothermal fluids contain toxic chemicals that can pose a
21
danger to water sources, but geothermal developers have been successful at containing
geothermal fluids. The extraction of geothermal fluids from reservoirs can produce
emissions of nitrous oxide, sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide, but these
emissions are minimal compared to the emissions produced by fossil fuels. Geothermal
energy can also induce seismic activity, but these earthquakes are generally minor. Proper
action prevents or lessens these environmental impacts, making geothermal energy
environmentally reliable.
Figure 2.4: Reliability of Renewable Energy Sources
2.1.5 About Tiwi, Albay Geothermal Power Plant
Tiwi is a coastal municipality in the province of Albay. The municipality has a land area
of 105.76 square kilometers or 40.83 square miles which constitutes 4.11% of Albay's total
area. Its population as determined by the 2015 Census was 53,120. This represented
22
4.04% of the total population of Albay province, or 0.92% of the overall population of the
Bicol Region. Based on these figures, the population density is computed at 502
inhabitants per square kilometer or 1,301 inhabitants per square mile.
The Tiwi field has an installed capacity of 275 MWe and is located about 300-km
southeast of Manila in the Albay Province. Exploration began in 1964, and power was first
generated in 1979. By 1982 Tiwi became the world’s first water-dominated geothermal
system to produce more than 160 MWe. Philippine Geothermal, Inc. (PGI) operates the
steam field and the National Power Corporation (NPC) constructed and operates the
power plants.
The Tiwi geothermal field is located on the northeast flank of Mt. Malinao, an extinct
Quaternary stratovolcano in the East Philippine Volcanic Arc. This arc is a belt of upper –
Miocene to Recent calc-alkaline volcanoes associated with subduction along the Philippine
Trench. Mt. Malinao is composed dominantly of <0.5 million-year-old andesitic lavas and
lesser pyroclastic rocks.
Development History
Between 1964 and 1968, the Commission on Volcanology initiated exploration of the
Tiwi geothermal field. Geologic mapping and geological surveys were undertaken and
temperature gradient holes were drilled during that period.
The Reservoir
The reservoir rocks consist of andesitic lavas and flow breccias of Mt. Malinao and the
underlying Miocene-Pliocene Polangui Volcanics. The reservoir rocks thicken from the east
to west across the field as the basement rocks deepen toward the volcano. Basement
rocks below the reservoir are metasediments overlain by about 600 m of intercalated
mudstone, limestone, and volcaniclastic rock. The reservoir rocks are altered to a propylitic
mineral assemblage that formed by the interaction with hot geothermal fluids. A clay cap
seals the top and the sides of the reservoir.
Faults in the Tiwi area trend predominantly NE-SW. Four of the important structures are
the Kagumihan (K), Tiwi (T), Naglagbong (N), and Takla (TK) faults. Reservoir data
23
indicate that the Kagumihan and Tiwi faults serve to partially isolate the Matalibong area
from the Naglagbong area.
The production area of the Tiwi geothermal field is about 13 km2 and is divided into four
geographic areas: Naglagbong (N-Nag), Kapipihan (K-Kap), Matalibong (M-Mat), and
Bariis (B-Bar). Naglagbong is a lowland area in the eastern part of the field. The Kapipihan
area is in the rugged valley to the west. Matalibong and Bariis areas occupy high ridges to
the north and far west of the field, respectively. Other areas (Joroan, Sadurong, and
Tagoytoy) within the contract area were explored but results were not of commercial value.
Commercial production in the Naglagbong and Kapipihan started in 1979 with the
commissioning of the first 110 MWe power plant (Units 1 and 2). As these areas suffered
encroachment of cool fluids, development was shifted west towards Matalibong. Most
current producers are in the Matalibong and Kapipihan sectors. Units 3 to 6, each 55 MWe
began generating electricity in January, 1980, March 1980, December 1981, and March
1982, respectively.
As of 2003, 156 wells have been drilled throughout the field. Of these, 48 wells provide
current steam requirements and 16 wells are used for brine and condensate re-injection.
The deepest well has a measured depth of 2784 m (9130’) while the shallowest is 938 m
(3078’). The total installed piping in the field is equivalent to 81 km. The brine injection in
Tiwi progressed from zero brine re-injection in 1979, when commercial production began,
to 100% brine and plant condensate injection by 1993.
Performance
Tiwi is the third largest geothermal facility in the Philippines with 275 megawatts of
installed generating capacity. Since commercial operations began in 1979 and up until
December 2002, Tiwi and the Makiling-Banahaw (Mak-Ban) geothermal operations have
combined to produce 88,500 Gigawatt-hours (GWH) in gross cumulative generation.
Over this 23-year period, it is estimated that power generated from Tiwi and Mak-Ban
displaced 152.6 million barrels of oil thus saving the country an estimated US$ 3.21 billion
in terms of foreign exchange.
Outlook
24
Tiwi is a mature geothermal field having produced for over four decades. The field has
experienced every problem common to geothermal reservoirs. PGI, in cooperation with
NPC, has responded to and largely overcome these problems. The decision to push
through and accelerate the development of the indigenous resource was most astute and
beneficial to the Philippines at that time. When the NPC-PGI service contract was signed,
oil price was less than US$4/bbl. By the time commercial operation commenced, prices
had quadrupled. A financial study conducted by ELC-Electroconsult for the Asian
Development Bank showed that the net cash flows including avoided oil cost had paid for
the project in 1986.
In early 1971, upon the invitation of the Philippine Government, Union Oil Company of
California (Unocal) formed Philippine Geothermal, Inc. (PGI) to explore for and develop
geothermal resources. Through a service contract entered into with the state-owned
National Power Corporation (NPC) on September 10, 1971, PGI provided the technical
expertise and a portion of the funding for exploration and subsequent development of the
Tiwi geothermal area. NPC, for its part, was responsible for building and operating the
power plants.
Location and Geothermal Power Plant Area at Tiwi
Tiwi Geothermal Power Plant Philippines is located at Tiwi, Albay, Philippines. Location
coordinates are: Latitude= 13.4655, Longitude= 123.6486. This infrastructure is of TYPE
Geothermal Power Plant with a design capacity of 330 MWe. It has 6 unit(s). The first unit was
commissioned in 1979 and the last in 1982. It is operated by Chevron and Aboitiz Power
Renewable Inc.
25
Figure 2.5: Tiwi GPP Land Area Data
26
Figure 2.5: Geographic Data of Tiwi GPP
2.1.6 Why Tiwi is Good For Geothermal Power Plant
In 1982, Tiwi became the world’s first water-dominated system to produce more than
160 MW. Even facing difficulties for the past decades Bicol Region, geothermal energy is a
well known resource. Two of the country’s major geothermal fields are located in the area.
The Tiwi geothermal complex, is located in the province of Albay. The non-power
application of the said area was offered for investment in the Philippine Energy Contracting
Round (PECR) 2005. The Bicol Region hosts 11 geothermal power plants with total
installed capacity of 495.5 MW.
By that data, it is perfect to install another geothermal plant along the Bicol Region.
Active volcanoes and even unactive volcanoes are a good source of geothermal steam. In
the past, hot springs were the main attractions of Tiwi, a 1 st class municipality in the
province of Albay. Hot spring are one of the indications that a geothermal steam is present
along the area. Being one of the highest geothermal energy producers in the country Tiwi
Geothermal Field must have another unit of geothermal power plants to atleast help the
country’s shortage in electricity.
History records show the Philippine Congress, recognizing the potential and benefits of
geothermal development, enacted Republic Act No. 5092, otherwise known as the
Geothermal Law in 1967. That same year, Dr. Arturo P. Alcaraz and his team came to
Tiwi and lit a light bulb using steam-powered electricity coming from Mount Malinao.
Figure 2.6: Tectonic Features of Bicol Region
27
In the Bicol Arc, there are at least twelve identified eruptive centers and volcanic
complexes (Fig. 3.7), three of which Mayon, Iriga and Bulusan - are categorized by the
Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismolog (PHIVOLCS) as active volcanoes. The
rest of the volcanic centers are inactive but are considered relatively young based on
radiometric dating and morphology (Andal et al,2005). Geothermal energy is related to this
active volcanism and plate tectonics.
There are now plans for the drilling of new production wells, as we reported in August
2018.
The field has now provided steam to the NPC power plants for 40 years and in spite of
many challenges and difficulties, gross generation has averaged 157 MWe.
Difficulties of Steam and Reservoir
The Tiwi Geothermal Field was operating for more 40 years. Because of this a shortage
of steam pressure and temperature was an big problem in the past decades. Tiwi has
been subjected to virtually all the resource challenges that are common to geothermal
reservoirs since starting commercial production in 1979 and these have been previously
discussed in Barker, et al. (1990); Gambill and Beraquit (1993) and Sugiaman, et al.
(2004) among others. In the following sections, the major challenges that are affecting
current production and will potentially affect future production are discussed;
 Even before the start of commercial production in 1979,deep reservoir pressures in

Nag were declining and by 1983, they had decreased by over 4MPa. The decline in
pressure and associated drop in water level caused the formation of an extensive steam
zone in the Nag area. However, it was also found that the Cl content of produced brine
was decreasing as early as 1977 (Gambill and Beraquit, 1993), indicating that cooler,
dilute groundwater (meteoric recharge-MR) was entering the deep reservoir.
 Production of Acid-Sulfate Fluids.During the initial development of the Nag area, a

number of wells were found to produce acid-sulfate fluids. As production moved further
west, some wells drilled in the southern area of the field from Kap and Bar encountered
acid fluids and in 2008, the presence of acid fluids was also found in the North Mat area. If
the produced fluid from these wells has a pH above 4.0, they are normally flowed to the
system but their discharge chemistry, particularly pH and Fe concentration is carefully
28
monitored as per set guidelines (Villaseñor, et al., 1999) to ensure that corrosion is not
occurring in the well and they will not cause corrosion in the surface facilities.
 Injection Breakthrough. When injection first started in the Nag area in 1983, cooling
was quickly observed and injection was relocated to the southeast “edgefield” and
“outfield” wells. Since then, there have not been any significant thermal breakthrough
issues but to help prevent this from occurring, limits have been placed on the allowable
injection rates in specific wells and production wells considered to be “at risk” are carefully
monitored. Tracer tests have also been conducted to check the connectivity of the
“edgefield” injectors in the southeast to production wells located near the southern
boundary of the field. The results showed communication between the edgefield injectors
and the Kap production area but the peak return concentrations and overall tracer recovery
were very low, suggesting the risk of thermal breakthrough is correspondingly low. The
main avenue for possible breakthrough is thought to be the Cale fault, which is nearby or
intersected by some of the wells in which tracer returns were found.
Matalibong “Superheated” Steam Zone The increased extraction from the Mat area in the
early 1990’s caused extensive boiling to occur as the pressures declined, forming a
reservoir zone that produces “superheated” steam. The presence of superheat was first
measured in the mid-1990’s although superheating had been measured as early as 1991
in some wells (Lim, 1997) and had probably started to occur in the late-1980’s
Solutions
After 30 years of commercial production, most of the common challenges faced in

developing and managing a geothermal resource have been encountered at Tiwi and have
either been overcome or mitigated. The biggest challenge was the MR in the Nag area,
which occurred within the first 3 years of operation and necessitated the relocation of the
entire production system. The key to overcoming these challenges has been to have a
strong multi-disciplinary resource team in place that can quickly understand and react to
the issues and provide workable solutions.
29
2.1.7 What is Electricity?
Electricity is the flow of electrical power or charge. It is a secondary energy source which
means that we get it from the conversion of other sources of energy, like coal, natural gas, oil,
nuclear power and other natural sources, which are called primary sources. The energy
sources we use to make electricity can be renewable or non-renewable, but electricity itself is
neither renewable nor non-renewable. Electricity is a basic part of nature and it is one of our
most widely used forms of energy. Many cities and towns were built alongside waterfalls (a
primary source of mechanical energy) that turned water wheels to perform work. Before
electricity generation began over 100 years ago, houses were lit with kerosene lamps, food
was cooled in iceboxes, and rooms were warmed by wood-burning or coal-burning stoves.
Despite its great importance in our daily lives, most of us rarely stop to think what life
would be like without electricity. Yet like air and water, we tend to take electricity for granted.
Every day, we use electricity to do many jobs for us -- from lighting and heating/cooling our
homes, to powering our televisions and computers. Electricity is a controllable and convenient
form of energy used in the applications of heat, light and power.
2.2 Steam Characteristics at Tiwi
Steam Characteristics
Figure 2.7: Steam Temperature at Tiwi Reservoir
30
Figure 2.8: Tiwi Water Impurities
The Tiwi geothermal field is located on the Bicol Peninsula of Southern Luzon in the
Philippines. The field is associated with the extinct Quaternary stratovolcano Mt. Malinao,
one of a chain of volcanos formed as a result of crustal subduction along the Philippine
Trench to the east. In its initial state, the Tiwi reservoir was an over-pressured liquid-filled
system containing near-neutral sodium chloride water at temperatures exceeding 260*C.
The reservoir is partially more sealed at its top and sides by hydrothermal argillic alteration
products and calcite deposition. Isolated portions of the reservoir contain a corrosive acid
chloride-sulfate water associated with a distinctive advanced argillic mineral assemblage.
Withdrawal of fluid for electricity generation has caused widespread boiling in the reservoir
and the formation of steam zones. The resultant solids deposition in wellbores and near-
wellbore formation has been mitigated by a combination of mechanical and chemical well
stimulation.
Continuous core was collected from 2586.5 to 8000 feet (900 to 2800 meters) with
greater than 95% recovery. The reservoir rocks observed in Mat-25 consist mainly of
andesitic and basaltic lavas and volcaniclastic rocks above 6600 feet depth (2012 meters)
and andesitic sediments below, with a transition from subaerial to subaqueous
(marine)more deposition at 5250 feet (1601 meters).
Location of the Well
. Map of the Philippines showing the locations of the Tiwi field and regional tectonic features.
Map of the Tiwi geothermal field showing the reservoir outline, wellhead locations and four
production areas. Abbreviations: N=Naglagbong; K=Kapipihan; B=Bariis; M=Matalibong.
31
Figure 2.9: Tiwi Well
Deep of the Well
Figure 2.10: Well Depth
32
2.3 Components of the Geothermal Power Plant
■ Production Well
■ Separator
■ Heat Exchanger
■ Steam Turbine
■ Condenser
■ Generator
■ Injection Well
2.3.1 Production Well
■ Source of steam
■ Depth 3 km to 10 km
■ Similar to production well of an oil rig
■ Wells may be located as far as 10 km to 14 km from power plant
■ Steam can be moist or dry, moist steam passes through separator
■ Water or brine is reinjected through injection well
Figure 2.11: Injection Well
33
2.3.2 Separator
■ Steam contains non-condensable gases including Hydrogen Sulphide
■ Separator are used for the purpose to remove these gases
■ 2 phase and 3 phase separators are used according to requirement
■ Separators are vertically horizontally designed
Figure 2.12: Separator
2.3.3 Heat Exchanger
■ A system used to transfer heat between two or more fluids.
■Heat exchangers are used in both cooling and heating processes.
■The fluids may be separated by a solid wall to prevent mixing or maybe in contact.
34
Figure 2.13:
2.3.4 Steam Turbine
■ specially designed steam turbine are used for geothermal power plants
■ Steam can be corrosive due to many non-condensable gases e.g. Hydrogen Sulphide
■ to protect rotor blades and nozzles from corrosion special coatings and materials are used
■The generation and transmission side of geothermal power plants is similar to conventional
power plants
35
Figure 2.14: Steam Turbine
2.3.5 Condenser
■Steam condensed at a vacuum at the turbine exit
■most plants use direct contact condensers that uses water itself as the cooling media.
Figure 2.15: Condenser
36
2.3.6 Injection Well
■ The excess condensate and the brine from the separator returns back to the underground
thermal reservoir.
■ Reinjection wells are located in appropriate places.
■ Some reservoirs can give outputs for years without reinjection.
37
CHAPTER III
Design of Geothermal Plant
38
Definition of Terms
Capacity factor - The unit less ratio of an actual electrical energy output over a
given period of time to the maximum possible electrical energy output over that period.
The capacity factor is defined for any electricity producing installation, such as a fuel
consuming power plant or one using renewable energy, such as wind or the sun. The
average capacity factor can also be defined for any class of such installations and can be
used to compare different types of electricity production.
Demand Factor - the ratio of the maximum demand during an assigned period
upon an electric-power system to the load actually connected during that time expressed
usually in per cent.
Diversity Factor - a measure of the probability that a particular piece of equipment

will turn on coincidentally to another piece of equipment. For aggregate systems it is
defined as the ratio of the sum of the individual non-coincident maximum loads of various
subdivisions of the system to the maximum demand of the complete system.
Efficiency - the ratio of the useful work performed by a machine or in a process to

the total energy expended or heat taken in.
Energy - the capacity for doing work. It may exist in potential, kinetic, thermal,
electrical, chemical, nuclear, or other various forms. There are, moreover, heat and work,
energy in the process of transfer from one body to another. After it has been transferred,
energy is always designated according to its nature.
Generator - is a device that converts mechanical or chemical energy into electrical

energy. Generators often use motors, turbines, engines, cranks, pistons, or other sources
of mechanical energy. Likewise, generators may use chemicals or other materials that
produce electricity when mixed or ignited.
39
Load Factor - means efficiency. It is the ratio of actual kilowatt-hours used in a

given period, divided by the total possible kilowatt -hours that could have been used in the
same period, at the peak kW level established by the customer during the billing period.
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) - specializes in renewable energy

and energy efficiency research and development. NREL is a government-owned,
contractor-operated facility, and is funded through the United States Department of
Energy.
Plant Capacity Factor - The ratio of the average power load of a plant to its rated
capacity.
Step Down Transformer - step-down transformer is one who secondary windings

are fewer than the primary windings. In other words, the transformer’s secondary voltage
is less than the primary voltage. So, the transformer is designed to convert high-voltage,
low-current power into a low-voltage. A common case of step-down application is in the
case of door bells.
Step Up Transformer - step-up transformer is the direct opposite of a step-down

transformer. There are many turns on the secondary winding than in the primary winding
in the step-up transformers. Thus, the voltage supplied in the secondary transformer is
greater than the one supplied across the primary winding.
Transformer - A static electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two
or more circuits. A varying current in one coil of the transformer produces a varying
magnetic flux, which, in turn, induces a varying electromotive force across a second coil
wound around the same core.
Utilization Factor - use factor is the ratio of the time that a piece of equipment is in
use to the total time that it could be in use. It is often averaged over time in the definition
such that the ratio becomes the amount of energy used divided by the maximum possible
to be used.
40
Cooling Tower = is a device used to cool condenser water in power and

refrigerating plants.
Corrosion = is the destruction/conversion of metal into oxides or salts. This is due

to the acid condition of water or to the presence of too much oxygen, carbon dioxide or
chlorides. The most serious factor is the oxygen dissolved in the feed water
Control Valves = valves used within industrial plants and elsewhere to control
operating conditions such as temperature, pressure, flow, and liquid level by fully or
partially opening or closing in response to signals received from controllers that compare
a “setpoint” to a “process variable” whose value is provided by sensors that monitor
changes in such condition.
Engine Efficiency = a measurement of the performance of a heat engine or prime

mover unit expressed as a ratio of actual work output to the ideal work that the engine
could have possibly produced.
Heat Exchanger = is a device built for efficient heat transfer from one medium to
another, whether the media are separated by a solid wall so that they never mix, or the
media are in direct contact. They are widely used in space heating, refrigeration, air
conditioning, power plants, chemical plants. Petrochemical plants, petroleum refineries,
and natural gas processing. One common example of a heat exchanger is the radiator in
a car, in which a hot engine-cooling fluid, like antifreeze, transfer heat to air flowing
through the radiator.
Pipe = is an industrial facility for the generation of electric power. Power plant is also
used to refer to the engine in ships, aircraft and other large vehicles. Some prefer to use the
term energy center because it more accurately describes what the plants do, which is the
conversion of other forms of energy, like chemical energy.
41
Saturated Vapor = is a vapor at saturation temperature and pressure. It has no

liquid or moisture.
Steam Turbine = a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from

pressurized steam, and converts it into useful mechanical work. it has almost completely
replaced the reciprocating piston steam engine, primarily because of its greater thermal
efficiency and higher power-to-weight ratio. The steam turbine is a form heat engine that
devices much of its improvement in thermodynamic efficiency from the use of multiple
stages in the expansion of the steam. as opposed to the one stage in the Watt engine,
which results in a closer approach to the ideal reversible process. Marine propulsion is
perhaps the only industry to employ reversing steam turbines.
Thermal Efficiency = the useful work energy appearing as shaft power presented
as percentage of heat chargeable.
42
3.1 System Design and Conditions of Geothermal Power Plant
3.1.1 Resource Characterization
Before age of thermal power plant can be designed, the available energy resource must
be characterized to the maximum extent feasible. This translates to measurement or
prediction of three critical characteristics of the geo fluid: thermodynamic state, flow rate, and
chemical composition. Fortunately, a great deal of literature exists describing the
characteristics of geothermal resources at various sites around the world. The Oregon
Institute of Technology Geo-Heat Center has compiled a database describing geo fluid
temperature and flowrate at 1469 geothermal wells in the western states. More recently, the
U.S. Department of Energy’s Geothermal Technologies Program has presented data
describing current and potential geothermal resources across the United States. Di Pippo
presents exhaustive data describing geo-fluid temperature, pressure, flowrate, and chemistry
at eight operational geothermal power plants around the world. This proven data from
operational power plants is useful in providing reasonable inputs with which to validate the
numerical models developed in the present research. Lee proposes classifying geo-fluid by its
specific exergy as opposed to the more commonly used temperature classifications, and
presents data illustrating the specific exergy of geo-fluid at several operating geothermal
plants. This work
alignswiththemorerecentuseofexergyasameansofquantifyingtheperformanceofgeothermal
power plants both by others and in the present research .
3.1.2 Why Choose Double Flash GTPP?
At present, double-flash geothermal power plants account for 20% of the installed
geothermal electric generation capacity in the world, with dry steam and single-flash plants
comprising the majority of installed capacity. However, as rising electricity demand forces
engineers and policy makers to develop increasingly complex geothermal resources, the fact
that double-flash plants produce 15-25% more power than their single-flash counterparts will
likely lead to an increase in the implementation of double-flash plants.
43
Previous literature on the optimization of double-flash geothermal power plants provides

significant insight into the relationships between design variables and plant performance, but
is limited in two significant ways. First, there are vital real-world constraints (silica deposition
and turbine exhaust quality) present in every double-flash geothermal plant that are often
ignored or accounted for only under one specific set of conditions. Second, it has been
common practice to assume a fixed condenser temperature and develop results based on that
single condenser temperature.
In practice, however, meteorological conditions lead to a widely varying condenser

temperature as the plant operates. In this chapter, the work of the previous literature is
expanded by completing a thorough investigation of the double-flash geothermal power plant
design space across arrange of reasonable condenser temperatures while incorporating the
real-world constraints in a rigorous manner. These results are then visualized in a
comprehensive sense, providing insight into the complex interplay between the design
variables and practical constraints across a broad range of practically meaningful geothermal
resource temperatures and condenser temperatures.
44
SCHEMATIC and T-s DIAGRAM OF DOUBLE FLASH GPP
Figure 3.1: Schematic Diagram of the Double Flash GPP
45
Figure 3.2: T-s Diagram of Double Flash GPP
A schematic of a double-flash geothermal power plant is shown in Figure 3.12, with a

temperature entropy diagram shown in Figure 3.13. Geothermal brine exits the production
well (1) as a saturated liquid above atmospheric pressure. After passing through a throttle
valve, the brine (2) enters a separator where saturated vapor (4) is sent to a high-pressure
turbine while the saturated liquid (3) undergoes a second throttling process before
entering the flash vessel (6). The lower pressure saturated vapor (8) exits the flash vessel
to combine with the exhaust of the high-pressure turbine (5) before entering a low-
pressure turbine (9). The mechanical power of both turbines is used to generate electrical
power via a generator. The turbine exhaust (10) is condensed in a condenser (11), while
46
the saturated liquid exiting the separator (7) is reinjected into the geothermal reservoir via
an injection well.
3.1.3 Design Conditions and Thermodynamics Analysis
Power Generated
Pgen = 55, 000 kW or 55 MWe
Pgen at High-Pressure Turbine = 40 MWe
Pgen at Low-Pressure Turbine = 15 MWe
Temperatures
T1 = 260 oC
T2 = T3 = T4 = 205 oC
T7 = T6 = T8 = T9 = T5 = T5s = 110 oC
T11 = T10 = T12 = T10s = 40 oC
Note: Steam and water are all saturated.
Mass flow rate of steam/water
m= 235 kg/s (saturated water)
Enthalpies at Separator at Steam Tables;
h1 = hf = 1,134.37 kJ/kg = h2
h3 = hf @ T2 = 875.04 kJ/kg = h6
47
h4 = hg @ T2 = 2,796 kJ/kg
The quality of the saturated mixture at state 2, x 2, is calculated as
h 2−h 3
x2 =
h 4−h 3
kJ kJ
1134.37 −875.04
kg kg
= = 0.135
kJ kJ
2796 −875.04
kg kg
Enthalpy at Flash Vessel at Steam Tables;
h6 = h3 = 875.04 kJ/kg
h7 = hf @ T6 = 461.3 kJ/kg
h8 = hg @ T6 = 2,691.5 kJ/kg
Will mixed the saturated mixture with 5, the quality at state 6 is calculated as
x6 = h6 – h7/ h8 – h7
875.04−461.3
= = 0.1855
2691.5−461.3
The entropy at state 5s, s5s, (assuming isentropic expansion through the high-pressure
turbine) is equal to the entropy of a saturated vapor at state 2,
S5s= sg @ T2 = 2.3780 kJ/kg K
s7 = sf @ T6 = 1.4185 kJ/kg K
s8 = sg @ T6 = 7.2387 kJ/kg K
S 5 s−s 7
x5s =
s 8−s 7
2.3780−1.4185
= 7.2387−1.4185 = 0.1649 Enthalpy at the 5s is calculated as
h5s = h7 + x5s * (h8 – h7) = 461.3 + 0.1649(2,691.5 – 461.3) = 829 kJ/kg

48
Because a saturated mixture of vapor and liquid droplets passes through the turbine, the
well-known Baumann rule (wherein a 1% decrease in quality yields a 1% decrease in
efficiency) is utilized to calculate the actual enthalpy at the exit of the high pressure turbine:
h5 = h 4− Apt∗¿ ¿
Where the dry isentropic efficiency of the turbine is assumed to be a typical value, η
turbine = 0.85, and is used to calculate the factor A,
Apt = (η turbine/2) (h4−h5s)
= (0.85/2) (2796 – 829) = 836 kJ/kg ; x4 = 1
Solving for h5
h5 = 2796−836∗¿ ¿ = 1,551.38 kJ/kg
s5 = T6 and h5; through interpolation at temperature 110 oC at Steam Tables
h s
2,230.2 kJ/kg 5.8202 kJ/ kg K
1,551.38 kJ/kg s5
461.3 kJ/kg 1.4185 kJ/kg K
s5 = 4 kJ/kg K
4−1.4185
x 5 = s5 – s 7 / s 8 – s 7 = = 0.4435
7.2387−1.4185
Mass bleed in systems
m1 = 235 kg/s
m4 = x2 (235 kg/s) = 0.135 (235 kg/s) = 31.725 kg/s = m5
49
m3 = 235 kg/s – 31.725 kg/s = 203.275 kg/s = m6
m8 = x6 (m6) = 0.1855 (203.275 kg/s) = 37.71 kg/s
m7 = (1-0.1855) (203.275 kg/s) = 165.57 kg/s
m9 = m5 + m8 = 31.725 + 37.71 = 69.435 kg/s
Enthalpy at point 9
h9 = m5h5 + m8h8 / m9 = [(31.725 * 1551.38) + (37.71 * 2691.5)] / 69.435
h9 = 2,170.58 kJ/kg
h 9−h7 2170.58−461.3
x9 = = = 0.7664
h 8−h7 2691.5−461.3
s9 = s7 + x9(s8 – s7) = 1.4185 + 0.7664(7.2387 – 1.4185) = 5.88 kJ/kg K = s10s
s11 = 0.5725 kJ/kg K s12 = 8.2570 kJ/kg K
h11 = 167.57 kJ/kg h12 = 2,574.3 kJ/kg
S 10 s−S 11
x10s = = 5.88 – 0.5725 / 8.2570 – 0.5725 = 0.69
S 12−S 11
h10s = h11 +x10s (h12 – h11) = 167.57 + 0.69(2574.3 – 167.57) = 1,828 kJ/kg
Apt = (0.85/2)(2170.57-1828.21) = 145.503
h10 = 2170.57−145.503∗¿ ¿ = 1,951 kJ/kg
3.1.4 Mass Flow Rate from Production Well
Saturated water coming from production well is has a very large amount of water, but
actually the saturated steam being used was just a small percentage of what really the well
produce.
50
On the high pressure turbine only 31.725 kg/s of 205 oC saturated steam was used,
produced by separator it happen because of pressure drop at throttling valve. That was just
13.5% of the output of the production well
On the low pressure turbine there is only 37.71 kg/s of steam from flash vessel was
used, it will mix with 31.275 kg/s of wet steam coming from turbine. The total mass of the wet
3.steam entering the low pressure turbine is just 69.435 kg/s. The amount of steam and
water being used by the turbine was 29.55% of the total well output.
The remaining 165.565 kg/s will flow directly to reservoir and again heated until it’s
used again by the plant. The 69.453 kg/s was pass through injection well and flow to the
reservoir.
Even the plant lost a lot of water output at production well, it is good for a plant for a
long run. The reservoir will have just a minimal changes in its pressure and temperature. The
water at the reservoir will not be consume at a past rate. The sudden pressure and
temperature drop at the reservoir can make a big impact to the plant electricity output. So we
have to consider this thing for the plant to have it maximum efficiency at long run.
3.2 Steam Turbine Design
3.2.1 Discussion on Steam Turbine
A Steam Turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from

pressurized steam and transforms it into mechanical work. Because the turbine
generates rotary motion, it is particularly suited to driving electrical generators – about
90% of all electricity generation invented the first modern turbine, a reaction turbine
(1884). A steam turbine is a reaction turbine. Connected to a dynamo, the turbine
produced 7.5 KW of electricity. During Parsons’ lifetime, this generation capacity
increased 10,000 times over. Steam turbines range from <0.75 KW units to 1.5 GW
units. Large turbines are used to generate electricity.in the United States (1996) is by
use of steam turbines. Sir Charles A. Parsons
51
As the name implies, a steam turbine is powered by steam. As hot, gaseous

steam flows past the turbine' spinning blades, steam expands and cools, giving off most
of the energy it contains. This steam spins the blades continuously. The blades thus
convert most of the steam's potential energy into kinetic energy.
3.2.2 Design Calculations of Steam Turbine
Figure 3.3: Steam Turbine
1. Ideal Turbine Work, Wi
Wlpt = (h4 – h5s)

KJ KJ
= (2,796 −829 )
kg kg
Wlpt = 1,967 kJ/kg
Wlpt = (h9 – h10s)

KJ KJ
(
= 2,170.58
kg
−1,828
kg )
Wlpt = 342.58 kJ/kg
Wi = 1,967 kJ/kg + 342.58 kJ/kg
52
Wi =2,309.58 kJ/kg
2. Ideal Turbine Power, P
Phpt = m4 (h4 – h5s)
KJ KJ
¿ 31.725 kg /s( 2,796 −829 )
kg kg
Phpt = 62,403 KW = 62.403 MW
Plpt = m9 (h9 – h10s)
KJ KJ
= 69.435 kg /s (2,170.58 −1,828 )
kg kg
Plpt = 23,787 KW = 23.787 MW
Total Power Generated = 62.403 MW + 23.787 MW
Ideal Power Generated = 86.19 MW
3. Actual Turbine Work, Wa
Whpt = (h4 – h5)
KJ KJ
= (2,796 −1,551.38 )
kg kg
Whpt = 1,244.62 kJ/kg
Wlpt = (h9 – h10)
KJ KJ
= (2,170.58 −1,951 )
kg kg
Wlpt = 219.58 kJ/kg
Wi = 1,244.62 kJ/kg + 219.58 kJ/kg

53
Wi =1,464.2 kJ/kg
4. Actual Turbine Power, Pa
Phpt = m4 (h4 – h5)
KJ KJ
= 31.725 kg /s(2,796 −1,551.38 )
kg kg
Phpt = 39,486 KW = 39.486 MW
Plpt = m9 (h9 – h10)
KJ KJ
= 69.435 kg /s (2,170.58 −1,951 )
kg kg
Plpt = 15,247 KW = 15.247 MW
Total Actual Power Generated = 39.486 MW + 15.247 MW
Actual Power Generated = 54.733 MW
54.733 MW ≈ 55 MW
5. Ideal Rankine Thermal Efficiency, eTR
Actual Power
e TR =
Ideall Power
54.733 MW
e TR =
86.19 MW
eTR = 0.635
3.2.3 Specifications of Steam Turbine
54
Steam Turbine
General Electric
Manufacturer
Company
Location New York City, USA
Type Reaction Turbine
Ideal Turbine Work 2,309.58 kJ/kg
Actual Turbine Work 1,462.2 kJ/kg
Turbine Power Output 54.733 MW
Ideal Rankine Thermal

63.5%
Efficiency
Table 3.1 Turbine Specifications
3.3 Condenser Design
3.3.1 Discussion on Condenser
Condenser, device for reducing a gas or vapor to a liquid. Condensers are

employed in power plants to condense exhaust steam from turbines and in refrigeration
plants to condense refrigerant vapor, such as ammonia and fluorinated hydrocarbons.
The petroleum and chemical industries employ condensers for the condensation of
hydrocarbons and other chemical vapors. In distilling operations, the device in which the
vapors are transformed to a liquid state is called a condenser.
55
All condensers operate by removing heat from the gas or vapor once enough heat
is eliminated, liquefaction occurs. For some applications, all that is necessary is to pass
the gas through a long tube (usually arranged in a coil or other compact shape) to permit
heat to escape into the surrounding air. A heat-conductive metal, such as copper, is
commonly used to transport the vapor. A condenser’s efficiency is often enhanced by
attaching fins (i.e., flat sheets of conductive metal) to the tubing to accelerate heat
removal. Commonly, such condensers employ fans to force air through the fins and carry
the heat away. In many cases, large condensers for industrial applications use water or
some other liquid in place of air to achieve heat removal.
Two Methods of Condensing Vapors
1. Mixing the vapor with liquid so that the vapor can reject it latent energy of the
vapor to liquid, with a consequent increase in the temperature of the liquid.
2. Transferring the latent heat energy of the vapor through surface to another fluids
that is a lower temperature.
Two General Classification of Condenser
1. Direct contact (Jet condenser)
Jet condenser is a steam condenser in which a jet of water is sprayed into the
condenser chamber.
2. Surface contact (Surface condenser)
Surface condenser is a commonly used term for a water-cooled installed on

the exhaust from a steam turbine in thermal power stations.
Surface condensers are also used in applications and industries other than the
condensing of steam turbine exhaust in power plants
3.3.2 DESIGN OF CONDENSER
56
w
w
w
t
Figure3.4: Condenser
Condenser:
Condenser Temperature = 40° C
Entering Water Temperature = 28° C (Atmospheric Temp)
Leaving Water Temperature = 35° C
kg
m 9=69,435
s
Heat Rejected By Condenser; Q R
Q R=m 9 (h 10 s−h11 )
kg kJ kJ
Q R=69.435 (1,828 −167.57 )/ 1000 kW/MW
s kg kg
Q R=115,292 kW =115.292 MW
57
Mass Flow Rate of Cooling Water; M W
Q R=m w C p ∆ t
w
kJ
(
115.292 kW =m w 4.187
kg−° C )
( 35−28 ) ° C
kg
m w =3,933.7 x 3600 = 14,161,320 kg/hr
s
Size of tubes: from PPE by Morse, p.418, table 11-8
Figure 3.5: Tubes
Where: Di = 22.92 mm Do = 25.4 mm
BWG = 18 t = 1.24
Solving for Number of Tubes of Condenser: Nt
Where: Ww=3600 ×103 ( Aw )( Vw ) (Nt )
58
Aw → Cross-sectional Area of Tubes

Basis: BWG Number 18
From Table 11-8 of PPE by Morse, p.418
π Di 2
Aw=
4
π
Aw= ( 0.02292m)2
4
Aw=4 . 1259× 10−4 m2
Vw  Velocity of Condenser
Vw = 2.41 m/s Standard Velocity of Water
Ww
Nt=
3600 ×103 ( Aw )( Vw )
14,161,320 kg/hr
Nt=
3600 ×103 ( 4.1259× 10−4 ) (2.41)
Nt=¿ 3,956.08 Tubes ≈ 3957 Tubes
59
Figure 3.6: Total Number of Tubes
Assume the Condenser is a Single Pass:
Dsi  Inside Diameter of Condenser
L  Length
T  Thickness
Total Area of the Tube:
2
π Di 2 π ( 0.02292 )
At= ( Nt )= (3,957 tubes)
4 4
At=1.6326 m2
Area of Condenser Shell: As

As = (3 to 5) At
As = 3(At)
As = 3(1.6326 m2)
As = 4.9 m2
Solve for Inside Diameter of condenser Shell: Dsi
π Dsi 2
As=
4
4(4.9)
Dsi=
√ π
Dsi=2.5 m
60
Length of Condenser: L
From Av = au(Nt)L
Where: au  Vapor Area Per 1m length of tube
au=π ( do ) (1 m)
au=π ( 0. 0254 ) (1 m)
au = 0.0798 m2/m
Av
L=
au( Nt )
5000m 2 (assume)
L=
m2
( 0 .0798
1m )
( 3,957tubes)
L=16 m
Note: For single pass condenser, Length varies from 3 – 7.6 m
From Morse
Therefore: L = 7.237 m
1. Number of tube: Nt
N t ' =3 ( Nt )
N t ' =3 (3,957)
Nt=11,872tubes
2. Length of Condenser: L’
Av
L' =
au( N t ' )
5000 m2
L' =
(0.0798)(11,872 tubes)
L' =5.28 m
61
3. Total Area of the Tube: At
π Di 2 '
At= (N t )
4
At=π ¿ ¿
At=4.9 m2
4. Area of Condenser Shell: As

As=( 1−→5 ) At
As=3 (4.9 m2)
As=14.7 m 2
5. Solve for inside Diameter of Condenser: Dsi
π Dsi 2
As=
4
As( 4) 14.7 (4)
Dsi=
√ π √
=
π
Dsi=4.33 m
6. Thickness of Condenser Shell: ts
Pc (Dsi)
Sd=
2 ts
Where: Sd  Design Stress
0. 6 Sy
Sd=
Fs
Sy  Yield Stress From Design of Machine Elements: Faires p. 576,
table At-7
Sy = 25.0 ksi (Wrought Iron; As Rolled)
Fs  Factor of Safety = (10 – 20)
Fs = 15
62
0.6(25000)
Sd=
15
Sd=1000 psi=6.895 MPa
Pc ( Dsi )
ts=
2 Sd
0.0876( 4.33)
ts=
2(6.895)
ts=0.0275 m=27.5 mm
Note: Refer to Kent’s Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook (Power Volume) p.9 -12; Table 6 for
condenser shell design
CONDENSER SPECIFICATION
Condenser
Manufacturer Ambassador Heat
Transfer Co. - Cincinnati,
OH
Location 10080 Alliance Rd.
P.O. Box 42344
Cincinnati, Ohio 45242
USA
Type Single pass divided
water box type, surface
condenser
No. Of Passes Single pass
Rate of Water Supplied 14, 161, 320 kg/hr
Number of Tubes of 3, 957 tubes
Condenser
Total Area of the Tube 1.6326 m2
Area of Condenser 4.9 m2
Shell
Inside Diameter of 2.5 m
63
condenser Shell
Vapor Area 5,000 m2
Theoretical Length of 16 m
Condenser
Tubes Quantity 11, 871 tubes
Actual Length of 5.28 m
Condenser
Total Area Of The 4.9 m2
Tube
Area of Condenser 14.7 m2
Shell
Inside Diameter 4.33 m
Thickness 27.5 mm
Table 3.2: Condenser Specifications
3.4 Design of Cooling Tower
3.4.1 Discussion on Cooling Tower
Cooling tower is an integrated part of any geothermal power plant because waste heat
from turbine exhaust steam must be continuously rejected to make the plants operate.
According to the heat dump choice, the cooling system can be classified as wet cooling and
64
dry cooling. Dry cooling towers conduct heat transfer through air-cooled heat exchanger that
separates the working fluid from the cooling air. In a dry cooling tower, air can be introduced
by either mechanical draft fans or by natural draft tall tower to move the air across the air-
cooled heat exchangers. Ambient condition has significant effect on the performance of dry
cooling towers. Most geothermal power plants, especially the geothermal power plants using
Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) technology, have unique ambient conditions and
applications. The Queensland Geothermal Energy Centre of Excellence (QGECE)
developed natural draft dry cooling towers (NDDCTs) and steel cooling tower technologies
for geothermal power plants.
3.4.2 Cooling Tower Design Calculations
Figure 3.7: Cooling Towers
A cooling tower is a heat rejection device that rejects waste heat to the atmosphere
through the cooling of a water stream to a lower temperature. Cooling towers may either use
the evaporation of water to remove process heat and cool the working fluid to near the wet-
bulb air temperature or, in the case of closed circuit dry cooling towers, rely solely on air to
cool the working fluid to near the dry-bulb air temperature.
65
COOLING TOWER:
Temperature of Entering Water = 35° C
Temperature of Leaving Water = 28° C
Condition of Entering Air = 26° C, 65% Rh
Condition of Leaving Air = 32° C, 98% Rh
Temperature of Make-Up Water = 27° C
Barometric Pressure = 101.325 kpa
Amount Of Cooling Water , M W
M W =( M W )Condenser
Kg
M W =3,933.7
S
Air Properties: Using Psychometric Chart
@ 26° C, 65% Rh
Kj
H 3=61 ; Hr3=0.0136
Kg
@ 32° C, 98% Rh
Kj
H 4 =108 ; Hr 4 =0.0297
Kg
Mass of Air, M A
Heat Balance on the Cooling Water,
M 1=M 2=M W And M 3=M 4 =M A
( M ¿¿ W ) ( C P ) ( T 1−T 2 )+ ( M W )( C P ) ( T 5 ) =( M A ) ( H 4 −H 3 ) ¿
W 5 W
[( M ¿¿ W ) ( C P ) ( T 1 −T 2 ) ]
M W =[ ( M A ) ( H 4 −H 3 ) ]−
W
¿
5
( C P ) (T 5)
W
66
MW =
[ ( M A ) ( 108−61 ) ]−[(3933.7) ( 4.187 ) ( 35−28 ) ]
5
( 4.187 )( 27+ 273 )
M W =0.0374 m A −91.8
5
Mass Balance by Water,
M W + M W + M A Hr3=M W + M A Hr 4
5 1 2
M W =M A ( Hr 4 −Hr3 ) =M A (0.0297−0.0136)
5
M W =0.0161 M A
5
Therefore;
0.0374 m A −91.8=0.0161 M A
Kg
M A =4 ,310 Of Air
S
Mass of Make-Up Water, M W
M W =0.0161( 4 , 310 kg /s)

5
Kg
M W =69.391 Of Water
5
S
Volume Flow Rate of Air, V A
@26 ° C , 65 % Rh , P Sat =3.363 kpa
PV =Rh ( P Sat )=0.65 ( 3.363 kpa ) =2.186 kpa
Pv = mrt
67
Kg Kj
V A=
M A RA T A
=
4,310
S (0.287085
Kg−K )
( 26+ 273 ) K
PT −PV Kn
(101.325−2.186) 2
m
M3
V A =3,731.77 Of Air
S
28+35 Kg
T= =31.5 ° C ; D W =996.283 3
2 m
Kg
(4,310 )(1 Gal)(60 s)
M S
VW= W =
DW Kg
( 996.283 3
)(0.003785 m 3)(1 min)
m
V W =68 ,396.5 Gpm
68 ,396.5 Gpm 1 M2
Cooling Tower Area= X
3
Gpm (3.28)2 Ft 2
Ft 2
Cooling Tower Area=2,119.2 m 2
Using Cooling Tower Length of 75 m,
Area 2,119.2
Width= = =28.3 m
Length 75
Number of Nozzles Required
Using 10 gpm Capacity per Nozzle
VW 68 ,396.5 Gpm
No .Of Nozzles= = =6,839.65 Nozzles
Capacity 10 ≈ 6,840 Nozzles
Nozzle
68
FAN:
Wheel Diameter = 20ft.
Static Pressure = 15 In. WATER
Total Head
H T =H V
A A
Ρ V2
HT = +
A
W 2g
M3
3,731.77
Q S m
Velocity Of Air= = 2
=127.8 m/ s
A Π 2 m S
( ) ( 20 ft ) ( 2 2
)
4 3.28 Ft
Used 6x20 ft. Diameter Fan with a 22 m/s wind velocity for safety purposes
Cooling Tower
Manufacturer
Location
Type Mechanical Draft Type
of Cooling Tower
No. Of Nozzle 6,840
Rate of Make-up Water 69.391 kg/s
Mass of Air 4,310 kg/s
Volume of Air 3,731.77 m3
Volume of Water 68,396.5 gpm
Cooling Tower Area 2,119.2 m2
69
Length 75 m
Width 28.3 m
Table 3.3: CoolingTower Specifications
3.5 Production and Injection Well Design
3.5.1 Discussion About Geothermal Well
Geothermal wells are of two main types, high-temperature and low-temperature. The
design of high-temperature wells worldwide is remarkably similar in the casing profiles and
materials. The casing sizes and materials are based on standards for oilfield tubular goods.
The most common casing size for the production casing in high-temperature wells is 9-5/8"
o.d. (normal diameter) or 13-3/8" (wide diameter). For many wells, the maximum flow rate is
dictated by the well diameter, which is roughly proportional to the cross-sectional area of the
casing. Wide diameter wells are known to produce twice as much as normal sized ones.
The casing profile usually has three or four cemented casing strings of different lengths to
meet the safety requirements while drilling, and a slotted line hung in the open hole. The
length of each casing is somewhat different, but it is roughly 1/3 of the depth for the next
section of hole to be drilled (e.g. 100 m surface casing to drill to 300 m, 300 m anchor casing
to drill to 900 m, and the production casing shoe is at 900 m to drill to 2,700 m).
The exact determination of casing depth considers the reservoir pressure and
geological conditions but this 1/3 “rule of thumb” is just to explain that in general, the deeper
you drill, the deeper all casing strings have to reach. The casing connections are typically
thread of the Buttress type and the steel material API grade K55 (weld-able) or L80 (not
weld-able). The only casing hardware going down into the hole with the casing is a float
shoe and float collar for cementing the casing, to prevent return flow, and centralizers to hold
the casing in the middle of the hole while being cemented.
The low-temperature wells only have two or three casing strings and in Iceland do not
require a well-screen, they are open hole in the productive interval – “barefoot”. The depth of
casing is governed by the target temperature and geological criteria as danger of
70
uncontrolled flow is not as great as for high-temperature wells. These wells are also drilled
with special valves, so called blow-out preventers (BOPs). The output of low-temperature
wells is for very productive reservoirs, limited by the diameter of the deep well pump that can
fit inside the casing (e.g.15 l/s for 7" casing, 45 l/s for 9-5/8" casing, 100 l/s for 13-3/8"
casing).
The power plant on the surface has pairs of wells -- injection wells and production
wells. Cold water gets pumped down the injection wells. As it percolates through cracks in
the hot rock, it heats. Once it's hot enough, it rises by its own heat or by the pressure from
incoming water up the production well. The rest is geothermal as usual: Hot water makes
steam and drives turbines. Cooling towers or pipes cool the water and recycle it back into
the injection wells.
Today it is the common practice to dispose of waste fluids from geothermal power
plants by injection into special wells, both brine from producing wells and condensate from
cooling towers and ejectors. Injection serves largely two purposes. It is environmentally
desirable and helps maintaining reservoir pressures, at least, if the waste fluid is injected
back into the reservoir, thus increasing its longevity, as well as the lifetime of individual
production wells. In some producing geothermal reservoirs, however, natural recharge may
be sufficiently high to make injection unimportant from the point of view of maintaining
reservoir pressure.
There are essentially two problems associated with injection of waste geothermal
fluids. One is scaling and the other thermal breakthrough. If the injected fluid flows rapidly
into the aquifer of producing wells, it may not have had time to be heated sufficiently through
contact with the reservoir rock, causing the performance of the affected production well to
deteriorate, or even destroy it. For this reason injection is sometimes preferred on the
boundaries of production well-fields or outside them, rather than within them.
The most troublesome scale which forms in surface equipment or in injection wells is
amorphous silica. To avoid silica scaling from geothermal water, the common practice is to
prevent it from cooling sufficiently to make it supersaturated with respect amorphous silica.
This means that the wastewater may be disposed of by injection at temperatures as high as
180°C. Disposal of such a hot water entails poor use of heat from the geothermal fluid
71
brought to the surface through drill-holes. Improved heat extraction from high-temperature
geothermal fluids and successful injection of cooled waste water requires improved theory
and technology to cope with amorphous silica scale formation.
This contribution deals with scaling associated with injection of waste fluids from
geothermal power plants, how to evaluate scaling tendencies from data on water and steam
compositions followed by assessment of the best injection conditions.
Production Well
Production wells are essential for geothermal utilization and are the link between a
geothermal reservoir and the surface. The main goal of a production well is to reach areas
within the reservoir that have the highest permeability, temperature, and pressure, so that
the highest enthalpy fluids can be extracted. A production wells main purpose is geothermal
utilization but they can also be considered an exploration method because data from the first
production well will often lead to a better drilling location for a second production well.
Production wells are the best means for acquiring direct measurements from within the
reservoir and the information gained from each successive production well enhances the
reservoir model allowing for improvement in each drilling effort.
Due to the high costs, drilling production wells is the most risky step in geothermal
development. Drilling costs will normally consist of about 35-40% of the total capital cost
during a geothermal project. Not all production wells will be successful but on average a
strong production wells can often provide enough geothermal fluids to generate around 5-7
MW of electricity. Most wells drilled throughout the world produce 3 MW. On average the
success rate of the first production well drilled in a geothermal area is about 50%.
Injection Well
An injection well is a device that places fluid deep underground into porous rock
formations, such as sandstone or limestone, or into or below the shallow soil layer. The fluid
may be water, wastewater, brine (salt water), or water mixed with chemicals.
But in a geothermal power plant an injection well allows the used water back into the
ground to be reheated by the earth’s natural heat. Precise calculations ensure the cooler
water returning to the ground does not cool down the underground water near the production
72
wells. Otherwise the plant would not be as efficient. It is also for the steam reservoir to
maintain its steam pressure or at least slow drawdown of steam pressure.
Wellhead designs
There are two main designs of the wellhead. Early on, the casing head and master
valve were attached directly to the production casing and the annulus to the anchor
casing left open or had a stuffing box. Now most wells have an expansion spool where
the casing head is attached to the anchor casing and the wellhead built up from there.
The expansion spool allows the production casing to expand freely without the wellhead
moving. Wellhead expansion is, however, not a major problem as a properly cemented
casing only expands by a couple of centimeters.
Manufactured expansion spools have a pressure seal between the production casing
and anchor casing. This seal has to be carefully installed and the seal maintained
pressure tight by periodic injection of a special sealing compound. The expansion spool
is sometimes fabricated locally and is then without the pressure seal. There are several
side outlet valves attached to the casing head and expansion spool to allow pressure
testing of the annulus, and for killing of wells. These outlets often cause leaks that can be
difficult to seal. That is the reason why most high temperature geothermal wells in Iceland
do not have these outlets below the master-valve, and the killing takes place through a
valve between the master valve and the operation valve. The operation valve for the
master valve sits either directly above it or on the horizontal leg downstream of the
wellhead Tee. The wellhead Tee has a flange on top with a 3" valve for logging. A
guiding tube is attached to the flange to keep the logging wire from going with the flow,
through the side port of the Tee. The well flow is usually throttled at the wellhead by a
fixed orifice or a control valve. The preferred method now is to use a control valve in
order to match the flow requirements of the plant. Usually there is a small by-pass around
these valves to allow the well to flow when shut. For the same purpose there is a pipe
from the well to a small separator or rock muffler to keep the wellhead hot, when not in
use. The wellhead also has a small valve for fluid sampling and for pressure gauges etc.
The wellheads on low-temperature wells are quite different, and do not need a valve,
unless artesian. Artesian wellhead pressures as high as 15-25 bar-g have been
measured in Iceland but most low-temperature wells require pumping. The deep well
73
pumps, either of the shaft driven type or with a submersible motor, are simply attached to
the casing head. The annulus between the pump riser pipe and production casing should
be closed so that atmospheric oxygen does not get into the hole and cause corrosion.
The shaft driven pumps can pump water at high temperatures but the submersible ones
are limited by the temperature rating of the motor and cable.
Design of High Temperature Extraction Wells
Drilling and exploration for deep geothermal resources is expensive. Wells exceeding
a depth of 20,000 feet are not uncommon, plus the inherent nature and chemical quality
of the superheated fluid and steam requires design and operating considerations far
beyond that needed for a typical water well.
Due to the common similar characteristics of temperature and depth to an oil well, a
high temperature geothermal supply well is often drilled to these same standards and
using the same declining casing string diameters with increased depth (telescoping
casing). The primary considerations revolve around the number of proposed casing
strings, along with the diameter and depth of each string and the requirement for
adequate surface sealing to prevent the migration of heated fluid from the wellbore into
surrounding shallow formations.
Occasionally, the thermal expansion or depth characteristics of a geothermal well can

result in stresses beyond the safe level of the casing material and associated wall
thickness from elevated temperatures or internal stresses, possibly resulting in bursting
(from tension stresses) or crushing (from compression stresses) developed within the
pipe string. This can present a risky condition when the casing string is much longer than
74
permitted for the material and wall thickness, or a portion is subjected to higher
temperatures with the remaining casing out of the hot fluid at a much lower value.
Many high temperature geothermal supplies develop flowing wells or geysers and
therefore do not require pumping to the surface. In cases where pumping is required, as
with an oil well, design of a pumping system is especially critical for factors including
thermal expansion of components, motor cooling (for submersible units), submersible
pump cable selection, and potential corrosion from chemistry incompatibility.
The actual design of a high temperature geothermal well or pumping system is

beyond the scope of this column and should only be performed by qualified and
experienced personnel using recognized engineering criteria.
Enhanced Geothermal Systems, known in some applications as Aquifer Thermal

Energy Storage Systems, are similar in concept to the principle of Aquifer Storage and
Recovery, in which water is actively injected into wells to be stored and subsequently
pumped back from the aquifer and used for heating or cooling.
The water is injected under high pressure to expand (fracture) existing rock fissures.
This enables the water to freely flow in and out of the wellbore for a standing column type
of installation or re-pumped from a separate well for a two-well system. The technique
was adapted from oil and gas extraction techniques, but the geologic formations are
usually deeper in depth and no toxic chemicals are used—reducing the possibility of any
surface environmental damage. Drillers can also employ directional drilling to expand the
size of the reservoir.
75
Figure 3.8: Well Design
Figure 3.9: Geothermal System
Drilling Fluids Overview
76
Drilling fluid flows down the drill pipe, through nozzles in the bit, and back up the
annulus between the pipe and wellbore wall, carrying the cuttings produced by the bit’s
action on the rock. (An alternative method, called reverse circulation42, is sometimes
used—the fluid flows in the opposite direction, down the annulus and up the inside of the
drill pipe, but it is not common and may have issues with well control, as the use of non-
return or check valves inside the drill-string is precluded.) Drilling fluids can be either
liquid or gas, and liquid-based fluid is universally called “mud” because the first fluids
were just a mixture of water and clay. Large hole volumes and frequent lost circulation
mean that expensive mud has a significant impact on drilling cost. Drilling records from a
number of geothermal wells in several reservoirs showed the typical property ranges
below:
• Density
• Funnel viscosity
• pH
• Plastic viscosity
• Yield point
Drilling mud is made up of three principal components:
• Base liquid: Oil, fresh water, or salt water can be used as a base liquid in drilling
muds,
but oil and salt water are almost totally restricted to hydrocarbon drilling. Fresh water
muds are used for geothermal drilling. Geothermal brine that is produced from nearby
wells is sometimes used when drilling without returns.
• Active Solids: Active solids are the clays and polymers added to the water to
produce a colloidal suspension. They determine the viscosity of the mud and are known
as viscosifiers.
• Inert Solids: Inert solids are those added to the mud either by drilling (i.e., particles
of the formation) or by using barite as a weighting material. These solids increase the
density of the mud without appreciably affecting the viscosity.
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There are also soluble components of the system; products in solution in the base
liquid that cannot be filtered or removed mechanically. These ions must be chemically
analyzed and chemically treated. Undesirable ions such as calcium, magnesium, arsenic,
and chlorine may be present in the make-up water or they may be present in drilled
formations and become dissolved in the mud system. Some water sources may contain
too many undesirable ions to treat out, and thereby require locating a better source of
water.
WELL DESIGN
The main aspects of the well design process focus on the objectives and the purpose
of the well. The well design considers the casing program selection, casing setting depths
and drilling procedures to achieve satisfactory well completion and integrity of the well.
The well construction process can be split into five sequential phases of work, as
follows:
1. Preliminary well design;
2. Detailed well design;
3. Preparation of drilling program;
4. Execution of well program;
5. Analysis and improvement of performance.
Preliminary and detailed well design are important factors for the preparation of the
drilling program. Once the geological and geophysical studies have identified a potential
well location, the subsurface team will work up a basis of design. The preliminary well
design will generally involve the following:
 Well name and number;
 Well objectives;̆
 Total depth;
 Surface location;
 Water depth;
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 Target;
 Target size and tolerance;
 Target constraints;
 Geological prognosis;
 Seismic section;
 Expected hydrocarbons;
 Anticipated pore pressures;
 Anticipated temperature profile;
 Offset wells.
A review of all the available offset data and regional data is also needed and includes:
 Pore and fracture pressure plots;
 Time depth curves;
 Daily drilling reports;
 Daily mud reports;
 Mud logging records;
 Bit records;
 Casing and cementing reports;
 Survey records.
This will give an understanding of how previous wells were drilled, what problems
were encountered and how they were solved, what casing program, mud type and
density was used, any directional problems experienced, how long the well took to drill,
etc.
Detailed well design entails taking the preliminary well design and developing it further
to the point that a drilling program can be prepared. Detailed well design includes, but is
not limited, to a detailed engineering study and design of the following areas:
 Pore and fracture pressure profiles;
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 Temperature profiles (HPHT wells);
 Casing design;
 Casing running and jewellery (hardware);
 Drilling fluids;
 Hydraulics and holes cleaning;
 Cementing design;
 Trajectory and surveying;
 Torque and drag;
 Drill string design;
 Well abandonment;
 Completion design;
 Well cost and duration;
 Contingency planning.
Obviously, the amount of time spent on each area is a function of the complexity of
the well being planned.
Casing design
In the pre-planning stage, important decisions have to be made in selecting casing

depths for each casing string to achieve the total depth of the well safely.
In order to allow the drilling and completion of a well, it is necessary to select the
drilled open hole diameter with respect to the steel pipe / casing. Once in place, this pipe
is cemented, supporting the casing and sealing the annulus in order to:
 Strengthen the hole;
 Isolate unstable/underbalanced / overbalanced formations;
 Prevent the contamination of freshwater reservoirs;
 Provide a pressure control system;
 Confine and contain drilling / completion / produced fluids and solids;
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 Support wellhead and additional casing strings;
 Act as a conduit for associated operation
 Stove pipe, marine conductor, foundation pile;
 Conductor string;
 Surface casing;
 Intermediate casing / anchor casing;
 Production casing;
 Liner, slotted or perforated with holes.
Casing properties: Casing is usually specified by the following properties:
 Outside diameter;
 Weight per unit length;
 Grade of steel;
 Type of connection;
 Length of joint.
Cementing program
Planning a cementing job consists of evaluating a number of factors, including:
 Assessment of hole conditions (loss zones, hole cleaning, size, washouts,

temperatures);
 Mud properties;
 Slurry design;
 Slurry placement;
 Additional equipment (float equipment, centralizers).
Drilling Problems
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Additional equipment is required to be adapted for geothermal drilling in order to face

conditions in geothermal reservoirs: Rotating head, blow out preventer (BOP), cooling
tower for mud, air compressors and separator for aerated drilling.
During drilling, the pore pressure has to be considered in order to determine the
optimum mud weight needed to face any gas or steam pressures encountered, while
maximizing rates of penetration and minimizing loss of circulation, differential sticking and
hole stability problems.
There are different aspects of the problems while drilling geothermal wells:
 Hard fractured rocks will create drill string vibrations which will affect the rig
equipment;
 Drill string getting stuck in the hole;
 Loss of circulation requiring cementing;
 Breaking of the drill string requiring fishing;
 No returns while cementing the casing;
 Well problems: kicks and blow-outs;
 High concentration of H2S;
 Slow ROP in hard rocks;
 Selecting inadequate drill bits may cause slow ROP;
 Drilling incidents as equipment failures, personal accidents.
Drill Pipe
Choosing the drill pipe specifications can be complicated in some cases, but the
primary considerations are the following.
• Strength: The principal requirements are for tensile and torsional strength, so that
the pipe can pull the drillstring out of the hole (often with some overpull required because
of tight spots, or even partially stuck pipe) and can apply the torque needed to rotate the
bit. Internal pressure may become an issue in some cases, and bending strength is
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important in directional drilling. Higher strength grades can be susceptible to hydrogen

sulfide embrittlement. Drilling torque is often limited by drillpipe connections so high
torque connections may be desirable.
• Size: Given that several different pipe configurations might be strong enough, a
major driver for size selection is hydraulics. The internal diameter of the pipe must be
large enough to avoid excessive pressure drop in the circulating drilling fluid. It is also
necessary that the inside diameter of the pipe be large enough to pass any expected
logging tools, and the outside diameter of the drill pipe tool joints be small enough that
overshot fishing tools can be used in the event of trouble. Usually the fishing constraint
results in the outside diameter of the drill pipe tool being small enough to pass through
the smallest casing to be used, with enough clearance for the same fluid flow, again
without excessive pressure drop, on the outside of the pipe.
• Corrosion resistance: Many formation fluids are corrosive; this is especially true in
much geothermal drilling. There are a number of special grades of drill pipe made from
alloys designed for corrosive environments.
• The presence of H2S in most geothermal systems requires that the drill pipe be
suitable for H2S service and comply with NACE 0175107, or the more restrictive IRP 1
111.
• Wear resistance: Because many geothermal formations are extremely abrasive, drill
pipe tends to wear much faster than in other types of drilling. “Hard-banding” (applying
layers of wear-resistant material such as tungsten carbide to the outside diameters of the
tool joints) is common in geothermal drilling, although hard-banding can also damage the
casing if extended time is spent drilling.
Because of the low value fluid (steam or hot water), geothermal wells must produce
large fluid volumes and so tend to be larger diameter than oil and gas wells; typical
geothermal production intervals are 21.9 to 34.0 cm in diameter. Unlike oil and gas wells,
geothermal production is from the open hole or through a slotted liner, not through tubing.
This means that both drillpipe and casing are usually larger than for oil and gas wells at
the same depth.
Insulated Drill Pipe (IDP)
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As drilling fluid flows down the drill pipe, through the bit, and up the annulus it is
almost always transferring heat to or from the formation. Because the steel drill pipe acts
very much like a counter-flow heat exchanger, drilling fluid temperature inside the drill
pipe is very near its temperature in the annulus at the same depth, and both are close to
the formation temperature. This means that, in high-temperature formations, all the
drilling tools in the bottom-hole assembly (BHA) are bathed in a hot, or very hot, fluid.
This has several unfortunate effects: elastomer components (seals, downhole motor
stators) are challenged; expensive and delicate electronic steering and logging tools can
be damaged or destroyed; corrosions rates increase; and the drilling fluid itself can be
degraded. All of these problems can be solved or mitigated by adding insulation to the
drill pipe wall, so that the drilling fluid reaches the bottom of the hole at a much lower
temperature. (Fluid temperature profiles are clearly dependent on the formation thermal
gradient; it is quite possible that the highest fluid temperature with IDP is not at the
bottom of the hole, but higher in the annulus. See the cited reference for much more
discussion of this.) IDP has been demonstrated in the laboratory and in limited field
experience56, and is commercially available, but has not yet seen significant use by
industry.
Well Design Data
Base on the standards and guidelines that mention by the statement above;
Production Well
Type Seamless Type of Pipe
Casing
Rate of Flow 325 kg/s
No. of Production Well 12-15 well
Rate of flow per Well Max 50 kg/s
Size of Pipe 13 3/8”
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Temperature ≥ 260 oC
Type of Pipe API Grade K55(weldable)
Well Depth 1500 m – 2500 m
Table 3.4: Well Design Data
3.6 Steam-Water Separator Design
3.6.1 Discussion About Separator
It is a device used in boilers which separates steam from partially boiled water-steam
mixture which is below saturation temperature. Generally it is done through cyclone
separator, where the mixture is passed through spiral blades & the heavier water particles
falls back after hitting the protrudes edges at the top of the vessel whereas steam escapes
out of vessel after gaining centrifugal force.
Steam separator has main function to separate water and steam and this equipment is
usually located in steam drum. Water surface in steam drum is turbulent, so make it easy to
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mix between steam and water. The principle of steam separator is make steam flow is
changed in any direction. Because of density of steam is lighter than water make steam can
be distributed easier than water. The water droplet which has higher density will be
separated and dropped from steam. Moisture will be removed by steam separator to
eliminate damage and erosion if water or wet steam is distributed to the steam line.
Figure 3.10: Steam-Water Separator
Several pieces of equipment common in chemical and power plants are there to
separate liquid from vapor or vapor from liquid. This is an important process because the
dispersed phase can have undesirable effects. The effluent from a fossil fuel burning power
plant, for instance, may contain sulfuric acid droplets, or other undesirable materials. Steam
which has a little moisture entrained in it can leave undesirable silica deposits on
superheater tubes. Water carried over into a turbine from a boiler can erode the blades and
cause them to fail. There are many occasions when removing liquid from a gas stream or
gas from a liquid stream is required.
A variety of techniques exist for doing this. For the smallest drops (less than 10
microns) fiber mist eliminators are used. As the particles become larger, impingement
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devices like screens are adopted. As they get still larger, chevrons are used. Finally, for the
larger drops, cyclones are adopted. They can operate for the entire range of liquid-to-gas-
phase flow rates.
For a first pass at the selection of a suitable separator system, see Figure 1.
Phase Separation Overview should also be consulted. The most important parameter
is the drop or particle size with 10 microns (10 × 10−6 m) being the dividing line
between the particles which can be separated by inertial means using cyclones or
chevrons, and those which are so small that filters or other means based on diffusion
must be used.
Separator Systems
An example of a separator system which has been used for steam and water at
elevated pressure is shown in Figure 1, Young et al. (1980). A steam/water mixture enters
the vertical pipe at the lower center of the figure. It passes through the swirler in the center
which throws most of the liquid onto the walls of the central tube. Just after the swirler, the
separated liquid is removed through holes in the walls of the central tube. The steam and
remaining spray passes into a plenum which allows further liquid removal by gravity. The
removed liquid drains onto the small tube which is at the right of the central tube. The
remaining mist and vapor proceeds up into the dryer near the top of the vessel where an
impingement separator removes most of the remaining liquid. The almost dry vapor then
proceeds into the discharge shown at the top of the figure. The principles of gravity, swirl,
and impingement separation are all illustrated in this installation.
A system which has different geometric constraints is illustrated in Figure 2. Head

room is limited in a steam drum so the liquid and vapor from many heated tubes enter at the
bottom, pass up into the periphery into a double row of cyclone separators. Almost dry
steam leaves out of the top of the cyclone while the separated liquid leaves the bottom. The
almost-dry steam proceeds to the scrubber section (usually chevrons) and then out of the
drum to the superheater.
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The mass flow rate of drops less than 10 microns in diameter is quite small in typical
steam generation installations so the mass fraction of liquid flowing out of the separator
section for installation of this type is typically of the order of 0.1 percent.
For chemical plant installations in which the drops consist of fumes of toxic
substances like sulfuric acid, better separation efficiencies are required. For this a fiber mist
eliminator is desirable. This type of separator is the only one which will work on fume
particles as small as 0.1 microns.
Separation can be a problem when some vapor is entrained with liquid, such as when
a jet or stream of liquid enters a pool. This is called carry under. To prevent carry under from
being a problem, the liquid flow rate down in the pool must be kept well below the bubble
rise velocity; that is, the velocity down for the liquid should be less than 0.2 m/s.
In the remainder of this section, the types of separators will be described in greater
detail, their limitations and characteristics mentioned, and guidelines for selection given.
Types of Separators
Gravity Separators
The simplest separator is the gravity separator. The rule of thumb used to size a
gravity separator is that the superficial velocity of vapor at the free surface should be less
than 0.3 m/s. When the velocity is greater than this, the carryover increases rapidly.
Kataoka, et al. (1981) describe the carryover process in some detail. Often these separators
are constructed as large-diameter inclined pipes in which the two-phase mixture enters at
the bottom of the high end, and separated liquid is removed from the bottom of the low end.
Vapor is removed from the top of the high end. In excess of 99 percent of the entrained
liquid can be removed in gravity separators though some small drops are carried over for all
flow rates. These separators can be horizontal or vertical cylinders or spheres. When a
gravity separator is overloaded, the distinct interface between the liquid and vapor
disappears, and a large amount of liquid is carried over. A distinct interface between the
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liquid-rich and vapor-rich regions always disappears by the time the superficial velocity of
vapor is greater than 2 m/s.
Centrifugal Separators
Centrifugal separators have a higher characteristic throughout and have the unique
characteristic in that they can be used to separate any proportions of liquid or vapor in the
incoming stream (see also Centrifuges). The flow regime in the incoming stream doesn't
matter. When they are used within their design envelope, they effectively separate 99
percent of the liquid. Drops that are less than 10 microns in diameter are not usually
separated. The pressure drop in these separators tends to be larger than in other kind
because the characteristic velocity is larger. The swirler shown in the center of Figure 1 is
typical of centrifugal separators. When a cyclone separator is overloaded, the pressure in
the swirl chamber drops so much below that of the pool into which the separated liquid
drains that the liquid rises up the down commer and floods the separator.
Chevrons and Screens
Chevrons and screens operate by intercepting drops which are unable to follow the
vapor as it goes through a tortuous path through the device. These separators work on
dispersed flows and are generally ineffective on drops less than 10 microns in diameter.
Figure 3 shows how the chevrons are arranged. Vapor flow is in the horizontal plane while
the separated liquid runs down due to gravity normal to the page. When a chevron separator
is overloaded, the liquid is re-entrained before it can drain away. Knitted wire mesh
separators perform much the way chevron separators do except that they have lower
characteristic velocities in them but can trap smaller drops. They fail when overloaded in the
same way that chevron separators do, the separated liquid is re-entrained before the liquid
can drain away.
3.6.2 Design of Separator
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Separator Data
Vapor mass flow rate = 31.725 kg/s x 3600 s/hr = 114,210 kg/h
Vapor Density = Specific volume of saturated steam at 205 ° C is 0.11521 m3/kg
= 1/0.11521 m3/kg = 8.68 kg/m3
Liquid mass flow rate = 203.275 kg/s x 3600 s/hr = 1,055790 kg/h
Liquid Density = 858.8 kg/m3
Holdup Time = 8 min
Surge Time= 5 min
Pressure = Sat at 205 °C = 17.23 Bar
L/D Ratio = 4
Liquid Out = 2 m/s
Design Velocity = 0.75 of Vt
Terminal Velocity (Vt) = 1.015 m/s
K-Value = 0.1021
Feed In = 750 kg/m s2 = Vapor Out
Giving all this data, at checalc.com we got;
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Figure 3.11: Separator Diagram
Figure 3.12: Separator Dimension
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3.7 Power System Analysis
Electric Grid
An electrical grid, or electric grid, is an interconnected network for delivering

electricity from producers to consumers. It consists of. Generating stations that produce
electrical power high voltage transmission lines that carry power from distant sources to
demand centers. The electric grid is broadly made up of three main components:
Generation, Transmission or Distribution, and Consumption.
Components
Generating Plants – A power station, also referred to as a power plant or
powerhouse and sometimes generating station or generating plant, is an industrial
facility for the generation of electric power. Most power stations contain one or more
generators, a rotating machine that converts mechanical power into electrical power. In
this case, we use wind energy to create mechanical energy then convert that energy
into electrical energy using a generator.
Transmission Lines – An Infrastructure of conductors designed to carry electricity or
an electrical signal over large distances with minimum losses and distortion.
Substations – A substation is a part of an electrical generation, transmission, and
distribution system. Substations transform voltage from high to low, or the reverse, or
perform any of several other important functions.
Transformers – A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers electrical
energy between two or more circuits. A varying current in one coil of the transformer
produces a varying magnetic flux, which, in turn, induces a varying electromotive force
across a second coil wound around the same core. This mechanism increases or
decreases the electricity voltage.
Distribution lines – A distribution line is a line or system for distributing power from a
transmission system to a consumer that operates at less than 69,000 volts. When a voltage
greater than 1 kilovolt and less than 40 kilovolts is used for a particular power line, the
power line is typically referred to as a distribution line. It is an Infrastructure similar to
transmission lines but for lower voltage of electricity mainly used for distribution of
electricity to the consumers.
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3.8 Power Load Forecasting
With the Philippines’ growing population and continued industrialization, the

Department of Energy has forecasted the country’s demand for electricity to reach over
40,000 megawatts (MW) in 2040, exceeding the 19,536 MW existing dependable
capacity being supplied by the country’s power plants.
To address this, the government proposed the Philippine Energy Plan 2017-2040,
which aims to increase the country’s renewable energy installed capacity to at least 20
000 MW.
Around 16,949 MW of potential renewable energy capacities are expected within the
horizon, with hydro contributing to about 10,792 MW, followed by solar (4,081 MW), wind
(1039 MW), geothermal (684 MW), biomass (326 MW), and ocean (26 MW).
However, since the building of hydro and geothermal facilities usually takes three to
five years, many are more excited about the prospects of solar facilities, which are easier
to put up and scale and are relatively unobtrusive.
This landscape, together with the government’s initiatives, presents the rise of new
opportunities in the energy sector.
The year 2016 is characterized by a significant increase in electricity consumption at

10% and peak demand at 8.7% attributed to several factors such as the increase in
temperature and utilization of cooling equipment aggravated by the strong El Niño, the
conduct of National and Local elections during the first half of the year, increase in
economic growth, and entry of large power generating plants. The residential and
industrial sectors remained the major drivers of electricity consumption in the country
while Luzon remained the largest on a per grid basis. Notably, the growth of the country’s
supply base supplemented the increase in demand with the growth of total installed
capacity at 14% from 18,765 MWh (2015) to 21,423 MWh (2016) majority coming from
coal-fired power plants. Among the three grids, Mindanao has the highest recorded
growth in terms of capacity at 31% from 2015-2016. From 2017-2025 a total of 5,068 MW
committed projects are expected to come online. The DOE is continuously encouraging
investments in power generation in view of the increasing peak demand which is
expected to grow by more than triple* in 2040. Along with supply security, the DOE also
embarks on increasing the reliability and resiliency of the system. In 2016, several yellow
and red alerts were declared by the system operator in Luzon and Visayas in addition to
the major grid disturbances and load dropping incidents. Among the three major grids,
Mindanao was adversely affected by El Niño which caused the decline in hydro power
generation and curtailment of supply during the first half of 2016. The entry of large coal-
fired power plants in Mindanao on the latter part of 2016 has addressed these
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3.9 Variable Load
Average Load
Based on actual practice, average load should be 50–65 % of the rated plant
capacity.
Assume: 370 MW as KW Output and 60% for average load
Average Load = 65% (Rated Plant Capacity)
Average Load = 65% (55 MW)
Average Load = 35.75 MW
Then:
Total Load
Average Load =
Total Hour
Total Load=Average Load ×Total Hour
Assume:
Total Hour = 24 hours
Total Load = 35.75 MW ×24 hours
Total Load = 858 MW-h rs
Peak Load
Based on actual practice, peak load should be 75–85 % of the rated plant capacity
Assume:
Peak Load = 80% (Rated Plant Capacity)
Peak Load = 80% (55MW)
Peak Load = 44 MW
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Then:
Reserve Over Peak = Rate Plant Capacity – Peak Load
Reserve Over Peak = 55 MW – 44 MW
Reserve Over Peak = 11 MW
1. Load Factor
Load Factor is the ratio of average load over a given time interval to the
maximum peak load during the same time interval
average load over a given time

Load Factor=
peak load during the same interval
35.75 MW
Load Factor=
44 MW
Load Factor = 0.8125
2. Capacity Factor
Capacity Factor is the actual energy production divided by the maximum

possible energy that might have been produced during the same period.
average load over a given time

Capacity Factor =
rated capacity of the plant
35.75 MW
Capacity Factor =
55 MW
Capacity Factor =0.65
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3. Use Factor
Use Factor is the maximum peak load to the rated plant capacity of the plant.
peak load
Use Factor =
rated capacity of the plant
44 MW
Use Factor =
55 MW
Use Factor = 0.80
4. Demand Factor
Demand Factor is the ratio of actual maximum demand / peak load to the
connected load
peak load
Demand Factor =
connected load
5. Diversity Factor
Diversity Factor is the ratio of actual maximum demand / peak load to the
connected load
sum of individual consumer groups

Diversity Factor =
actual peak load of the system
6. Plant Use Factor
Plant Use Factor ratio of energy produced in a given time to the maximum
possible energy that could have been produced during the same time of operation
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energy generated
Plant Use Factor =
rated plant capacity x operating hours
CHAPTER IV
INSTALLATIONS
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4.1 Plant Layout and Details
Figure 4.1: Geothermal Power Plant Layout
Plant Details
Area = 37, 500 m2
Location = Tiwi, Albay
Types of Power Plant = Geothermal
Type of GTPP = Double Flash
Designed Output =55 MW
No. of Well = 12-15 wells
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4.2 Production & Injection Well Drilling
Figure 4.2: Well Drilling
Engineered geothermal systems (EGSs) are built into hot, deep rocks: basement,
sedimentary or volcanic rocks. Developers drill wells 1.9 to 6.2 miles (3 to 10 kilometers into
the rocks, using conventional oil drills. The temperature down there measures some 160
degrees F to 600 degrees F (71 degrees C to 315 degrees C). The depth is deeper than that
used in natural geothermal systems, but the temperature is about the same.
The power plant on the surface has pairs of wells -- injection wells and production
wells. Cold water gets pumped down the injection wells. As it percolates through cracks
in the hot rock, it heats. Once it's hot enough, it rises by its own heat or by the pressure
from incoming water up the production well. The rest is geothermal as usual: Hot water
makes steam and drives turbines. Cooling towers or pipes cool the water and recycle it
back into the injection wells.
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Production wells are all the wells that are ready to go into operation to supply steam
to the geothermal power plant and that require maintenance or repairs in order to ensure
their productive capacity, as well as to prolong their useful life.
When considerable abatement is noted in the production of a well, as well as abrupt

changes in the enthalpy and/or chemical composition of the fluids, in addition to
entraining of solid matter, it is necessary to program the well's revision.
During well production, pipes can scale due to the precipitation of minerals contained
in the geothermal fluids. Carbonates and silica tend to deposit in a larger or lesser
degree in the pipes, obstructing and reducing the production capacity. The location and
thickness of scaling can be detected with calibration logs
4.3 Pad Preparation
Figure 4.3: Pad Preparation
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Location of drill pads will depend on environmental considerations in the area. The
first well is perhaps the most critical as it is meant to maximize down-hole information.
The target structure must have permeability and high temperature in order for a
geothermal resource to be present.
If the first well does not produce steam, down-hole data is evaluated in conjunction
with the initial detailed geological, geochemical and geophysical studies before deciding
on the next target drill site. If the first exploration well is a success, a step-out well is
drilled. The succeeding step-out (appraisal) wells should not be too distant from the first
well and should normally target fractures and other geological structures.
In the Philippines, where geothermal prospects are normally located in mountainous

terrain, exploratory well drilling would require the cutting of trees and opening of new
roads in order to prepare the drill pad. Tree cutting permits need to be obtained from the
DENR and an Environmental Impact Assessment of the exploration drilling activities
need be prepared. Deviated or directional wells are most often drilled because of drill pad
location constraints, vis-a-vis, the target structures deep below.
Well logging and discharge tests follow after the completion of drilling. Results of the
well surveys and tests may confirm the resource and together with the earlier
investigation results, a more defined conceptual model can be developed.
Wells often do not readily discharge after drilling even if there are sufficient indications
of permeability and high temperature. In such cases, PNOC EDC resorted to well
stimulation with the use of a boiler or with a high pressure, high volume air compressor.
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4.4 Setting Foundations
Figure 4.3: Pad Preparation
Geothermal piles consist of pile foundations combined with closed-loop ground source

heat pump systems. Their purpose is to provide support to the building, as well as acting as
a heat source and a heat sink. In effect, the thermal mass of the ground enables
the building to store unwanted heat from cooling systems.
Generally, ground source heat pumps used in domestic situations extract heat from

the ground over a certain number of hours per year, by way of underground pipes which are
laid either horizontally or vertically in a hole in the ground. In geothermal piles, the pipe loops
are laid vertically, in order for it to be possible for them to be incorporated into the pile
foundations.
Construction of geothermal piles
Structural piles are turned into heat exchangers by adding one or more loops

of plastic pipes down their length. In the construction of geothermal piles, the pile diameter
and length should be designed to resist the applied structural loads, and not increased to
suit the geothermal requirements. When constructing the piles, initially the soil is bored out
of the ground and a rigid, welded reinforcement cage is inserted. Several close-ended loops
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of high density polyethylene plastic absorber pipes (generally 25 mm diameter and 2-3

mm wall thickness) are then fixed evenly around the inside of the reinforcement cage for the
full depth.
Loops are fabricated off-site and filled with heat transfer fluid (water with antifreeze or

saline solution) and fitted with a locking valve and manometer at the top of the pile cage.
Before concreting, the absorber pipes are pressurized for an integrity test, and to prevent
collapse due to the fluid concrete. This pressure is maintained until the concrete hardens
and reapplied before the absorber pipes are finally enclosed.
When concreting, the tops of the pipes are held back to avoid damage and

a tremie pipe is placed to the base of the pile. Concrete is poured through the tremie and it is
raised up as the concrete fills the pile. Once the pile is finished, the absorber pipes are
connected to a heat exchanger which is then connected to a secondary circuit of pipes in
the floors and walls of the building (Tomlinson & Woodward, 2008).
4.5 Air Cooler Structure Assembly
Figure 4.5: Cooling Tower and Air Cooler
103
In a deluge system, the finned condenser tubes are deluged using water sprays. Air
flows over the wetted condenser tubes. With this method, the air is evaporative cooled at the
condenser tubes. This system requires a large volume of water flow, which must be evenly
distributed to wet all of the heat exchanger surfaces. The air stream is able to carry the
evaporated water away, fully saturated at the air outlet temperature.
Cooling tower is an integrated part of any geothermal power plant because waste heat
from turbine exhaust steam must be continuously rejected to make the plants operate.
According to the heat dump choice, the cooling system can be classified as wet cooling and
dry cooling. Dry cooling towers conduct heat transfer through air-cooled heat exchanger that
separates the working fluid from the cooling air. In a dry cooling tower, air can be introduced
by either mechanical draft fans or by natural draft tall tower to move the air across the air-
cooled heat exchangers. Ambient condition has significant effect on the performance of dry
cooling towers.
The cooling water flows naturally from the cooling tower cold water basin to the
condenser due to the difference in pressure and level. After mixed with the geothermal
steam condensate, the hot water flows to the hot water pump suction by gravity and is
returned to the cooling tower by the hot water pump. The cooling tower of the plant is of
counter flow type, which are constructed with the concrete body and one sided opened air
intake to reduce the noise due to splashing of water droplets.
The cooling water flows from the cooling tower under differential pressure between
the atmospheric pressure of the cold water basin and the vacuum pressure of the
condenser. Geothermal steam is mixed with cooling water in the condenser, and the
condensate water is fed to the cooling tower by the hotwell pumps. The water cooled in the
cooling tower is fed back from the cold water basin to the condenser, hence generating a
cyclic flow. The cooling water within the facilities consists of the primary cooling water, which
is channeled from a circulating water system, and the secondary cooling water, which is
used to cool the temperature of each bearing within the facilities. A plate-type heat
exchanger is installed to cool the secondary cooling water, the temperature of which has
increased by conducting the heat away from the bearings. The cooling tower made of
concrete is of the mechanical draft counter-flow suction type
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4.6 Heat Exchanger Installation
Figure 4.6: Heat Exchanger Installation
A heat exchanger assembly process and system are disclosed. The assembly method
may include positioning a core for assembly, the core having a plurality of tubes. The
method may also include pressurizing the core by increasing the pressure of a fluid within
each of the plurality of tubes to a threshold pressure. The method may further include
moving the pressurised core into an interior space of a housing.
Heat exchangers may be used to modify or maintain the temperature of fluids circulated
throughout the machines. For example, an internal combustion engine is generally fluidly
connected to several different liquid-to-liquid, liquid-to-air, and/or air-to-air heat exchangers
(e.g., oil cooler, radiator, air cooler) to cool liquids and gases circulated throughout the
engine. The circulated fluids may include oil, coolant, water, exhaust gas, air, or other fluids
used in various machine operations.
105
In general, heat exchangers transfer thermal energy between two fluids without direct
contact between the two fluids. A first fluid is typically directed through a fluid conduit of the
heat exchanger, while a second fluid is brought into external contact with the fluid conduit, in
this manner, thermal energy may be transferred between the first and second fluids through
the walls of the fluid conduit. One such heat exchanger (e.g., an oil cooler device) includes a
bundle of tubes enclosed within an outer shell: A first fluid flows through the bundle of tubes,
while a second fluid flows outside of the bundle of tubes within the outer shell. Heat transfer
between the first and second fluids occurs through the walls of the tubes.
While this type of heat exchanger can be effective at transferring thermal energy,
there are potential problems. For example, it is difficult to precisely position each tube at a
desired location during assembly of the heat exchanger. In particular, during assembly, the
bundle of tubes may flex due to the length of the tubes and shell, as well as the small
tolerance there between. When this flexure occurs, the tubes may bend, changing the
spacing between the tubes. This is a potential problem because the effectiveness of the heat
exchanger may depend on the plurality of tubes being precisely positioned within the outer
shell such that the fluid that flows on an outside of the tubes is substantially evenly
distributed across all of the plurality of tubes. Also, vibration that occurs during machine
operation may cause the tubes that are out of place to rub against a surface (e.g., another
tube, the shell, or other component), which may cause the tube to wear and eventually fail.
106
4.7 Pipeline Construction
Figure 4.7: Piping Installation
4.7.1 Pipeline Location and Surrounding
The pipeline route will be planned to suit the terrain. It will avoid all existing buildings
and significant cultural and natural features where possible, it will follow existing tracks and
roadways.
Pipeline routes are approximately 10 meters wide and incorporate a graveled road.
This road is to allow for vehicle access and to enable regular inspections and maintenance
activities. The pipelines may run for distances of up to several kilometers. The pipelines and
road will not be fenced after construction, providing ease of access and allowing for potential
grazing.
107
4.7.2 Pipeline Design and Construction
All pipelines for geothermal fluid and steam are made of welded steel and can be
from 300mm to 1200mm in diameter. The pipes are insulated with a thick layer of fiberglass
or mineral fiber insulation. The thick insulation is there to reduce losses in steam and fluid
temperatures and to avoid any danger from hot pipework. The pipes are covered in an
aluminum cladding to provide protection against potential damage and the weather. Bends
and loops in the pipelines are necessary to allow thermal expansion of the pipes.
Pipelines that carry only steam have devices on them called ‘condensate pots’. These
allow any small amounts of condensed water that collect on the pipes to be drained away at
regular intervals along the line. This small amount of condensed water is very clean and can
be drained directly into the ground.
4.7.3 Production Well Pipelines
Pipelines that connect the power plant to the production wells, which carry the
extracted geothermal steam and water directly out of the ground, are built to withstand
extremely high temperatures – as high as 270 degrees Celsius. These pipelines will include
thick thermal insulation, drains, vents, control valves and instrumentation.
4.7.4 Reinjection pipelines
Reinjection pipelines connect the power plant to the reinjection wells. By the time the
geothermal fluid exits the power station and enters this pipeline, it has cooled to about 80-
120. Though these pipes still need to be insulated, it is not to the same extent as the pipeline
entering the power station from the extraction well.
108
4.8 Transmission Line Construction
Figure 4.8: Transmission Line
The technical limitations of geothermal power plant siting puts an extra emphasis on
transmission lines with developers. Installing transmission lines is not only expensive but can
require a significant amount of permits.
To generate electricity with geothermal energy, wells are drilled, similar to oil
extraction. Operators use a production well to drill down into the ground to access the warm
water. An injection well is usually also installed, to return the water to underground reservoirs
after it has gone through the power generation process at the plant. Geothermal power plants
use equipment similar to that used in more traditional plants, including turbines, generators
and transformers.
Like other plants that use turbines to create electricity, geothermal energy is
transmitted to end users from the plants through transformer towers and along transmission
lines long distances to community substations.
Construction of transmission lines involves the following activities:
109
- Site Preparation
- Foundation Construction
- Structure Construction
- Wire-Stringing Operation
4.8.1 Construction Process
Site Preparation
Tower locations are cleared of vegetation prior to construction of the towers. Access
roads may need to be upgraded or new roads constructed to accommodate construction
vehicles and equipment access to each tower site.
Structure Construction
Generally, structures are built from the ground up. Structures are assembled in
sections near the new tower location and a crane is used to lift the sections into place. Crews
then bolt the sections together. TSPs are either completely assembled near the tower location
and then erected at once, or are assembled in sections. The method used is determined by
terrain and available space next to the structure site. Tower erection is usually performed by
crane, but helicopters are used in areas that are inaccessible to large ground-based
construction equipment. A crane carrying the top section of a LST for installation. A sky crane
helicopter carrying the top section of a LST.
Foundation Construction
Most structures have a concrete foundation. The size of the foundation depends on the
type of structure and the terrain. Foundation construction begins with the auguring of holes for
footings (four forlattice steel towers [LSTs] and one for tubular steel poles [TSPs]).For LSTs,
each hole is usually 3 to 4 feet wide and 15 to 30 feet deep. TSPs require one hole that is up
to 8 to 12 feet wide and 40 to 60 feet deep. Regardless of the structure type, foundations
typically have a slight projection above the ground. After the footing holes are excavated, they
are reinforced with steel and then concrete is poured into the holes. Once the concrete has
cured, crews can begin the construction of the structure itself.
Wire-Stringing Operations
Wire stringing includes all activities associated with the installation of the primary
conductors onto the transmission line structures. These activities include the installation of
conductor, ground wire, insulators, stringing sheaves (rollers or travelers), vibration
dampeners, weights, suspension and dead-end hardware assemblies for the entire length of
the route. Wire stringing involves the following four operations:
110
 Stringing the pilot line to install the conductor. A light-weight sock line (pilotline) is
flown from tower to tower by helicopter, threading the sock line through wire rollers attached
to the insulators on each structure. A clamlock device secures the sock line in the rollers.
 Pulling. The sock line is attached to a conductor pulling rope/cable, which is
connected to a tensioning machine on a truck. The conductors are then pulled through by a
puller machine. The puller and tensioner work together during the pulling operation to ensure
that the conductor maintains the proper ground clearance at all times. Wire set-up sites or
pulling stations, where the associated pulling machinery and equipment are staged, are
located at intervals along the span.
 Sagging and dead-ending. Once the conductor is pulled through the length of the
line, the tensioner is then used to sag the conductors to the proper tension. Conductors
expand and contract with changes in temperature (they are longest athigh temperatures), so
they need to be installed at the proper tension such that they do not sag too low when
temperatures are at a maximum. All phases (or bundled phases) between two towers must be
sagged to the same tension.
 Splicing. Once the conductor is pulled in and the proper tension of the conductor is
reached, mid-span splicing is performed at dead-end tower locations to connect or splice
segments together. Any temporary pulling splices are removed and replaced with permanent
splices. Implosive sleeves may be used for splicing, which involves placing a layer of
explosives around an aluminum sleeve. The layer of explosive is designed to create the
required compression of the sleeve around the conductor.
After splicing and sagging, conductors are affixed to dead-end towers. Guard poles or
guard structures may be installed at transportation, flood control, utility crossings, parks, and
other sensitive locations to protect these underlying areas during wire stringing operations.
The guard structures intercept wire should it drop below a conventional stringing height,
preventing damage to underlying structures. These guard structures are temporary and are
removed after
111
4.9 Mechanical Construction
Figure 4.9: Joining of Pipe and Flange

 The objects of the pipe systems to be exactly identified
 and located are for example [5]
 • Bends
 • Branches
 • Joints
 • Valves
 • Connections of electronic surveillance system
 • Other special components
 • Crossing of other utility cables or pipes
 Installation of preinsulated bonded pipes often involves
 work of another character than just fitting of
 preinsulated pipes. This could include concrete works,
 or work on other utilities in the trench. In many cases
 the intended functioning and service life of preinsulated
 pipes also depend on the execution and quality of the
 related work. Related work may include valve chambers
 and fixpoints, drainage and sewerage work.
 The assembled pipe system must be subjected to a
112
 final inspection by the owner’s supervisor and the

 contractor prior to backfilling of the pipe trench.
 The excavation is to be backfilled in layers. Each layer
 is to be completely compacted before the next layer is
 laid. Where mechanical compaction is permitted,
 backfilling should be performed in layers of max. 300
 mm which are then compacted. In the case of manual
 compaction the height of layers is to be max. 150 mm.
 [5]
 Sand and gravel materials can be added directly into
 the excavation using grabbing crane. If they are to be
 tripped, the materials have to be unloaded at the side of
 the excavation. Materials must never be tipped into the
 excavation
 • Bends
 • Branches
 • Joints
 • Valves
 [5]
 excavation
113

 • Bends
 • Branches
 • Joints
 • Valves
 [5]
 excavation
 • Bends
 • Branches
 • Joints
 • Valves
The objects of the pipe systems to be exactly identified and located are for example
[5]
114
• Bends
• Branches
• Joints
• Valves
• Connections of electronic surveillance system
• Other special components
• Crossing of other utility cables or pipes
Installation of pre insulated bonded pipes often involves work of another character
than just fitting of pre insulated pipes. This could include concrete works, or work on other
utilities in the trench. In many cases the intended functioning and service life of pre
insulated pipes also depend on the execution and quality of the related work. Related
work may include valve chamber sand fix points, drainage and sewerage work.
The assembled pipe system must be subjected to a final inspection by the owner’s
supervisor and the contractor prior to backfilling of the pipe trench. The excavation is to
be backfilled in layers. Each layer is to be completely compacted before the next layer is
laid. Where mechanical compaction is permitted, backfilling should be performed in
layers of max. 300mm which are then compacted. In the case of manual compaction the
height of layers is to be max. 150 mm.
Sand and gravel materials can be added directly into the excavation using grabbing
crane. If they are to be tripped, the materials have to be unloaded at the side of the
excavation. Materials must never be tipped into the excavation.
4.10 Control room and Electrical Center Assembly
115
Figure 4.10: Control Room
In an interconnected system, it is advisable for geothermal power plants to operate as

base load plants since, on the one hand, they do not consume fuel and, on the other hand, as
well production is not regulated, if it does not generate, Steam cannot be stored and has to be
emitted to the air.
The steam system includes form the point of delivery of steam to the wells to the
entrance point to the turbine and to the ejector or turbo-compressors. Therefore, the operation
of this system has 10 be coordinated with the well area.
The substation holds the voltage transformation equipment, equipment for the plant's
connection to and disconnection from the electric network, buses, current and power
transformers, lightning rods and other elements associated with the installed equipment.
To connect the unit to the bus or the bus to the transmission line, synchronization procedures
are needed before shutting off any switch at the substation. The operational care in this area
are no different from that taken at a conventional plant, but depend on the equipment
installed.
The auxiliary services equipment includes all the units electric equipment, such as:
1. Transformers
116
2. High and low voltage power panels

3. Motor control centers
4. Control panels
5. Electric motors
6. Direct current system
7. Measurement and electric protection equipment
8. Lighting
9. Emergency generator
To start up the unit, the auxiliary services are fed through a start-up plant, or by taking
power from the substation through a startup transformer that reduces the voltage of the
electric network to the value of operation of the auxiliary equipment.
4.11 Substation Assembly
117
Figure 4.11: Substation Assembly
A substation will be required as part of most geothermal power stations, to transform

the generated electrical power to a voltage suitable for transmission and provide
switching, protection and connection facilities for the generators and transmission
circuits. In increasing cost order, the three main type options of HV substations are;
Outdoor air insulated, Outdoor gas insulated, and Indoor gas insulated. The cheapest
option will always be the outdoor air insulated type. However this will normally take up
approximately six times the land area of a gas insulated substation (GIS). As outdoor
space is rarely a problem with geothermal stations, GIS options are rarely seen. However
the necessary substation land area must always be allowed for when laying out a
geothermal plant.
The design of the substation including such features as number of bus bars,
equipment bay configuration, powers transformer type number and rating, may be
influenced by any of the following factors:
• Number of HV transmission lines.
• Number of generator connections.
• Required reliability.
• Budget.
• Transmission company requirements.
Major substation items like power transformers and high voltage switchgear will have
manufacture and delivery to site lead times, similar to the major mechanical items like
turbines. Therefore it is essential that the design of the substation proceed in parallel with
that of the mechanical plant, to enable power export as soon as the turbines are
commissioned.
There may also be a requirement for the installation of additional bay(s) of electrical
equipment at a remote substation, where the new power export transmission circuit(s)
are terminated. This will have significant cost and should be allowed for in preliminary
planning.
1. Establish the work zone
118
Before carrying out any work, it is important to establish the work zone and fence it off
to ensure the safety of the access points.
Then, notices of work and site tags are installed to keep citizens informed throughout
the construction period. In addition, other sources of information — including a Web
page, an Info-project line, project news bulletins and press releases — are generally
available to citizens, who may also contact the project's community relations advisor.
Throughout the project, site supervisors ensure that all the actions undertaken meet
environmental, health and safety and quality standards.
2. Prepare the substation site
At this step, any trees growing in the work zone are cut down.
Then, the ground is levelled and earthwork is carried out the construction team
prepares the work site by carefully setting aside the topsoil, which will be reused.
3. Excavate and lay the foundations
At this step, workers excavate the site, build the formwork, install the
reinforcements and pour the concrete.
In addition to laying the foundations, we build all the underground concrete
structures, such as the recovery basin.
4. Install the grounding grid
The grounding grid is installed to ensure the safety of people and the equipment.
Buried underground, the grid redirects the fault current.
5. Build the command building
As its name suggests, the command building houses the control and protection
equipment. Most substations are automated and remotely controlled. Only the largest
substations have permanent technical staff on site since most are maintained by
mobile teams.
6. Backfill the foundations and substation yard
Once the foundations have been laid, we backfill them and level the yard with
granular material (sand, gravel, rock, etc.) that is adapted to the site.
7. Assemble the steel structures
Once the concrete is set, steel structures are assembled to support the electrical
equipment. Other structures will support the control build.
8. Install the electrical equipment
119
Once the framework is built, we install the equipment on the foundations and steel
structures. Each piece of equipment is then connected to the control room, which is
under construction.
We permanently fence off the new installations to ensure everyone's safety. Our
technicians test the equipment before the installations are connected to the power
grid. Finally, we commission the substation and ensure that the electricity is flowing.
9. Landscape and carry out the final inspection

The project ends with landscaping: we plant trees, create mounds of earth and do
more work if necessary.
We do earthwork, demobilize the site and carry out the final inspection to wrap up
the project. Only the operating equipment is left at the substation.
4.12 Turbine Installation
120
Figure 4.12: Steam Turbine Installation
1. A steam turbine installation comprising low pressure turbine means having a rotor
mounted on a shaft and surrounded by a cylindrical turbine housing concentric with the
shaft, at least one bearing supporting the shaft, a pressure tight outer housing surrounding
the turbine housing and concentric with the shaft, the outer housing having continuous
walls supporting the bearing, an external foundation supporting the outer housing, formed
in the annulus between the turbine housing and the outer housing in respective arcuate
segments of the annulus on each side of the turbine a respective condenser section
comprising a plurality of condenser tubes means adjacent the condenser tubes for
exhausting steam from the turbine directly into contact with the condenser tubes, and the
outer housing having a removable segment of a generally V-shaped cross-sectional
configuration with the apex of the V being disposed closest to the rotor shaft, the segment
extending along the axial length of the outer housing, having V-shaped walls at its ends
and being at least as wide as the turbine housing diameter.
2. A steam turbine installation according to claim 1 further comprising low-pressure
preheaters disposed within said outer housing below said turbine means.
121
3. A steam turbine installation according to claim 2 wherein said turbine means drives a
generator, said preheaters being constructed and arranged to be pulled out longitudinally
underneath said generator.
4. A steam turbine installation according to claim 1 wherein auxiliary inlet lines pass
through one of the end walls of said removable segment.
5. A steam turbine installation according to claim 1 wherein said condenser sections
have inlet and outlet lines for cooling water, said lines passing through at least one of the
end walls of said housing.
6. A steam turbine installation according to claim 1 wherein said turbine means
comprises two low-pressure turbines, the bearing is disposed between said two turbines,
and the outer housing is provided with wall means defining an access passage for said
bearing.
7. A steam turbine installation according to claim 1 wherein said outer housing is
supported externally by mounting means on the sides thereof.
8. A steam turbine installation according to claim 1 wherein said housing has an upper
and a lower space between said two condenser sections, said upper space being
occupied by said removable segment and said lower space being occupied by heaters.
Commissioning and startup
The purpose of testing is generally to ensure that the function of equipment and
systems is in reality in accordance with the intended / designed properties. For
mechanical and electrical equipment used in power plants, this is mostly highly
standardized at the manufacturing stage (Factory testing).
The testing process is managed by the testing team, which is headed by one engineer
who is assigned “test manager”. This engineer is tasked with the organization and
planning of the testing process, manning of all positions and co-ordination of all parties.
The testing team consists of a few test teams for larger projects, but for smaller projects
more tasks are covered by a single test engineer along with assistants as required for
each task.
122
CHAPTER V
ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL ANALYSIS
123
5.1 Economic Evaluation
Land Cost
= 37,500 m2 * Php 2,500 per m2
= Php 93,750,000
Equipments & Installation Cost
According to IRENA, 2017b the estimated price of Geothermal project-level installed

costs by technology, 2007-2020. (These costs include: steam separators, well
connection, civil works, electric and mechanical installations, switches and controls,
generator and everything needed to have the plants running)
Estimated Total Equipment Cost

= 1200 $/kW * 55,000kW
= $ 66,000,000
or
= Php 3,329,073,000
Since the Equipment cost includes the installation cost of the whole plant,
Total Equipment cost will also be the Direct Cost.
Total Investment
= Php 93,750,000 + Php 3,329,073,000
= Php 3,422,823,00
124
5.2 Financial Analysis

Calculation of costs shall be dependent on the equipment cost. Relative percentage on the
equipment cost will be applied.
Calculation of Total Investment Cost

Direct Cost = Equipment Cost= Php 3,329,073,000
Indirect Costs
TOTAL
3,329,073,000
EQUIPMENT COST
Engineering 33% of total
1,098,594,090
Supervision equipment cost
Construction 39% of total
1,298,338,470
Expenses equipment cost
20% of total
Contractor’s Fee 665,814,600
equipment cost
34% of total
Contingency Fee 1,131,884,820
equipment cost
80% of total
Working Capital 2,663,258,400
equipment cost
Total Indirect
6,857,890,380
Plant Cost
Total Capital Investment = Total direct costs + Total indirect cost
Total Capital Investment = 10,186,963,380
CALCULATION OF TOTAL PRODUCTION COST
Manufacturing Cost
A. Direct Production Cost
1. Labor
125
Direct Operating Labor requirements

= number of productions personnel x 365 days
= 24 x 365
Direct Operating Labor requirements

= 8760
Salary of one operator

= estimated PHP 600 per day
Direct Operating Labor Cost

= 600 per day x 8760
= 5,256,000
Direct Clerical Labor Cost

= 14% of direct operating labor cost
= 5,256,000 x 0.14
= 735,840
Direct Supervisory Labor Cost

= 14% of direct operating labor cost
= 5,256,000 x 0.14
= 735,840
Total Direct labor cost = Direct Operating Labor Cost + Direct Clerical Labor
Cost + Direct Supervisory Labor Cost = Php 6,727,680
2. Maintenance and Repairs
Building Maintenance and repair costs

= 2% of the building cost
Building cost
= 150,000,000 PHP
= 150,000,000*0.02
Building Maintenance and repair costs (whole useful life)
= 3,000,000
Building have a useful life of 30 years

= 3,000,000 / 30
Building Maintenance and repair cost = 100,000
126
Equipment maintenance and repair cost

= 20% of the equipment cost
Equipment cost
= 3,329,073,000
= 3,328,073,000*0.20
Equipment Maintenance and repair costs (whole useful life)
= 665,614,600
Equipment have a useful life of 20 years

= 665,614,600/20
Equipment maintenance and repair cost = 33,280,730
Total Maintenance and repairs cost (yearly) = Php 33,380,730
3. Operating Supplies
Operating supplies cost

= 15% of total maintenance and repair cost
= 33,380,730 x 0.15
Operating supplies cost = 5,007,109.5
4. Utilities
Utilities Cost for Industrial processes

= 50% of the total product cost
Let:
X = Utility cost
Y = Direct Product Cost
where X=0.5Y
Direct Production Cost (Y)

Y = Labor cost + Maintenance repairs + Operating Supplies +
Utilities(X)
Y = 6,727,680 + 33,280,730 + 5,007,109.5 + 0.5Y
Direct Production Cost (Y)
Y = 45,015,519.5+ 0.5(Y)
Direct Production Cost = 90,031,039
Utilities Cost for Industrial processes = Php 45,015,519.5
127
B. Fixed Charges
1. Depreciation
Annual Depreciation Rates: (Reference: p. 135 Plant Design and economics)

Equipment = 10%
Buildings = 3%
Equipment cost
= 3,329,073,000
Buildings cost
= 150,000,000
Machinery and Equipments Depreciation

= 10% x 503,424,000
Machinery and Equipment Depreciation = 332,907,300
Building Depreciation
= 3% x 150,000,000
Building Depreciation = 4,500,000
Total Depreciation = Machinery and Equipments Depreciation + Building

Depreciation
= 332,907,300 + 4,500,000
Total Depreciation = Php 337,407,300

2. Insurance
Insurance Rate: 1% of the Fixed Capital Investment (Reference: p. 135 Plant
Design and economics)
Equipment cost
= 3,329,073,000
Buildings cost
= 150,000,000
Insurance = 1% x (Equipment cost + Building Cost)

= 0.01 x (3,329,073,000 + 150,000,000)
Insurance = Php 34,790,730
Total Fixed Charges = Total Depreciation + Insurance

= 337,407,300 + 34,790,730
128
Total Fixed Charges = Php 372,198,030
C. Plant Overhead Cost
Plant Overhead Cost

= 50% of the total expense for operating labor supervision and
maintenance
Operating labor cost
= Php 5,256,000
Maintenance cost
= Php 33,380,730
Plant Overhead Cost
= 0.50 x (5,256,000 + 33,380,730)
Plant Overhead Cost = Php 19,318,365
Manufacturing cost = Direct Production Cost + Fixed Charges + Plant Overhead

cost
= 90,031,039 + 372,198,030 + 19,318,365
Manufacturing cost = 481,547,434
General Expenses
A. Administrative Expenses
Administrative cost
= 50% of Operating labor Costs
Direct operating Cost
= 5,256,000 x 0.50
Administrative cost = Php 2,628,000
B. Distribution and Marketing Costs
Distribution and Marketing Costs

= 75% of the Operating labor Costs
Direct operating Cost
= 5,256,000 x 0.75
Distribution and Marketing Costs = Php 3,942,000
General Expenses = Administrative cost + Distribution and Marketing Costs

= 2,628,000 + 3,942,000
129
General Expenses = Php 6,570,000
Total Product Cost = Manufacturing Cost + General Expenses

Total Product Cost = 481,547,434 + 6,570,000
Total Product Cost = Php 488,117,434

Total Annual Energy Produced
For Monday to Sunday

46 weeks
= 55 MW ( ) ¿)¿)
1 yr
kW −hr
= 425,040,000
yr
Assuming 88% of the plant output registered on the customers meters (12%
kW −hr
energy losses in line, transformers, Etc.) the 425,040,000 plant produced
yr
becomes:
kW −hr kW −hr
=425,040,000 (0.88) = 374, 035, 200 (delivered to customer)
yr yr
We will sell for a lower rate of energy charge compared to the rate of electric
PHP
company which is almost 10 (see TABLE 7-1, APPENDICES)
kW −hr
PHP
The goal is to achieve the rate lower than 10. Assuming our rates to be 5.8 .
kW −hr
The Annual Production Cost should be:
Annual Production Cost

Energy Charge Rate = customer ¿
MW −hr delivered ¿
Annual Production Cost

5.8 =
374 , 035 , 200 KW −hr
Estimated Annual Production Cost

= 2, 169, 404, 160 PHP
130
PHP
Energy Charge Rate = 5.8
kW −hr
10−5.8
% Decrease in Energy Charge = x 100
10
% Decrease in Energy Charge Rate = 42%
Using our Total Annual Production Cost:
2 ,169 , 404 , 160 PHP

Energy Charge Rate =
425,040,000 MW −hr
PHP
Energy Charge Rate = 5.104
kW −hr
10−5.1
% Decrease in Energy Charge = x 100
10
% Decrease in Energy Charge Rate = 49%
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CHAPTER VI
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
132
6.1 Environment Effect of GTPP in the Philippines
The Philippines is the second largest geothermal energy power producer in the world
with a total installed capacity of 1980 MW. Of this, Bicol Region accounts for 480 MWe
installed capacity with an additional 130 MW on the pipeline. There are many identified
surface thermal manifestations from the major thermal areas in the Bicol Region, which may
be used for non-power use. Given these geothermal and other non-conventional and
renewable sources of energy in the Bicol Region which can be tapped for power and non-
power applications, growing importance should therefore be placed on the development and
implementation of new programs and technologies to help provide the industry with the
necessary technology.
As such, there are opportunities where researchers and technology developers can play
a major role in bridging this gap. The researchers and the academe can position themselves
as strategic service providers to the industry in terms of capacity building, training,
information and knowledge sharing, resource and capability build-up and mobilization aside
from its mandate of knowledge and technology generation, research and extension.
Researches can be done along enhancing the competitiveness of business and industry,
food security & poverty reduction, gender and development, environment & natural resource
management and developmental researches. Maximizing the indirect uses of geothermal
energy partly depends upon the presence of specialists capable of conducting such research
and development studies.
Among the studies conducted by the Bicol University College of Engineering were
innovative proposals on the agro-industrial use of geothermal heat, utilization of waste silica,
and environmental studies. These include geothermal resource assessments; utilization of
waste in various industries such as the production of pesticide and hollow blocks from silica
sludge, hand paper making, artificial incubation and brooding system, pool heating with
prawn tilapia aqua-culture, palay drying, flour manufacturing; irrigation and drinking water
supply, soil sterilization, biofuels production, cloth dyeing, geothermal mud utilization, waste
management, environmental studies and plant optimization studies.
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6.2 Geothermal Energy Utilization in the Philippines
Geothermal resources as defined by Republic Act No. 9513 or the “Renewable

Energy Act of 2008” refers to mineral resources, classified as renewable energy sources, in
the form of: (i) all products of geothermal processes, embracing indigenous steam, hot water
and hot brines; (ii) steam and other gases, hot water and hot brines resulting from water ,
gas or other fluids artificially introduced into geothermal formations; (iii) heat or associated
energy found in geothermal formations; and (iv) any by-product derived from them (R. A.
9513, 2008).
Geothermal energy in the Philippines is used primarily for electric power generation.
The Philippines is the second largest geothermal energy power producer in the world with a
total installed capacity of 1980 MW. In 2007, the installed capacity (gross) for electric power
generation reached 2027 MWe with approximately energy generation total of 9676 GWh for
the year representing about 18 % of the country's total energy generation (Bayrante et al,
2008). In the Bicol Region, geothermal energy is a well-known resource. Two of the
country’s major geothermal fields are located in the area. The Tiwi geothermal complex, is
located in the province of Albay. The non-power application of the said area was offered for
investment in the Philippine Energy Contracting Round (PECR) 2005. The Bacon-Manito
Geothermal Field, on the other hand, is located in the provinces of Albay and Sorsogon. The
Bicol Region hosts 11 geothermal power plants with total installed capacity of 495.5 MW.
Three potential geothermal resource sites on the pipeline can provide a combined capacity
addition of 120 MW for the next years. A total of 64 new wells will be drilled, thus improving
steam availability to 627.4 MW in 2014. For the next ten years, technologies utilizing acidic
reservoir and low enthalpy type of fluids are expected to be available in the market to allow
areas like Mt. Labo in Camarines Norte and others in the Bicol Region to provide additional
capacities (NAPOCOR 2008). The development of some promising geothermal areas has
been temporarily set aside pending technological breakthroughs in handling acidic wells. An
example is Mt. Labo which is located within the boundaries of Quezon, Camarines Sur, and
Camarines Norte. Eight wells have been drilled in Mt. Labo from 1990 to 1997 but all
intersected acidic geothermal fluids (DOE, 2009; Maturgo et al., 2000).
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6.3 Direct use in the Philippines
While the emphasis is on developing geothermal energy for the generation of electricity,
Benito, et al., (2005) reports that the government is looking to increase non-power uses of
geothermal energy. The direct-use applications of geothermal energy in the Philippines are
limited to bathing and balneology and drying of agricultural and marine products.
Temperature of geothermal resources being utilized ranges from 30 to 100 degrees Celsius.
Direct use of geothermal heat is currently at a low level and is limited to numerous hot
springs and two agriculture drying plants, located in Palinpinon, Southern Negros
Geothermal Production Field and in the Manito, Albay in Bacman Geothermal Field. Total
installed thermal capacity is 3.30 MWt and thermal energy used is 1.25 MWt. Capacity factor
stands at 0.39 while total energy used is 39.58 TJ/year (Ulgado and Gular, 2005). Most of
those accounted under bathing and swimming are the hot springs in Laguna. There are,
however, operational hot springs in other regions of the country which have not yet been
assessed and hence were not included in the study.
The direct utilization of geothermal energy is difficult to determine since there are
many diverse uses of the energy and these are sometimes small and located in remote
areas in the Philippines. There is difficulty in finding knowledgeable persons except for
indigenous knowledge among the people. This is especially true of geothermal waters used
for swimming pools, bathing and balneology. In addition, even if the use can be determined,
the low rates and temperatures are usually not known or reported; thus, the capacity and
energy use can only be estimated. (Lund, 2007). The Department of Energy reported that
the country has yet to take off in terms of development of non-power applications of
geothermal energy resources. This is due to a lack of financing and public awareness. The
development of spa resorts and crop drying facilities using geothermal heat is still in the
early stages as compared to other countries. There exists a huge potential for geothermal
heat in crop drying but this is hampered by the preference of a lot of farmers for solar energy
which traditionally is the source of energy for drying in the country. People have yet to
realize the benefits of using geothermal heat, especially in terms of time saved in drying
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owing to its high temperature and non-seasonality compared to sunlight (DOE, 2009). The
Palinpinon agro-industrial drying plant was put up in 1992 and operated by PNOC-EDC until
1997. Installed thermal capacity of Palinpinon agro-industrial plant is 1.0 MWt. Thermal
energy used is 0.55 MWt and capacity factor is 0.55. Annual energy used is 17.34 TJ/year. It
was turned over to a local farming cooperative to operate and manage. However, due to lack
of financial resources, low market price of the main product and deterioration of the plant,
the drying plant has ceased operation in 2001 (Ulgado and Gular, 2005). In 1998, as part of
the government’s thrust to help the marginalized communities, the Manito Lowlands in the
Province of Albay was re-evaluated for industrial use. The Manito Geothermal Livelihood
Project (MGLP), which comprise of a 1.5 MWe pilot power plant and a multi-crop drying
plant, was put up in 1998 at the Manito Lowlands, Pawa, Manito, Albay (Padua et al., 2000).
The Project was a joint undertaking by the Department of Energy (DOE), National Power
Corporation (NPC), National Electrification Administration (NEA), Philippine National Oil
CompanyEnergy Development Corporation and the Local Government of Manito, Albay
(Karunungan and Requejo, 2000). Total estimated installed thermal capacity in Manito is
0.63 MWt. Thermal energy used is at 0.34 MWt. Capacity factor is 0.48 while total energy
used is 9.59 TJ/year. The operation of the Manito Livelihood Geothermal Project, however,
has been suspended by PNOC-EDC due to scaling and major turbine problems (Ulgado and
Gular, 2005). With the extensive exploitation of the economically viable, high-enthalpy
geothermal resources and since most of the remaining geothermal prospects of the country
are of the intermediate to low-enthalpy types, there is a need to refocus on the development
of small-scale geothermal resources for direct utilization
6.4 Relevant Direct Use of Technology
Direct-use of geothermal resources worldwide is primarily for direct heating and cooling.
Geothermal direct-use systems use a fairly simple and established technology that generally
involves three basic elements: (1) A production system that brings water up through a well to
the surface; (2) A delivery system that distributes hot water through pipes; and (3) A disposal
system where the cooled water is injected back into the reservoir, (GHC, 2004). The main
utilization categories are: (1) swimming, bathing and balneology; (2) space heating and
cooling ; (3) agricultural applications such as greenhouse and soil heating; (4) aquaculture
application ; (5) industrial applications such as mineral extraction, food and grain drying; and,
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(6) geothermal heat pumps (GHP), used for both heating and cooling (Lund et al., 2005). In
agriculture, geothermal water is used mainly as a source of heat and moisture. Agricultural
applications make direct use of geothermal water, using it to heat and water plants, warm
greenhouses, or to dry crops. The aim of geothermal aquaculture is to heat water to an
optimum temperature for animal growth. Species typically raised include carp, catfish, bass,
tilapia, mullet, eels, salmon, sturgeon, shrimp, lobster, crayfish, crabs, oysters, clams,
scallops, mussels and abalone. In addition there is a rising interest in aquaculture crops,
such as water hyacinth, duckweed, algae species, kelp and spirulina (NZ GNS, 2007). The
experiences of some countries in utilizing geothermal energy for industrial applications have
been well documented. The most important energy considerations for an industrial
application are the cost, quality, and reliability. Geothermal energy may be attractive to an
industry providing: (a) the cost of energy/kg of product is lower than that presently used, (b)
the quality of geothermal energy is as good or better than the present supply, and (c) the
reliability of geothermal energy is available for the life of the plant. The Department of
Energy recommends bringing geothermal heat to industrial installations or bringing industries
near geothermal fields (DOE, 2009). The production of biofuels has become a popular issue
since it can reduce dependency on imported fossil fuels for the transportation sector. Two
types of biofuels can be produced: ethanol and biodiesel, both of which may be used as a
blend with conventional fuels to power cars and trucks. Many of the steps require the use of
fossil fuels. Geothermal energy can be used by replacing some of the energy inputs. Studies
have shown that using heat exchangers, biofuels can be produced economically (GHC,
2007). In waste management, sewage treatment schemes use geothermal heat to dry
digested sludge. Similarly, geothermal energy has been used as a heat source and
geothermal water as a mordant in cloth dyeing.
6.5 Opportunities for Direct Use of Geothermal Resources
As in all other studies for direct use of geothermal resources, several elements of
direct-use geothermal energy are important: (a) the geologic parameters of the resource; (b)
the engineering criteria or the technical practicality of the project; and (c) the economics of
the venture and (d) the legal frameworks - applicable environmental laws, regulations,
ordinances and required permits.
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A primary consideration is the cost of finding, developing and utilizing the geothermal
resource. These can be done in close cooperation with the local geothermal plant operators
where the resources lie, with the local government units and financing institution. With the
availability of the technology, and given the promise of the Philippine Renewable Energy Act
of 2008, there are bright prospects for direct use of geothermal energy in the Bicol region.
The Philippine Renewable Energy Act of 2008 (R. A. 9513) aims to hasten the exploration
and development of renewable energy resources and promote their use by providing fiscal
and non-fiscal incentives. The law encourages the development and utilization of renewable
energy resources as tools to effectively prevent or reduce harmful emissions and thereby
balance the goals of economic growth and development with the protection of health and the
environment.
The Renewable Energy Trust Fund (RETF) created under the law aims to provide: (a)
Financial support to the research, development, demonstration and promotion of the
widespread and productive use of Renewable Energy (RE) systems for power and non-
power applications as well as to provide funding for R & D institutions engaged in renewable
energy studies undertaken jointly through public-private sector partnerships, including
provisions for scholarship and fellowships for energy studies; (b) Support in the development
and operation of new RE resources to improve their competitiveness in the market; (c)
Support in the conduct of nationwide resource and market assessment studies for the power
and non-power applications of renewable energy systems; (d) Support in the propagation of
Renewable Energy knowledge by accrediting, tapping, training and providing benefits to
institutions, entities and organizations which can extend the promotion and dissemination of
RE benefits to the national and local levels. Electricity has been primarily generated from
these geothermal plants. There is however limited direct utilization of geothermal energy in
these fields as well as in other undeveloped ones.
In Tiwi Geothermal Power Plant, “only 60 MWe out of the 150 MW produced by the
geothermal plant were being used by NAPOCOR during off-peak hours and 100 percent on
peak hours” (Aguilar and Calleja, 2007). This might also be true for other geothermal plants
since geothermal plants are used as peaking plants and not as base load plants in the
Philippines. In the geothermal fields that have been developed and utilized, both in the
BacMan and Tiwi Fields, there are production wells that have depleted pressures and
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temperatures, hence production rates have decreased. Some of these wells have been
converted as re-injection or monitoring wells. As of 2003, 156 wells have been drilled
throughout the Tiwi field. Of these, 48 wells provide current steam requirements and 16 wells
are used for brine and condensate re-injection (NGAP 2009). BacMan Geothermal Field, on
the other hand, has 23 production wells and 10 injection wells (Fajardo, 2000), with a
projected additional 64 wells for the next five years. Other wells have been capped due to
technical difficulties in producing fluids at the desired pressure, temperature and discharge
rates. Waste geothermal fluids from geothermal power plants are re-injected into the
reservoir as part of a sustainable reservoir management program.
The waste heat contained in these geothermal fluids can still be extracted for
productive use and other direct utilizations. Similarly, waste heat from power generation
processes can be used as energy sources for other non-power applications. These
resources offer a lot of opportunities for direct use. In designing geothermal energy recovery
and utilization systems, alternate possibilities could be considered for various applications.
The usual approach for utilization of geothermal fluid by proposed industries is to fit the
industry to the available fluids. An alternate approach is to fit the available fluids to proposed
industries. This alternate approach requires developing ways to economically upgrade the
quality of existing geothermal fluids or the fluids derived from them. Mongillo (2008) said that
the challenge is to address all aspects of direct use technology with emphasis on improving
implementation, reducing costs and enhancing use. These can be done through: (a)
resources characterization, (b) identification of barriers and opportunities for direct use, (c)
validation of equipment performance, (d) development of design configurations and
engineering standards. The existence of geothermal energy resources commonly found in
mountainous and inland areas of the Region have its advantages. The major agricultural
products of the Bicol Region include palay, corn, abaca and coconut. There are agricultural
plantations and forestry areas in the Region in which the products require processes such as
drying, preservation, heating, sterilization, etc. The agricultural and plantation product
processing requiring heat are for example: rice, corn, abaca and coconut drying, mushroom
cultivation, etc. Geothermal waters can be utilized to improve post harvest operations for
these products. Traditionally, the energy demand in processing these products would have
been satisfied by fossil fuels or by using biomass fuels which are abundant. Therefore,
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substituting these with geothermal heat helps not only to reduce the need to import
hydrocarbons, but also to reduce the emission of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide to the
atmosphere. In Tiwi, Albay, the site being offered for non-power utilization of geothermal
brine lies in a government-owned area proposed to be a special economic zone. Economic
activities in the area consist mainly of agriculture, fishing, hat/mat weaving and pottery.
Several non-power applications of geothermal brine such as a multi-purpose drying facility
for the hat/mat raw material and pottery, fish canning and refrigeration, salt-making and spa
development maybe applied in the area (PERC, 2005). The Sunwest Group of Companies is
studying the possibility of developing a hot spring-mud bath spa facility at the Nag-aso
Spring, a hot sulfur-rich lake in the municipality of Manito, Albay (PNA 2008). Plans to utilize
other geothermal resources for spa and balneological applications can be coordinated with
hot spring resort owners and developers. With the numerous hot springs in the Bicol Region,
notably in Albay and Sorsogon, balneology may become one of the top industries in the
area. Other areas in the country have used this strategy in developing their tourist industry.
The experiences of other countries in the utilization of these resources have shown that only
the hottest water can be used to generate electricity. However, some places have naturally
heated groundwater that is not hot enough to produce the steam needed to turn turbines.
These type of water is still usable for other purposes but not as a workablepower source.
This is the area where the researchers and developers can make the most out of what Bicol
Region has.
6.6 Geothermal Studies Conducted
Among the studies conducted by the graduates of BS Geothermal Engineering of the

Bicol University College of Engineering-Legazpi City were proposals on the agro industrial
use of geothermal heat to increase agricultural productivity, utilization of geothermal wastes
such as silica from geothermal sludge, site developmental studies on the thermal spas,
balneology and eco-tourism and environmental studies and preliminary assessment of new
thermal areas (Aligan, 2006). Noteworthy among the projects were the geothermal resource
assessments of three new areas based from indigenous knowledge, production of hollow
blocks from silica sludge, heat exchanger designs for miscellaneous industries such as hand
paper making, artificial incubation and brooding system, pool heating, prawn-tilapia
aquaculture, palay drying, boiled water station, irrigation and drinking water supply, soil
140
sterilization, environmental studies and plant optimization studies. The project studies
conducted were initial researches in the direct and in-direct uses of geothermal resources
within the Albay-Sorsogon areas.
These were done in close coordination with the local geothermal industry. Support in
terms of technical expertise and access to information, technology and resources were given
by PNOC-EDC now Energy Development Corporation / First Gen Holdings, National Power
Corporation - Tiwi Geothermal Power Plant (now under Aboitiz Power Renewables Inc),
Chevron Geothermal Philippines Holdings Inc. (formerly Unocal), Department of
Environment and Natural Resources, Mines & Geo-Sciences Bureau RO V, Department of
Public Works and Highways RO V, Philippine Coconut Authority, Bureau of Fisheries and
Aquatic Resources RO V, Department of Agriculture RO V. Department of Science &
Technology and the National Geothermal Association of the Philippines. The preliminary
researches and studies conducted by the Bicol University College of Engineering were
aimed at generating and disseminating new knowledge and technologies towards Poverty
reduction & sustainable development. They could be springboards for the development of
technologies for utilizing the available geothermal resources of the Bicol Region
6.6.1 Coconut-Coir Sterilization
Belgica (2008) studied the utilization of geothermal water in coconut by-product

sterilization. The study presented a new means of employing geothermal water in the
processing of coco coir and pith, both by-products of coconut husking process which abound
on the country side and has no more commercial value other than leaving them to rot
(Uyenco and Ochoa, 1984). The waters of thermal springs from Nag-aso Boiling Lake in
Hulugan, Manito, Albay were used. It was noted that the utilization of geothermal waters is a
feasible means for sterilizing growing media from coconut by-products. The study was an
attempt to improve on the current need by industry to produce coco peat growing media
composed of coconut coir dust sieved in 5 mm mesh or less which are sun dried and
sterilized at 120 deg C. These materials are suitable for nurseries (CTC, 2007). The sizable
volume of coconut husks and its by-products and the presence of geothermal waters can
perhaps be eventually turned into an economic opportunity for the Bicolanos where there is
a thriving coconut industry.
141
6.6.2 Geothermal Amorphous Silica Suspension as Pesticide
Baria et al (2006) conducted laboratory experiments to demonstrate the feasibility of

using processed geothermal silica sCudge as pesticide and compared its effectivity against
existing commercial silica based pesticide. The study was based on the use of
diatomaceous earth as an environment friendly, non-toxic pesticide which can kill insects by
desiccation or absorbing the oily or waxy outer cuticle layers by direct contact. Using brine
samples from the thermal pond of the Botong Sector of the Bacon Manito Geothermal
Resource Area, Manito, Albay, amorphous silica was produced for the experiment which
was subsequently processed into a silica suspension. Amorphous silica suspension was
sprayed on Asian Cockroach (Blatella asahinai) samples at different concentrations. Results
indicated that the effectivity of the amorphous silica suspension approached that of the
commercial pesticides.
The chemical and physical properties of the geothermal well silica qualifies it as an
amorphous silica-based insecticide even without major processing. However, due to market
considerations and safety, minimum processing procedures would have to be done to
maximize its nontoxicity and insecticidal properties. The simplicity of the procedure,
minimum processing requirements and saleable nature of the end product of the geothermal
well silica makes it economically appropriate as an alternative silica disposal and utilization
option from the geothermal power plants. The study recommended that parallel studies be
made to ensure that geothermal silica are purely isolated, free of heavy metals and tested
again on insects to ensure wider range of application of its insecticidal properties. Likewise,
detailed biological testing of the proposed amorphous silica suspension insecticide is made
for both the target insects and the human and animal exposures that come with its usage.
6.7 Effect of Geothermal Plant at Tiwi
Operations of the Tiwi, albay thermal power plant create emissions to the air, pollutants
such as SO2, NOx, CO, hydrocarbon, fluoride and fly ash which cause environmental
hazard and pollution on its surrounding areas studies to assess the effects of said plant
pollutants with reference to vegetation and its environmental impact was conducted. Eight
sampling site were selected for census and collection of plant materials and soil samples.
The plant were classified on the basis of their growth pattern, severity of foliar injury and
142
level of tolerance. On the other hand, the soil samples were analyzed for pH, organic matter,
S, N, available P and exchangeable K. The number of trees, shrubs, herbs and grasses
generally increased and increasing distance from the power plant. Leaf injury symptoms
were commonly present in plants that grow near the power plant. Soil samples collected
showed a decreasing trend for S, organic matter, exchangeable K and a n increasing trend
for pH, S.
CHAPTER VII
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
143
7.1 Operations
Geothermal power plants are expensive installations whose general life expectancy is
estimated at 25 years though many plants have been in operation for longer periods, albeit
with major refurbishment. To amortize funds used to put up such facilities, a good operation
and maintenance regime needs to be put in place to ensure the plant operates at an
availability factor of not less than 94%. To achieve this, there is a need to constantly monitor
and improve on all operational and maintenance procedures. These procedures and their
applications will keep on changing as the plant ages and as the field matures over the years.
As the plants age, there is a need to enhance the monitoring of the various operation
parameters and also to carry out maintenance especially of the auxiliaries at shorter
intervals. However, the basic operation and maintenance philosophy which this paper
addresses will remain constant and what changes is mix.
7.1.1 BACKGROUND
Geothermal power stations pose a unique scientific and engineering concept due to
the following factors:
i. Design and probably construction of the plant is done long before most the steam
wells have been drilled thus making it difficult to determine the exact operating conditions
of the wells;
144
ii. The field chemistry is not well understood considering that the not all wells would
have been drilled; iii. The well characteristics will definitely change over the years as the
field is exploited;
iv. Need to find a balance between efficiency and costs;
v. Choice of operating cycle allowing for flexibility for the plant to operate within a
range of pressures, temperature and enthalpy; and
vi. Choice of construction materials allowing for corrosion, scaling and costs.
These and other considerations including operability and loss of generation due to
planned and forced outages require to be inbuilt in the plant design. It therefore follows
that the operation and maintenance of geothermal plants will require a mix of different
techniques and constant monitoring of the efficacy of any regimen put in place with a
view to make changes as and when situations necessitate. The Olkaria units are direct
contact single flash multi stage turbines with downward exhaust configuration for the
main plants and upward for the well heads. The generation process begins with steam
from a well being led to a wellhead separator where the liquid fraction from the well mass
flow is separated from the steam. Separated brine is channeled to hot reinjection wells.
The separated steam from individual wells is conveyed through a system of

interconnected pipes to the generating units. Before entry into the turbines, the steam
passes through a scrubber and strainers which remove any condensate or solid material
that may have been carried along with the steam. The steam then rotates the turbine
which is coupled to the generator. After use, the steam is exhausted into a direct contact
jet condenser which is maintained at a vacuum by use of a two stage gas ejector system
for Olkaria I and the wellheads, a hybrid system consisting of liquid ring vacuum pumps
and gas ejectors as the case is for Olkaria II or solely liquid ring vacuum pump system as
the case is for Olkaria IAU and Olkaria IV. The condensate is then evacuated from the
condenser by way of a barometric pipe to an underground tank (seal pit) from where the
condensate is pumped to the cooling towers as the case is for Olkaria I or directly
pumped to the cooling towers by employing hot well pumps as the case is for the more
modern plants. At the cooling tower the condensate is cooled and most of it recycled to
the condenser to spray incoming steam. Excess condensate from the process is re-
145
injected in cold reinjection wells which are generally situated away from the production
field. Figure 1 is a simplified diagram of the generation process.
7.2 Conventional Plant Operating System
In looking at conventional power plant systems as the one described above, there are
distinct systems put together and which then constitute the plant. These systems each
require different operation and maintenance regimes based on their operation, operating
environment, construction material, life span and use. The various systems can be
categorized as follows.
Steam system
These comprises of the wells, associated piping, steam conditioning equipment such
separators, scrubbers, steam traps, steam strainers control and isolation valves. The
steam system generally has the largest footprint of a geothermal facility. The main
problems associated with the steam system are typically corrosion, erosion and silica
scaling
Circulating water system
The circulating water system is composed of the condenser, hot well pumps, cooling
towers and associated valves. As the case is for the steam system the greatest problems
with this system are issues of corrosion due to acidic nature of the circulating water,
erosion and silica deposition.
Cooling water system

146
This is a relatively small but important system as it consists of component cooling

water pumps, generator air coolers, lube oil coolers, cooling water to the hot well pump
bearings, and cooling water to the inter and after coolers of the non-condensable gases
extraction system.
Electrical system
This consists of the main Generator, exciter, switch gear, transformers and
associated cabling and protection systems. DC supply batteries invertors and chargers.
The electrical system is mainly affected by the hydrogen sulphide in the environment
which corrodes copper based materials which constitute the greater part of electrical
components.
Instrumentation and controls system
This system is extremely vital as it allows for the remote operation of most equipment
in the plant. The system consists of compressors, pneumatic control equipment, control
valves, distributed control system (DCS), various sensors, associated cables and
conduits and most importantly the human machine interface (HMI) from which monitoring
and operation of the plant is done. The instruments and control system is mostly affected
by the environmental conditions including hydrogen sulphide gas, corrosion of copper
based components, scaling and heat.
7.3 PLANT OPERATIONS
Effective plant operations should ensure that the plant operates with maximum
efficiency without endangering the equipment and with due consideration of the safety of
both the plant and humans working in the plant. Monitoring of the various operating
parameters is of major importance as it will give an indication of the health of the various
equipment and components in the various systems. Follow up and interpretation of the
various outputs on the HMI including such important parameters as operating
temperatures, pressures, vibrations, operating cycles (e.g. number of start/stops of
motors, number of operations of transformer tap changers, compressor running hours,
chemistry of plant fluids such as condensate pH etc) greatly influence the plant operating
efficiency. Where monitoring of such important information is not properly done or is
147
ignored, the life span of the plant is greatly compromised as equipment failure becomes
inevitable leading to expensive operations as timely intervention may not take place to
avoid total breakdown. Poor monitoring also leads to expensive plant operations as
breakdowns lead to loss of generation and revenue. Good operation processes also
ensure that various tests important for the health of the plant are carried out as required.
Such tests include turbine protective tests to ensure that the turbine is protected against
dangerous conditions such as turbine over speeding, operating with no lubricant leading
to bearing failure, operating with no condenser vacuum which could lead to damaging of
the turbine rotor etc. Other important tests include stem freedom tests on the governor
and main stop valves to ensure that the unit would stop in the event of a problem by
shutting off steam supply to the turbine, emergency generator operation to ensure lighting
and powering of important systems in the event of power failure.
A heavily clogged turbine nozzle. Under such conditions the steam path to the rotating
blades of the turbine is greatly reduced thus reducing the flow of steam to the turbine.
This will result in the unit being incapable of generating at full load thus causing a loss in
revenue. Such an occurrence is noticeable where good operation and monitoring of the
plant is done as scaling of nozzles and blades is generally associated with increased
steam chest pressures which could be monitored on HMI screen. Use of the blade wash
facility available on most plants would also have reduced the level of scaling on the
turbine nozzles and blades. Down time of the plant also increases as it will take
considerably longer to remove the scale as compared to if remedial action was taken
earlier.
148
Figure 7.1: Power Systems
7.4 PLANT MAINTENANCE
Any downtime of a plant whether planned or unplanned results in loss of revenue.

There therefore is a general conflict between shutting down the machine for maintenance
purposes which translates to loss in generation and having breakdowns which can lead to
even greater losses in revenue. Geothermal plants being base load stations generally have
redundancies of especially the critical auxiliary equipment such as compressors, pumps,
extra steam or re-injection wells and some cases over design in such areas as cooling
towers and some electrical equipment so that some maintenance can take place without
compromising on the plant production. Despite all these, it is inevitable that at one time or
the other the unit will have to be stopped for maintenance of the main equipment such as
transformers, generator or turbine as these do not have redundancies. For most plants,
several methods of maintenance are employed. The most common ones include the
following.
7.4.1 Planned maintenance
This is mostly done on the main plant equipment and includes annual, semi-annual
and major overhauls. This type of maintenance is mostly determined by the equipment
suppliers who prescribe what requires to be done after a certain period of operation.
149
Planned maintenance can also be as a result of legal compliance issues or insurance

considerations which guide acceptable practices in an industry. Planned maintenance
can also be as a result of recommended working hours or operation cycles as is the case
with diesel engines, compressors or transformer tap changers oil change and cleaning.
While planned maintenance is good practice in view of the above considerations, it can
also be an unnecessary undertaking as at times equipment is opened up and serviced
when in reality there was no need for such an undertaking as the equipment was still in
good working condition and did not require maintenance. Planned maintenance can also
be unnecessarily expensive as certain parts of machine have to be replaced irrespective
of their condition as they are not reusable.
7.4.2 Condition Based Maintenance (CBM)
This form of maintenance is very much dependent on good operations and monitoring
of equipment performance. For effective CBM, analysis of operating condition of
equipment e.g temperature, pressure, vibrations etc is continuously analyzed and any
significant deviation triggers investigation and possible remedial works on the equipment.
This ensures that maintenance of equipment is only carried out when operating
circumstances dictate that this be done. CBM has the advantage of ensuring that there is
no wastage of resources by maintaining equipment that does not require service. It also
ensures that there is minimal interruption in plant production while at the same time
maintain the operational integrity of the equipment. CBM can however be a source of
conflict with the regulatory authority or cause loss of compensation in the event of a
failure which requires insurance claims. It is therefore important that while carrying out
CBM, clear understanding of statutory or regulatory requirements is done so as to avoid
unfavorable consequences.
4.3 Breakdown maintenance This form of maintenance is not very common in

geothermal plants but may be applied in certain special circumstances like where the
equipment is obsolete. A good example may be on the plant HMI where computers or
printers used in the system may no longer be available on the market due to the fast
evolving products on the market. In such circumstances, rather than spend money trying
to repair obsolete equipment, it makes better sense to operate the equipment to failure
and then upgrade to what is readily available on the market. This type of maintenance is
expensive and requires good planning as the equipment may fail at a very inopportune
150
time and if not prepared can lead to long outage periods as replacements are being
sourced for leading to loss of revenue. Breakdown maintenance also can lead to having
high inventory retention in the stores as replacements should be readily available.
7.5. Operation and Maintenance Lever
In operating and maintaining geothermal plants, it is necessary that some standard

procedures are put in place or adopted to maximize good results
7.5.1 Staffing
The caliber and number of staff available to carry out both operations and
maintenance of equipment in the plant is an important factor. It is important that there is a
good mix of engineering staff capable of carrying out mechanical, electrical and
instrumentation maintenance of the plant. Staff with reservoir management and
geochemical backgrounds is also required to constantly monitor and put up mitigation
measures against changes in reservoir characteristics and the chemistry of fluids during
the life of the plant. It is necessary that there is a balance between the numbers of staff
employed on a permanent basis so as to minimize costs as some services may be
contracted. The organization structure also requires to be well thought out so as to
enhance productivity.
7.5.2 Planning
To ensure that breakdown is minimized, forward planning of all maintenance activities is

important as this reduces on time taken to carry out maintenance activities. Good planning
should take into consideration reports from plant monitoring, historical experiences, and
supplier or regulatory conditions. Planning and continuous measurement of results of
previous events will assist in continuous improvement and setting up of standard operating
procedures (SOP) for the plant. The planning component needs to include staff
requirements, spares, tools and external services where necessary.
7.5.3 Performance Management
To effectively run a geothermal plant it is important that there is constant evaluation of all
aspects of the plant performance. This should include and not limited to staff performance,
results of plant monitoring, evaluation of plant maintenance procedures and results,
evaluation of reports from the various sections etc. Carrying out performance management
151
will enable the organization remedy any shortcomings in their operations including
procedures in place. Performance management will also enable the organization carry out
bench marking with other players in the industry. Figure 5 shows a typical load curve for one
of the Olkaria plants. By analyzing the trends, it is possible to determine whether the drop in
performance was as a result of a planned or forced process and what remedial activities can
be put in place so as to ensure such occurrences do not recur.
7.5.4 Root Cause Analysis
Most failures in the plants can be attributed to the following (although some are
inevitable):
• The monitoring stage in which case information is not relayed on possible failure at
the right time;
• Maintenance stage where some routine procedures are not properly undertaken;
and
• Decision making stage where either decisions take long to be arrived at or probably
the wrong decisions are made.
It is therefore important that a root cause analysis of any failure at the power plant is
undertaken. Several tools are available for this exercise. A typical one would follow the
steps.
152
REFERENCES
LINKS
https://www.directindustry.com/prod/ge-power/product-205105-2079185.html
https://www.ge.com/about-us
https://www.fujielectric.com/products/geothermal_power_generation/box/doc/01A3-E-
0026.pdf
https://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/WGC/2010/2283.pdf
https://www2.jica.go.jp/en/evaluation/pdf/2008_PH-P139_4.pdf
http://globalenergyobservatory.org/geoid/41711
https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/51290339.pdf
153
https://www.google.com/
https://sites.google.com/a/ngaphil.org/www/services/tiwi
https://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/WGC/2000/R0602.PDF
BOOKS
Kent’s Mechanical Engineering Handbook
ASHRAE
Stoecker and Jones’ Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
Design of Machine Elements by Faires
ABBREVIATIONS
GTPP – Geothermal Power Plant
KVA – kilo-volt-ampere
BIL - Basic Insulation Leve
NREL - National Renewable Energy Laboratory
UNITS
154
W – Watts, the SI unit of power, equivalent to one joule per second, corresponding to the
power in an electric circuit in which the potential difference is one volt and the current one
ampere.
W/s2 – Watts per second squared, a unit of energy equal to the energy of one watt acting for
one second; the equivalent of one joule.
m – Meter, the fundamental unit of length in the metric system, equal to 100 centimeters or
approximately 39.37 inches.
ft - a unit of area measurement equal to a square measuring one foot on each side; 0.0929
square meters.
inches – Inches, a unit of linear measure equal to one twelfth of a foot.
m/s2 – Meter per seconds squared, the Standard International (SI) unit of acceleration
vector magnitude. This quantity can be defined in either of two senses: average or
instantaneous.
kW – Kilowatt, a measure of 1,000 watts of electrical power.
MW - Megawatt, a unit of power.
Joule - unit of work or energy in the International System of Units (SI); it is equal to the work
done by a force of one newton acting in one meter.
155

Proposed Design of 55 MW Unit of Geothermal Power Plant

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BATAAN HEROES COLLEGE

Roman Super Hi-way, Balanga City, Bataan

Proposed design of 55 mw unit

Dela Cruz, Kim Gerald C.

Deniega, Ernesto Mike III C.

Malupa, Charl Lester A.

Soriano, Clint Bryan R.

Engr. Desiderio V. Pepito

May 17, 2020

May 17, 2020

Bataan Heroes Memorial College

In completion of requirements for subject ME-525 (Power Plant Design). We are

Dela Cruz, Kim Gerald C.

Deniega, Ernesto Mike III C.

Malupa, Charl Lester A.

Soriano, Clint Bryan R.

Authors take this occasion to acknowledge with appreciation the

First, we want to thank God for giving us strength, perseverance, and

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION & POWERPLANT BACKGROUND

1 .2 Geothermal Energy Status of the Philippines……………………………10

3.3 Condenser Design……………………………………………………………..56

3.4.1 Discussion of Cooling Tower………………………………………………………………64

3.4.2 Cooling Tower Design Calculations……………………………………………………..

3.5.1 Discussion About Geothermal Well…………………………………………………….69

3.6 Steam- Water Separator Design…………………………………………………………………..84

3.6.1 Discussion About Separator………………………………………………………………...84

3.6.2 Design of Separator…………………………………………………………………………….88

3.7 Power System Analysis………………………………………………………………………………...90

3.8 Power Load Forecasting……………………………………………………………………………….91

3.9 Variable Load……………………………..........................82

4.2 Production & Injection Well Drilling…………………………………..…….........…………97

4.3 Pad Preparation………………………………………………………………….………………………98

4.4 Setting Foundations…….………………………………………………………………………….....100

4.5 Air Cooler Assembly……………………………………………………………………………………101

4.6 Heat Exchanger Installation…………………………………………………………………………103

4.7 Pipeline Construction………………………………………………………………………………….105

4.7.1 Pipeline Location and Surrounding……………………………………………………..105

4.7.2 Pipeline Design and Construction……………………………………………..………..106

4.7.3 Production Well Pipelines…………………………………………………………………..106

4.7.4 Reinjection Pipelines……………………………………......................................106

4.8 Transmission Line Construction………………………………………………………………….107

4.8.1 Construction Process…………………………………………………………………………108

4.9 Mechanical Construction…………………………………………………………………………….110

4.10 Control Room and Electrical Assembly……………………………………………………….111

4.11 Substation Assembly………………………………………………………………………………….113

4.12 Turbine Installation……………………………………………………………………………………115

Chapter 5: ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL

5.1 Economic Evaluation………………………………………….……………………………………….119

5.2 Financial Analysis ……………………………………………...……….…….……………….........120

Chapter 6: ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT

6.1 Environmental Effect of GTPP in the Philippines…………………………..……………..128

6.2 Thermal Utilization in The Philippines………………………………………………………….129

6.3 Direct Use in the Philippines………………………………………………………………………..130

6.4 Relevant Direct Use of Technology………………………………………………………………131

6.5 Opportunities for Direct of Geothermal Resources……………………………………….132

6.6 Geothermal Studies Conducted……………………………………………………………………135

6.6.1 Coconut-Coir Sterilization…………………………………………………………………..136

6.6.2 Geothermal Amorphous Silica Suspension as Pesticide………………………..136

6.7 Effect of Geothermal Plant at Tiwi………………………………………………………………..137

Chapter 7: OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

7.1.1 Background……………………………………………………………………………………… 139

7.2 Conventional Plant Operating System…………………………………….………………….141