Intelligent Transportation System - I: Lecture Notes in Transportation Systems Engineering

Intelligent Transportation System - I
Lecture Notes in Transportation Systems Engineering
Prof. Tom V. Mathew∗
Contents
1 Overview 2
2 Introduction 2
3 ITS user services 3

3.1 Travel and traffic management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.2 Public transportation operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.3 Electronic payment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.4 Commercial Vehicle operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.5 Advanced vehicle control and safety systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.6 Emergency management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.7 Information management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.8 Maintenance and construction management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4 ITS Architecture 13
4.1 National ITS architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.2 User services and their requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.3 Logical architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.4 Physical architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.5 Equipment packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.6 Market package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5 ITS Planning 18
5.1 Transportation planning and ITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.2 Planning and ITS architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.3 Planning for ITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.4 Integrating ITS into Transportation planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6 Summary 22
7 Acknowledgments 22
∗
IIT Bombay (tvm@civil.iitb.ac.in) March 8, 2017
1
1 Overview
Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) is the application of computer, electronics, and com-
munication technologies and management strategies in an integrated manner to provide
traveler information to increase the safety and efficiency of the road transportation systems.
This paper mainly describes ITS user services, ITS architecture and ITS planning. The
various user services offered by ITS have been divided in eight groups have been briefly
described. The ITS architecture which provides a common framework for planning, defin-
ing, and integrating intelligent transportation systems is briefly described emphasizing logical
and physical architecture. Integration of ITS in transportation planning process which follows
a systems engineering approach to develop a transportation plan is also briefly described in
this paper.
2 Introduction
Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) is the application of computer, electronics, and com-
munication technologies and management strategies in an integrated manner to provide
traveler information to increase the safety and efficiency of the surface transportation sys-
tems. These systems involve vehicles, drivers, passengers, road operators, and managers
all interacting with each other and the environment, and linking with the complex infrastruc-
ture systems to improve the safety and capacity of road systems.
As reported by Commission for Global Road Safety(June 2006) , the global road deaths
were between 750,000 to 880,000 in the year 1999 and estimated about 1.25 million deaths
per year and the toll is increasing further. World health organization report (1999), showed
that in the year 1990 road accidents as a cause of death or disability were the ninth most
significant cause of death or disability and predicted that by 2020 this will move to sixth place.
Without significant changes to the road transport systems these dreadful figures are likely
to increase significantly. Traditional driver training, infrastructure and safety improvements,
may contribute to certain extent to reduce the number of accidents but not enough to combat
this menace. Intelligent Transport Systems are the best solution to the problem. Safety is
one of the principal driving forces behind the evolution, development, standardization, and
implementation of ITS systems.
ITS improves transportation safety and mobility and enhances global connectivity by
means of productivity improvements achieved through the integration of advanced com-
munications technologies into the transportation infrastructure and in vehicles. Intelligent
transportation systems encompass a broad range of wireless and wire line communication
based information and electronics technologies to better manage traffic and maximize the
2
Signal Control Systems
Electronic Road Parking
Incident Detection
Road Maintanance
Intelligent Parking
Scheduling and Monitoring
Travel Time Prediction Bus Scheduling

Transit Priority Assistance
Figure 1: ITS user services
utilization of the existing transportation infrastructure. It improves driving experience, safety

and capacity of road systems, reduces risks in transportation, relieves traffic congestion,
improves transportation efficiency and reduces pollution.
3 ITS user services

In order to deploy ITS, a framework is developed highlighting various services the ITS can
offer to the users. A list of 33 user services has been provided in the National ITS Program
Plan. The number of user services, keep changing over time when a new service is added.
All the above services are divided in eight groups. The division of these services is based on
the perspective of the organization and sharing of common technical functions. Some of the
user services offered by ITS are shown in Fig. 1. The eight groups are described as follows:
1. Travel and traffic management
2. Public transportation operations
3. Electronic payment
4. Commercial vehicle operations
5. Advance vehicle control and safety systems
6. Emergency management
7. Information management
8. Maintenance and construction management
3
START :ABCD
: 396
: 12:21
END : XYZ
: 13:05
Figure 2: Pre trip information
3.1 Travel and traffic management
The main objective of this group of services is to use real time information on the status
of the transportation system to improve its efficiency and productivity and to mitigate the
adverse environmental impacts of the system. This group of user service is further divided
in 10 user services. Most of these services share information with one another in a highly
integrated manner for the overall benefit of the road transportation system. These services
are described as below:
3.1.1 Pre trip information
This user service provides information to the travelers about the transportation system before
they begin their trips so that they can make more informed decisions regarding their time
of departure, the mode to use and route to take to their destinations. The travelers can
access this information through computer or telephone systems at home or work and at
major public places. Pre travel information can be accessed through mobile phones as
shown in Fig. 2. Different routes and respective travel time durations indicated on VMS
are shown in Fig. 3. The information include real time flow condition, real incidents and
suggested alternate routes, scheduled road construction and maintenance tasks, transit
routes, schedules, fares, transfers, and parking facilities.
3.1.2 En-route driver information
This user service provides travel related information to the travelers en route after they start
their trips through variable message signs (VMS), car radio, or portable communication de-
vices. Fig. 4 shows the various congested and non congested routes shown on display
screen. VMS indicating different routes and travel time is shown in Fig. 5. This helps the
4
City Transit
ROUTE DUE
69 3 mins
98 6 mins
408 7 mins
535 9 mins
Figure 3: VMS showing routes

Traffic Map Satellite Hybrid
Figure 4: Showing congested routes
travelers to better utilize the existing facility by changing routes etc to avoid congestion. This
also provides warning messages for roadway signs such as stop signs, sharp curves, re-
duced speed advisories, wet road condition flashed with in vehicle displays to the travelers
to improve the safety of operating a vehicle. The information can be presented as voice
output also.
3.1.3 Route guidance
This service provides information to the travellers with a suggested route to reach a spec-
ified destination, along with simple instructions on upcoming turns and other manoeuvres.
This also provides travellers of all modes the real-time information about the transportation
LYNNWOOD 11 MIN
S. EVERETT 19 MIN
Figure 5: VMS showing routes and travel times
5
system, including traffic conditions, road closures, and the status and schedule of transit
systems. The benefits of this service are reduced delay and drivers stress levels particularly
in an unfamiliar area.
3.1.4 Ride matching and reservation
This user service provide real-time ride matching information to travellers in their homes,
offices or other locations, and assists transportation providers with vehicle assignments and
scheduling. Travellers give information to the service center and get number of ride sharing
options from which they can choose the best.
3.1.5 Traveler Services Information
This service provides a business directory of information on travel-related services and facil-
ities like the location, operating hours, and availability of food, lodging, parking, auto repair,
hospitals, gas stations and police facilities. This also makes reservations for many of these
traveler services. The traveler services information are accessible in the home, office or
other public locations to help plan trips. These services are available en-route also.
3.1.6 Traffic Control
This service collects the real time data from the transportation system, processes it into
usable information, and uses it to determine the optimum assignment of right-of-way to ve-
hicles and pedestrians. This helps in improving the flow of traffic by giving preference to
transit and other high occupancy vehicles or by adjusting the signal timing to current traffic
conditions. The information collected by the Traffic Control service is also disseminated for
use by many other user services.
3.1.7 Incident Management
This service aims to improve the incident management and response capabilities of trans-
portation and public safety officials, the towing and recovery industry, and others involved
in incident response. Advanced sensors (close circuit TV cameras), data processors and
communication technologies are used to identify incidents quickly and accurately and to im-
plement response which minimizes traffic congestion and the effects of these incidents on
the environment and the movement of people and goods. Fig. 6 shows the occurrence of
incident and its detection by the center and decision implemented responding to the incident
on a highway pertaining to incident management.
6
3 Detect,Verify and Respond
Access road
Loop detectors
2 4
Accident Occurs
1
Figure 6: Incident management
3.1.8 Travel Demand Management
This user service develop and implement strategies to reduce the number of single occu-
pancy vehicles while encouraging the use of high occupancy vehicles and the use of more
efficient travel mode. The strategies adopted are:
1. Congestion pricing
2. Parking management and control
3. Mode change support
4. Telecommuting and alternate work schedule.
3.1.9 Emissions Testing and Mitigation
The main objective of this service is to monitor and implement strategies to divert traffic
away from sensitive air quality areas, or control access to such areas using advanced sen-
sors. This also used to identify vehicles emitting pollutants exceeding the standard values
and to inform drivers to enable them to take corrective action. This helps in facilitating im-
plementation and evaluation of various pollution control strategies by authorities.
3.1.10 Highway Rail Intersection
This service is to provide improved control of highway and train traffic to avoid or decrease
the severity of collisions between trains and vehicles at highway-rail intersections. This also
monitors the condition of various HRI equipments.
7
Implementing the
Construction and Development Improving the
of Metropolitan Rapid Transit Operational
Systems
Enviornment of Urban
Bus Systems
Providing a Healthy
Operational Environment of
Mass Rapid Transit Systems
Facilitating the
Development of
Enhancing the Service Urban Bus Systems
Quality of Rapid Transit
Systems
Figure 7: Different public transportation systems
3.2 Public transportation operations
This group of service is concerned with improving the public transportation systems and
encouraging their use. Fig. 7 shows different public transportation facilities. This group is
divided in four services which are described as below:
3.2.1 Public Transportation Management
This user service collects data through advanced communications and information systems
to improve the operations of vehicles and facilities and to automate the planning and man-
agement functions of public transit systems. This offers three tasks:
1. To provide real-time computer analysis of vehicles and facilities to improve transit op-
erations and maintenance by monitoring the location of transit vehicles, by identifying
deviations from the schedule, and offering potential solutions to dispatchers and oper-
ators.
2. To maintain transportation schedules and to assure transfer connections from vehicle

to vehicle and between modes to facilitate quick response to service delays .
3. To enhance security of transit personnel by providing access management of transit

vehicles.
3.2.2 En-Route Transit Information
This service is intended to provide information on expected arrival times of t vehicles, trans-
fers, and connections to travellers after they begin their trips using public transportation.
This also provide real-time, accurate transit service information on-board the vehicle, at
8
transit stations and bus stops to assist travellers in making decisions and modify their trips
underway.
3.2.3 Personalized Public Transit
The aim of this service is to offer public transport facility to travellers by assigning or schedul-
ing vehicles by
1. diverting flexibly routed transit vehicles.
2. assigning privately operated vehicles on demand which include small buses, taxicabs,
or other small, shared-ride vehicles.
Under this service, travellers provide information of their trip origin and destination to service
station. The center then assigns the closest vehicle to service the request and to inform the
travellers regarding arrival of such vehicles well in advance to reduce their anxiety.
3.2.4 Public Travel Security
This user service creates a secure environment for public transportation operators and sup-
port staff and monitors the environment in transit facilities, transit stations, parking lots, bus
stops and on-board transit vehicles and generates alarms (either automatically or manually)
when necessary. It also provides security to the systems that monitor key infrastructure of
transit (rail track, bridges, tunnels, bus guide ways, etc.).
3.3 Electronic payment
This user service allows travellers to pay for transportation services with a common elec-
tronic payment medium for different transportation modes and functions. Toll collection,
transit fare payment, and parking payment are linked through a multi-modal multi-use elec-
tronic system. With an integrated payment system a traveller driving on a toll road, using
parking lot would be able to use the same electronic device to pay toll, parking price and the
transit fare. Fig. 8 shows the electronic payment facility by radio car tag.
3.4 Commercial Vehicle operations
The aim is to improve the efficiency and safety of commercial vehicle operations. This in-
volves following services:
1. CV electronic clearance
9
traffic
monitoring camera
tag reader
traffic gate
REDUCE
SPEED
PASS
5
MPH
traffic
Information display
E−Z Pass tag
The E−Z Pass Process
Figure 8: Electronic payment facility
2. Automated road side safety inspection
3. On-board safety monitoring administrative process
4. Hazardous material incident response
5. Freight Mobility
3.4.1 Commercial Vehicle Electronic Clearance
This service allows enforcement personnel to electronically check safety status, vehicle’s
credentials, and size and weight data for the commercial vehicles before they reach an
inspection site. The authorities send the illegal or potentially unsafe vehicles only for inspec-
tion and bypass safe and legal carriers to travel without stopping for compliance checks at
weigh stations and other inspection sites.
3.4.2 Automated Roadside Safety Inspection
At inspection station the safety requirements are checked more quickly and more accurately
during a safety inspection using automated inspection capabilities. Advanced equipments
are used to check brake, steering and suspension performance and also the driver’s perfor-
mance pertaining to driver alertness and fitness for duty.
3.4.3 On-board Safety Monitoring
This service monitors the driver, vehicle, and cargo and notify the driver, carrier, and, also
to the enforcement personnel, if an unsafe situation arises during operation of the vehicle.
This is user service also assures freight container, trailer, and commercial vehicle integrity
by monitoring on-board sensors for a breach or tamper event.
10
3.4.4 Commercial Vehicle Administrative Processes
This service allows carriers to purchase credentials such as fuel use taxes, trip permits,
overweight permit, or hazardous material permits automatically. The mileage and fuel re-
porting and auditing components are provided to the carriers automatically which reduce
significant amount of time and paperwork.
3.4.5 Hazardous Materials Incident Response
This user service provides immediate information regarding the types and quantities of haz-
ardous materials present at incident location to the emergency personnel in order to facilitate
a quick and appropriate response. The emergency personnel are informed regarding ship-
ment of any sensitive hazardous materials so that timely action could be taken in case of
accidents.
3.4.6 Freight Mobility
This service provides information to the drivers, dispatchers, and inter-modal transportation
providers, enabling carriers to take advantage of real-time traffic information, as well as
vehicle and load location information, to increase productivity.
3.5 Advanced vehicle control and safety systems
This user service aims to improve the safety of the transportation system by supplement-
ing drivers’ abilities to maintain vigilance and control of the vehicle by enhancing the crash
avoidance capabilities of vehicles. Following user services are included in this group:
3.5.1 Longitudinal Collision Avoidance
This user service provides assistance to vehicle operators in avoiding longitudinal collisions
to the front and/or rear of the vehicle. This is achieved by implementing rear-end collision
warning and control, Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC), head-on collision warning and control,
and backing collision warning to the drivers.
3.5.2 Lateral Collision Avoidance
This helps drivers in avoiding accidents that result when a vehicle leaves its own lane of
travel, by warning drivers and by assuming temporary control of the vehicle. This service
provides to the drivers the lane change/blind spot situation display, collision warning control
and lane departure warning and control.
11
3.5.3 Intersection Collision Avoidance
This user service is specifically aimed at providing vehicle operators with assistance in avoid-
ing collisions at intersections. The system tracks the position of vehicles within the intersec-
tion area through the use of vehicle-to-vehicle communications or vehicle to infrastructure
communications.
3.5.4 Vision Enhancement for Crash Avoidance
This service helps in reducing the number of vehicle crashes that occur during periods of
poor visibility by in vehicle sensors capable of capturing an image of driving environment
and providing a graphical display of the image to the drivers.
3.5.5 Safety Readiness
This helps to provide drivers with warnings regarding their own driving performance, the
condition of the vehicle, and the condition of the roadway as sensed from the vehicle.
3.5.6 Pre-Crash Restraint Deployment
This service helps in reducing the number and severity of injuries caused by vehicle colli-
sions by anticipating an imminent collision and by activating passenger safety systems prior
to the actual impact.
3.5.7 Automated Vehicle Operations (AVO)
This service provides a fully automated vehicle-highway system in which instrumented vehi-
cles operate on instrumented roadways without operator intervention.
3.6 Emergency management
This service has two functions:
1. Emergency notification and personal security - This is to provide travellers the ability to
notify appropriate emergency response personnel regarding the need for assistance
due to emergency or non-emergency situations either by manually or automatically
from the vehicle on the occurrence of an accident.
2. Emergency vehicle management - This user service is to reduce the time from the
receipt of an emergency notification to the arrival of the emergency vehicles at incident
location thereby reducing the severity of accident injuries.
12
3.7 Information management
This service is aimed to provide the functionality needed to store and archive the huge
amounts of data being collected on a continuous basis by different ITS technologies.
3.8 Maintenance and construction management
This user service is aimed to provide the functionality needed for managing the fleets of
maintenance vehicles, managing the roadway with regards to construction and maintenance
and safe roadway operations.
4 ITS Architecture
The ITS Architecture provides a common framework for planning, defining, and integrating
intelligent transportation systems. It specifies how the different ITS components would in-
teract with each other to help solving transportation problems. It provides the transportation
professionals to address their needs with wide variety of options. It identifies and describes
various functions and assigns responsibilities to various stake-holders of ITS. The ITS archi-
tecture should be common and of specified standards throughout the state or region so that
it can address solution to several problems while interacting with various agencies.
1. Interoperability - The ITS architecture should be such that the information collected,
function implemented or any equipment installed be interoperable by various agencies
in different state and regions.
2. Capable of sharing and exchanging information - The information by traffic operations

may be useful to the emergency services.
3. Resource sharing - regional communication towers constructed by various private

agencies are required to be shared by ITS operations.
4.1 National ITS architecture
This is developed by US Department of Transportation to provide guidance and co-ordinate

all regions in deploying ITS. It documents all information available and keep updating con-
tinuously. The national architecture contains the following components:
13
Table 1: User service requirements for Traffic Control user service
Traffic Control provides the capability to efficiently manage the movement of traffic
on streets and highways. Four functions are provided which are
(1) Traffic Flow Optimization,
(2) Traffic Surveillance,
(3) Control, and
(4) Provide Information.
This will also include control of network signal systems with integration of freeway
control. The specified User service requirements
(1) TC shall include a Traffic Flow Optimization function to provide the capability
to optimize traffic flow.
(1.1) Traffic Flow Optimization shall employ control strategies that seek to maximize
traffic-movement efficiency.
(1.2) Traffic Flow Optimization shall include a wide area optimization capability, to
include several jurisdictions.
(1.2.1) Wide area optimization shall integrate the control of network signal systems
with the control of freeways.
(1.2.2) Wide area optimization shall include features that provide preferential
treatment for transit vehicles.
(2) TC shall include a Traffic Surveillance function.
4.2 User services and their requirements
A number of functions are needed to accomplish the user services. These functional state-
ments are called user services requirements. For all the user services the requirements
have been specified. If any new function is added, new requirements are to be defined.
Table. 1 shows an illustration of user service requirements for traffic control user service.
4.3 Logical architecture
To accomplish user service requirements many functions or processes are needed. The
logical architecture defines a set of functions (or processes) and information flows (or data
flows) that respond to the user service requirements. It describes the lower end interaction
of different components of ITS. Processes and data flows are grouped to form a particular
functions. These are represented graphically by data flow diagrams (DFDs). Fig. 9 shows
the interaction of Manage Traffic process with other processes. Each process is broken
down into more sub processes. The sub process is further broken into sub process which
14
Manage Manage
Emergency Commercial
Provide Services Vehicles Manage
Driver and
Traveller Archived
Services Data
Provide
Electronic Manage
Payment Transit
Services
Manage
Provide Manage
Maintenance
Vehicle Traffic
Monitoring and
and Construction
Control
Figure 9: High level ITS logical architecture
Figure 10: Decomposition of process into P-specs
are called process specifications (P-specs) lowest level. These p specs are required to be
performed to fulfill user services requirements. Fig. 10 shows process decomposition into
process specifications.
4.4 Physical architecture
The functions from logical architecture that serve the same need are grouped into sub
systems. With these subsystems a physical entity is developed to deliver functions. The
data flow of logical architecture are also combined to define interface between subsystems.
Fig. 11 shows the functions A and B of logical architecture assigned to subsystem A in physi-
cal architecture. Both the architecture forms the core of ITS. The physical architecture of ITS
defines the physical subsystems and architectural flows based on the logical architecture.
The 22 subsystems are broadly classified in four groups as centers, field, vehicle, and travel-
ers. Fig. 12 shows the subsystems and communications that comprise the national physical
architecture. The subsystem represent aggregation of functions that serve the same trans-
portation need and closely correspond to physical elements of transportation management
system.
Vehicle group consists of five different types of vehicles. The traveler group represents
different ways a traveler can access information on the status of the transportation system.
15
data flows
Logical Architecture
What has to be done
Function
(functions or Function
processes) A C
Function
B Function
D
Physical Architecture
(Group functions Subsystem A Subsystem H
together)
Architecture
flow
Figure 11: Assigning function from logical to the physical architecture

Travelers Centers
Traffic Emergency Commercial Maintenance &
Toll Vehicle
Management Management Administration Administration Construction
Management
Remote
Traveler
Support Information Fleet and Archived
Emissions Transit
Service Freight Data
Provider Management Management Management Management
Personal
Information
Access
Wide Area Wireless Communications Fixed Point − Fixed Communications
Vehicle Roadway
Vehicle − Vehicle Communications
Field − Vehicle Communications
Emergency Security
Vehicle Monitoring
Commercial Toll
Vehicle Collection
Transit Parking
Vehicle Management
Maintenance & Commercial

Construction Vehicle
Vehicle Vehicles Field Check
Figure 12: National ITS physical architecture showing subsystems and communications
There are four different types of communication systems.
1. Fixed point to fixed point
2. Wide area wireless
3. Vehicle - vehicle communication
4. Field - vehicle communication
Through the communication systems all the subsystems are interconnected and transfer the
required data. Fig. 13 shows the communication between traffic management subsystem
and the roadway subsystem. Traffic management subsystem is connected to communica-
tions which gets real time information of the transportation system through roadway subsys-
tem which comprise of signal control, detectors, camera, VMS etc.
4.5 Equipment packages
In order to provide more deployment oriented perspective to the ITS architecture an equip-
ment package is developed. In this similar functions of a particular subsystem are grouped
16
Roadway Subsystem
Traffic management center
Signal Control
Central Computer System
Communications Controller Cabinet
Surveillance
Travelers Centers
Traffic Emergency Payment Commercial Maintenance and
Remote Traveler Vehicle Construction
Support Management Management Management Administration
Vehicle − Vehicle Communications

Information Emissions Transit Fleet and Freight Archived Data
Field − Vehicle Communications

Personal Service Management
Information Access Provider Management Management Management
Wide Area Wireless(Mobile)CommunicationsFixed Point − fixed Point Communications
Roadway
Vehicle
Emergency Security
Vehicle Monitoring
Commercial
Vehicle Roadway
Pavement
Transit Parking
Vehicle Management
Maintanance and Commercial Vehicle
Construction
Vehicle Vehicles Field Check
Figure 13: Communications between subsystems of physical architecture
Table 2: TMC Signal control equipment package

TMC Equipment package provides the capability for traffic managers to monitor
and manage the traffic flow at signalized intersections. It analyzes and reduces the
collected data from traffic surveillance equipment and implements control plans
for signalized intersections.
TMC signal control equipment package contains five P- specs:

(i) Traffic operation personnel traffic interface
(ii) Process traffic data
(iii) Select strategy
(iv) Determine indicator state for road management
(v) Output control data for roads
together and implemented by a package of hardware and software facilities. As an example

Table. 2 shows the TMC signal control equipment package and its functional requirements.
4.6 Market package
The market package defines a set of equipment packages that are required to work together
to provide a given transportation service. Most market packages are made up of equipment
packages from two or more subsystems. These are designed to address specific trans-
portation problems and needs. Fig. 14 shows surface street control market package. This
package provide the central control and monitoring equipment, communication links and the
signal control equipment that support local street control or arterial traffic management. The
various signal control systems dynamically adjusted control plans and strategies based on
current traffic conditions and priority requests.
17
ATMS03 − Surface Street Control
roadway
signal control equipment
data Roadway coordination Other
Traffic Roadway
signal control
Management status driver
Roadway information Driver
traffic flow + Basic
traffic images Surveillance crossing
traffic sensor call
control + Roadway crossing Pedestrians
video surveillance Equipment permission
control Coordination
request for Roadway traffic
right−of−way Signal characteristics Traffic
Controls
Collect Traffic
Surveillance traffic operator
TMC Signal data
Control Traffic Operations
Traffic Personnel
Maintenance traffic operator
inputs
Figure 14: Surface street control market package
5 ITS Planning
ITS planning is to integrate ITS into the transportation planning process.
5.1 Transportation planning and ITS
Transportation planning helps in shaping a well balanced transportation system that can
meet future demands. Transportation planning is an iterative process which include problem
identification, solution generation, analysis, evaluation and implementation. This can be
integrated with ITS using computers, communication systems and software. As planning is
normally made for long period, installing ITS facilities needs to be updated and one should
ensure that the equipments and technologies are compatible for future improvement and
expansion. The steps in traditional transportation planning are as follows:
1. Establish goals and objectives
2. Inventory existing conditions
3. Analyze existing conditions
4. Long range/ short range element
5. Forecast land use, population/employment
6. Forecast future travel/trips
7. Develop and evaluate alternative transportation plans
8. Prepare recommended plans and programs
18
ITS transportation planning process differs from the traditional transportation planning pro-
cess. ITS has the unique capability to integrate different modes of transportation such as
public auto, transit, and infra-structural elements through communications and control. The
multi-modal integration potential provides a great opportunity for planning across modes.
The comparison between ITS approach and conventional approach for solving various trans-
portation problems are shown for few problems are shown in table. 3.
5.2 Planning and ITS architecture
ITS architecture is a useful tool for integrating ITS technique into planning process. The ITS
architecture defines the comprehensive set of data that should be shared by various agen-
cies of transportation network. With the knowledge of what data must be exchanged, these
agencies develop a common interest in cooperating planning efforts between all transporta-
tion projects.
5.3 Planning for ITS
ITS planning process follows a systems engineering approach to develop a deployment plan
in descending order vision, goal, objectives, and functions. Table. 4 shows the ITS approach
for achieving goal “enhance public safety”.
5.4 Integrating ITS into Transportation planning
Integrating ITS into transportation planning process require overcoming some obstacles and
some changes in the business practices of many institutions. The major challenges in main-
streaming ITS into everyday operations of transportation agencies are:
• Institutional coordination and cooperation for sharing information and data
• Technical compatibility among ITS projects
• Human resource needs and training
• Financial constraints and opportunities to involve the private sector
Most public agencies are aware of the challenges in mainstreaming ITS into transportation
planning process where ITS projects are part of traditional transportation programs on local
or state level to achieve the best output from transportation investments.
19
Table 3: Relationship between problems, conventional approach and ITS approach
Problem Possible solutions Conventional approach ITS approach
Lack of Provide user Expand fixed route Multi-modal pre trip and
mobility friendly access to transit and Para en-route traveler
and quality transit service information
accessibility transportation
services Radio and TV Personalize public
traffic reports transportation
Enhance fare card

Traffic Increase roadway New roads Advanced traffic
congestion capacity control, advanced
Car pooling vehicle systems
Reduce demand
Flex-time program Real time ride matching
Personalized public
transport
Telecommuting
transportation pricing
Traffic Improve safety Improve roadway Fully automated vehicle
accidents geometry, sight control system
distance, traffic
signal Automated warning
system
Grade separated
intersection Driver condition on
monitoring
Driver training
Automated detection of
Street lighting adverse weather
Emergency notification
20
Table 4: ITS approach for the goal enhance public safety
Vision Improvement of travelers safety by providing advance warning by
implementing crash counter measures and by controlling to the security
of the transportation facilities
Goal Enhance public safety
Objectives Promote safety of transportation Reduce crashes on freeways
facility and streets
Functions # Monitoring of rest areas # Implement crash counter
measures at high accident
# Provide public safety at park locations
and ride lots
# Implement work zone safety
# Coordinate emergency response measures
using appropriate agency
# Install traffic signs signals and
road marking
# Remove obstruction from the

incident scene
21
6 Summary
This lecture introduces three important intelligent transportation system concepts such as:
user services architecture planning. ITS user services includes concept on Travel and traf-
fic management, Public transportation operations, Electronic payment, Commercial Vehicle
operations, Advanced vehicle control and safety systems, Emergency management, Infor-
mation management, and Maintenance and construction management A general ITS archi-
tecture and its national representation is then covered. The ITS planning discusses how to
integrate ITS into transportation planning
Acknowledgments
I wish to thank several of my students and staff of NPTEL for their contribution in this lecture.
7 Acknowledgments
I wish to thank my student Mr. Shekhar Babu for his assistance in developing the lecture
note, and my staff Ms. Reeba in typesetting the materials. I also wish to thank several of
my students and staff of NPTEL for their contribution in this lecture. I also appreciate your
constructive feedback which may be sent to tvm@civil.iitb.ac.in
Prof. Tom V. Mathew

Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, India
22
Fundamental Parameters of Traffic Flow
Contents
1 Overview
2 Traffic stream parameters
3 Speed
3.1 Spot Speed
3.2 Running speed
3.3 Journey speed
3.4 Time mean speed and space mean speed
4 Flow
4.1 Variations of Volume
4.2 Types of volume measurements
5 Density
6 Derived characteristics
6.1 Time headway
6.2 Distance headway
6.3 Travel time
7 Time-space diagram
7.1 Single vehicle
7.2 Multiple Vehicles
8 Summary
Exercises
References
Acknowledgments
____________________________________________________________
_____________________________
1 Overview
Traffic engineering pertains to the analysis of the behavior of traffic and to
design the facilities for a smooth, safe and economical operation of traffic.
Traffic flow, like the flow of water, has several parameters associated with
it. The traffic stream parameters provide information regarding the nature of
traffic flow, which helps the analyst in detecting any variation in flow
characteristics. Understanding traffic behavior requires a thorough
knowledge of traffic stream parameters and their mutual relationships. In
this chapter the basic concepts of traffic flow is presented.
2 Traffic stream parameters

The traffic stream includes a combination of driver and vehicle behavior.
The driver or human behavior being non-uniform, traffic stream is also non-
uniform in nature. It is influenced not only by the individual characteristics
of both vehicle and human but also by the way a group of such units
interacts with each other. Thus a flow of traffic through a street of defined
characteristics will vary both by location and time corresponding to the
changes in the human behavior.
The traffic engineer, but for the purpose of planning and design,
assumes that these changes are within certain ranges which can be
predicted. For example, if the maximum permissible speed of a highway is
60 kmph, the whole traffic stream can be assumed to move on an average
speed of 40 kmph rather than 100 or 20 kmph.
Thus the traffic stream itself is having some parameters on which the
characteristics can be predicted. The parameters can be mainly classified
as : measurements of quantity, which includes density and flow of traffic
and measurements of quality which includes speed. The traffic stream
parameters can be macroscopic which characterizes the traffic as a whole
or microscopic which studies the behavior of individual vehicle in the
stream with respect to each other.
As far as the macroscopic characteristics are concerned, they can be

grouped as measurement of quantity or quality as described above, i.e.
flow, density, and speed. While the microscopic characteristics include the
measures of separation, i.e. the headway or separation between vehicles
which can be either time or space headway. The fundamental stream
characteristics are speed, flow, and density and are discussed below.
3 Speed
Speed is considered as a quality measurement of travel as the drivers and
passengers will be concerned more about the speed of the journey than the
design aspects of the traffic. It is defined as the rate of motion in distance
per unit of time. Mathematically speed or velocity v is given by,
(1)
where, v is the speed of the vehicle in m/s, d is distance traveled in m in

time t seconds. Speed of different vehicles will vary with respect to time
and space. To represent these variation, several types of speed can be
defined. Important among them are spot speed, running speed, journey
speed, time mean speed and space mean speed. These are discussed
below.
3.1 Spot Speed
Spot speed is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specified location.

Spot speed can be used to design the geometry of road like horizontal and
vertical curves, super elevation etc. Location and size of signs, design of
signals, safe speed, and speed zone determination, require the spot speed
data. Accident analysis, road maintenance, and congestion are the modern
fields of traffic engineer, which uses spot speed data as the basic input.
Spot speed can be measured using an enoscope, pressure contact tubes
or direct timing procedure or radar speedometer or by time-lapse
photographic methods. It can be determined by speeds extracted from
video images by recording the distance travelling by all vehicles between a
particular pair of frames.
3.2 Running speed
Running speed is the average speed maintained over a particular course

while the vehicle is moving and is found by dividing the length of the course
b he ime d ra ion he ehicle as in mo ion. i.e. his speed doesn
consider the time during which the vehicle is brought to a stop, or has to
wait till it has a clear road ahead. The running speed will always be more
than or equal to the journey speed, as delays are not considered in
calculating the running speed
3.3 Journey speed

Journey speed is the effective speed of the vehicle on a journey between
two points and is the distance between the two points divided by the total
time taken for the vehicle to complete the journey including any stopped
time. If the journey speed is less than running speed, it indicates that the
journey follows a stop-go condition with enforced acceleration and
deceleration. The spot speed here may vary from zero to some maximum
in excess of the running speed. A uniformity between journey and running
speeds denotes comfortable travel conditions.
3.4 Time mean speed and space mean speed
Time mean speed is defined as the average speed of all the vehicles
passing a point on a highway over some specified time period. Space
mean speed is defined as the average speed of all the vehicles occupying
a given section of a highway over some specified time period. Both mean
speeds will always be different from each other except in the unlikely event
that all vehicles are traveling at the same speed. Time mean speed is a
point measurement while space mean speed is a measure relating to
length of highway or lane, i.e. the mean speed of vehicles over a period of
time at a point in space is time mean speed and the mean speed over a
space at a given instant is the space mean speed.
4 Flow
There are practically two ways of counting the number of vehicles on a
road. One is flow or volume, which is defined as the number of vehicles
that pass a point on a highway or a given lane or direction of a highway
during a specific time interval. The measurement is carried out by counting
the number of vehicles, n , passing a particular point in one lane in a
t
defined period t. Then the flow q expressed in vehicles/hour is given by
(2)
Flow is expressed in planning and design field taking a day as the

measurement of time.
4.1 Variations of Volume
The variation of volume with time, i.e. month to month, day to day, hour to
hour and within a hour is also as important as volume calculation. Volume
variations can also be observed from season to season. Volume will be
above average in a pleasant motoring month of summer, but will be more
pronounced in rural than in urban area. But this is the most consistent of all
the variations and affects the traffic stream characteristics the least.
Weekdays, Saturdays and Sundays will also face difference in pattern.

But comparing day with day, patterns for routes of a similar nature often
show a marked similarity, which is useful in enabling predictions to be
made.
The most significant variation is from hour to hour. The peak hour
observed during mornings and evenings of weekdays, which is usually 8 to
10 per cent of total daily flow or 2 to 3 times the average hourly volume.
These trips are mainly the work trips, which are relatively stable with time
and more or less constant from day to day.
4.2 Types of volume measurements
Since there is considerable variation in the volume of traffic, several types

of measurements of volume are commonly adopted which will average
these variations into a single volume count to be used in many design
purposes.
1. Average Annual Daily Traffic(AADT) : The average 24-hour traffic

volume at a given location over a full 365-day year, i.e. the total
number of vehicles passing the site in a year divided by 365.
2. Average Annual Weekday Traffic(AAWT) : The average 24-hour
traffic volume occurring on weekdays over a full year. It is computed
by dividing the total weekday traffic volume for the year by 260.
3. Average Daily Traffic(ADT) : An average 24-hour traffic volume at a
given location for some period of time less than a year. It may be
measured for six months, a season, a month, a week, or as little as
two days. An ADT is a valid number only for the period over which it
was measured.
4. Average Weekday Traffic(AWT) : An average 24-hour traffic volume
occurring on weekdays for some period of time less than one year,
such as for a month or a season.
The relationship between AAWT and AWT is analogous to that between
AADT and ADT. Volume in general is measured using different ways like
manual counting, detector/sensor counting, moving-car observer method,
etc. Mainly the volume study establishes the importance of a particular
route with respect to the other routes, the distribution of traffic on road, and
the fluctuations in flow. All which eventually determines the design of a
highway and the related facilities. Thus, volume is treated as the most
important of all the parameters of traffic stream.
5 Density
Density is defined as the number of vehicles occupying a given length of
highway or lane and is generally expressed as vehicles per km. One can
photograph a length of road x, count the number of vehicles, n , in one lane
x
of the road at that point of time and derive the density k as,
(3)
This is illustrated in figure 1. From the figure, the density is the number of
vehicles between the point A and B divided by the distance between A and
B. Density is also equally important as flow but from a different angle as it
is the measure most directly related to traffic demand. Again it measures
the proximity of vehicles in the stream which in turn affects the freedom to
maneuver and comfortable driving.
Figure 1: Illustration of density

6 Derived characteristics
From the fundamental traffic flow characteristics like flow, density, and
speed, a few other parameters of traffic flow can be derived. Significant
among them are the time headway, distance headway and travel time.
They are discussed one by one below.
6.1 Time headway
The microscopic character related to volume is the time headway or simply

headway. Time headway is defined as the time difference between any two
successive vehicles when they cross a given point. Practically, it involves
the measurement of time between the passage of one rear bumper and the
next past a given point. If all headways h in time period, t, over which flow
has been measured are added then,
(4)
But the flow is defined as the number of vehicles n measured in time

t
interval t, that is,
(5)
where, h is the average headway. Thus average headway is the inverse of

av
flow. Time headway is often referred to as simply the headway.
6.2 Distance headway
Another related parameter is the distance headway. It is defined as the

distance between corresponding points of two successive vehicles at any
given time. It involves the measurement from a photograph, the distance
from rear bumper of lead vehicle to rear bumper of following vehicle at a
point of time. If all the space headways in distance x over which the density
has been measured are added,
(6)
But the density (k) is the number of vehicles n at a distance of x, that is

x
(7)
Where, s is average distance headway. The average distance headway is

av
the inverse of density and is sometimes called as spacing.
6.3 Travel time
Travel time is defined as the time taken to complete a journey. As the

speed increases, travel time required to reach the destination also
decreases and vice-versa. Thus travel time is inversely proportional to the
speed. However, in practice, the speed of a vehicle fluctuates over time
and the travel time represents an average measure.
7 Time-space diagram
Time space diagram is a convenient tool in understanding the movement of
vehicles. It shows the trajectory of vehicles in the form of a two dimensional
plot. Time space diagram can be plotted for a single vehicle as well as
multiple vehicles. They are discussed below.
7.1 Single vehicle
Taking one vehicle at a time, analysis can be carried out on the position of
the vehicle with respect to time. This analysis will generate a graph which
gives the relation of its position on a road stretch relative to time. This plot
thus will be between distance x and time t and x will be a functions the
position of the vehicle for every t along the road stretch. This graphical
representation of x(t) in a (t,x) plane is a curve which is called as a
trajectory. The trajectory provide an intuitive, clear, and complete summary
of vehicular motion in one dimension.
Figure 2: Time space diagram for a single vehicle
In figure 2(a), the the distance x goes on increasing with respect to the
origin as time progresses. The vehicle is moving at a smooth condition
along the road way. In figure 2(b), the vehicle at first moves with a smooth
pace after reaching a position reverses its direction of movement. In
figure 2(c), the vehicle in between becomes stationary and maintains the
same position.
From the figure, steeply increasing section of x(t) denote a rapidly

advancing vehicle and horizontal portions of x(t) denote a stopped vehicle
while shallow sections show a slow-moving vehicle. A straight line denotes
constant speed motion and curving sections denote accelerated motion;
and if the curve is concave downwards it denotes acceleration. But a curve
which is convex upwards denotes deceleration.
7.2 Multiple Vehicles
Time-space diagram can also be used to determine the fundamental

parameters of traffic flow like speed, density and volume. It can also be
used to find the derived characteristics like space headway and time
headway. Figure 3 shows the time-space diagram for a set of vehicles
traveling at constant speed. Density, by definition is the number of vehicles
per unit length. From the figure, an observer looking into the stream can
count 4 vehicles passing the stretch of road between x and x at time t.
1 2
Hence, the density is given as
(8)
We can also find volume from this time-space diagram. As per the
definition, volume is the number of vehicles counted for a particular interval
of time. From the figure 3 we can see that 6 vehicles are present between
the time t and t . Therefore, the volume q is given as
1 2
(9)
Again the averages taken at a specific location (i.e., time ranging over an
interval) are called time means and those taken at an instant over a space
interval are termed as space means.
Another related definition which can be given based on the time-space

diagram is the headway. Space headway is defined as the distance
between corresponding points of two successive vehicles at any given
time. Thus, the vertical gap between any two consecutive lines represents
space headway. The reciprocal of density otherwise gives the space
headway between vehicles at that time.
Similarly, time headway is defined as the time difference between any

two successive vehicles when they cross a given point. Thus, the horizontal
gap between the vehicles represented by the lines gives the time headway.
The reciprocal of flow gives the average time headway between vehicles at
that point.
Figure 3: Time space diagram for many vehicles
8 Summary
Speed, flow and density are the basic parameters of traffic flow. Different
measures of speed are used in traffic flow analysis like spot speed, time
mean speed, space mean speed etc. Time-space diagram also can be
used for determining these parameters. Speed and flow of the traffic
stream can be computed using moving observer method.
Exercises
1. Differentiate the following (i) Spot speed (ii) Running speed (iii)
Journey speed (iv) Space mean speed (v) Time mean speed
2. Show the trajectory of a vehicle moving along a road with constant
speed, approaches an intersection, slows down, stop for a while, then
takes a U-turn and travel back with original speed.
3. An observer standing beside a road starts counting vehicle passing
him from 4pm to 4:20pm and he counts about 580 vehicles. What is
the average time headway.
4. An aerial photograph of a stretch of a road of about 200 meter shows
the presence of 40 vehicles. What is the average spacing.
5. If an observer standing beside a road noted that the vehicles are
passing him every 3 seconds. If so what is the flowrate.
References
1. Highway Capacity Manual. Transportation Research Board. National

Research Council, Washington, D.C., 2000.
2. L R Kadiyali. Traffic Engineering and Transportation Planning.
Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, 1987.
3. Adolf D. May. Fundamentals of Traffic Flow. Prentice - Hall, Inc.
Englewood Cliff New Jersey 07632, second edition, 1990.
4. William R McShane, Roger P Roess, and Elena S Prassas. Traffic
Engineering. Prentice-Hall, Inc, Upper Saddle River, New Jesery,
1998.
5. C. S Papacostas. Fundamentals of Transportation Engineering.
Prentice-Hall, New Delhi, 1987.
Fundamental Relations of Traffic Flow
Contents
1 Overview
2 Time mean speed (v ) t
3 Space mean speed (v ) s
3.0.1 Numerical Example

4 Illustration of mean speeds
5 Relation between time mean speed and space mean speed
5.1 Derivation of the relation
6 Fundamental relations of traffic flow
7 Fundamental diagrams of traffic flow
7.1 Flow-density curve
7.2 Speed-density diagram
7.3 Speed flow relation
7.4 Combined diagrams
8 Summary
Exercises
References
Acknowledgments
____________________________________________________________
_____________________________
1 Overview
The relationship between these parameters can be represented by the
Speed is one of the basic parameters of traffic flow and time mean speed
and space mean speed are the two representations of speed. Time mean
speed and space mean speed and the relationship between them will be
discussed in detail in this chapter. The relationship between the
fundamental parameters of traffic flow will also be derived. In addition, this
relationship can be represented in graphical form resulting in the
fundamental diagrams of traffic flow.
2 Time mean speed (v ) t
As noted earlier, time mean speed is the average of all vehicles passing a
point over a duration of time. It is the simple average of spot speed. Time
mean speed v is given by,
t
(1)
where v is the spot speed of i vehicle, and n is the number of

i
th
observations. In many speed studies, speeds are represented in the form

of frequency table. Then the time mean speed is given by,
(2)
where q is the number of vehicles having speed v , and n is the number of

i i
such speed categories.
3 Space mean speed (v ) s
The space mean speed also averages the spot speed, but spatial
weightage is given instead of temporal. This is derived as below. Consider
unit length of a road, and let v is the spot speed of i vehicle. Let t is the
i
th
i
time the vehicle takes to complete unit distance and is given by . If there
are n such vehicles, then the average travel time t is given by,
s
(3)
If t is the average travel time, then average speed v =

av s . Therefore, from
the above equation,
(4)
This is simply the harmonic mean of the spot speed. If the spot speeds are
expressed as a frequency table, then,
(5)
where q vehicle
i will have v speed
i and n is i the number of such
observations.
If the spot speeds are 50, 40, 60, 54 and 45, then find the time mean speed
and space mean speed.
Solution Time mean speed v is t the average of spot speed.

Therefore, v = =
t = = 49.8. Space mean speed is
the harmonic mean of spot speed.
Therefore, v = s = = = 48.82.
The results of a speed study is given in the form of a frequency distribution

table. Find the time mean speed and space mean speed.
speed range frequency

2-5 1
6-9 4
10-13 0
14-17 7
Solution
Sl. speed average flow qi vi

No. range speed (vi) (qi)
1 2-5 3.5 1 3.5 2.29
2 6-9 7.5 4 30.0 0.54
3 10-13 11.5 0 0 0
4 14-17 15.5 7 108.5 0.45
total 12 142 3.28
The time mean speed and space mean speed can be found out from the
frequency table given below. First, the average speed is computed, which
is the mean of the speed range. For example, for the first speed range,
average speed, v = i = 3.5 seconds. The volume of flow q for that speed
i
range is same as the frequency. The terms v .q and are also tabulated,
i i
and their summations given in the last row. Time mean speed can be
computed as, v =t = = 11.83. Similarly, space mean speed can be
computed as, v =s = = 3.65.
4 Illustration of mean speeds

In order to understand the concept of time mean speed and space mean
speed, following illustration will help. Let there be a road stretch having two
sets of vehicle as in figure 1.
Figure 1: Illustration of relation between time mean speed and space mean
speed
The first vehicle is traveling at 10m/s with 50 m spacing, and the second
set at 20m/s with 100 m spacing. Therefore, the headway of the slow
vehicle h will be 50 m divided by 10 m/s which is 5 sec. Therefore, the
s
number of slow moving vehicles observed at A in one hour n will be 60/5 = s
12 vehicles. The density K is the number of vehicles in 1 km, and is the

inverse of spacing. Therefore, K = 1000∕50 = 20 vehicles/km. Therefore, by
s
definition, time mean speed v is given by v =
t t = 15 m∕s.
Similarly, by definition, space mean speed is the mean of vehicle speeds
over time. Therefore, v = s = 13.3 m∕s. This is same as the
harmonic mean of spot speeds obtained at location A;
ie v =
s = 13.3 m∕s. It may be noted that since harmonic mean
is always lower than the arithmetic mean, and also as observed, space
mean speed is always lower than the time mean speed. In other words,
space mean speed weights slower vehicles more heavily as they occupy
the road stretch for longer duration of time. For this reason, in many
fundamental traffic equations, space mean speed is preferred over time
mean speed.
5 Relation between time mean speed and space mean

speed
The relation between time mean speed (v ) and space mean speed (v ) is
t s
given by the following relation:
where, is the standard deviation of the spot speed. The derivation of the
s
formula is given in the next subsection. The standard deviation( ) can be

2
computed in the following equation:
where, q is the frequency of the vehicle having v speed.

i i
5.1 Derivation of the relation
The relation between time mean speed and space mean speed can be
derived as below. Consider a stream of vehicles with a set of sub-stream
flow q , q , q , q having speed v ,v , v , v . The fundamental relation
1 2 i n 1 2 i n
between flow(q), density(k) and mean speed v is, s

Therefore for any sub-stream q , the following relationship will be valid.
i
The summation of all sub-stream flows will give the total flow q:
Similarly the summation of all sub-stream density will give the total
density k.
Let f denote the proportion of sub-stream density k to the total density k,

i i
Space mean speed averages the speed over space. Therefore,

if k vehicles has v speed, then space mean speed is given by,
i i
Time mean speed averages the speed over time. Therefore,
Substituting q = k v , v can be written as,

i i i t
Rewriting the above equation and substituting f =
i , and then
substituting q = k v , we get,
s
By adding and subtracting v and doing algebraic manipulations, v can be

s t
written as,
Note tha , in he fi e m f he ab e e a i n, f = 1 by definition. The

i
numerator of the second term is the square of the standard deviation

of v with respect to v . The third term of the above equation is zero because
i s
f (v - v ) is zero by definition, since v is the mean of v . Therefore,

i i s s i
(8)
Hence, time mean speed is space mean speed plus standard deviation of
the spot speed divided by the space mean speed. Time mean speed will be
always greater than space mean speed since standard deviation cannot be
negative. If all the speed of the vehicles are the same, then spot speed,
time mean speed and space mean speed will also be same.
For the data given below,compute the time mean speed and space mean
speed. Also verify the relationship between them. Finally compute the
density of the stream.
speed range (viL - v iU) frequency (q i)

0-10 6
10-20 16
20-30 24
30-40 25
40-50 17
Solution
Table 1: Solution table

vi =
no. viL - v iU qi qivi qivi2 q i∕vi ki = ki vi2

1 0-10 5 6 30 150 6/5 1.20 30
2 10-20 15 16 240 3600 16/15 1.07 240
3 20-30 20 24 600 15000 24/25 0.96 600
4 30-40 25 25 875 30625 25/35 0.71 875
5 40-50 30 17 765 34425 17/45 0.38 765
Total 88 2510 83800 4.319 4.319 2510
The solution of this problem consist of computing the time mean
speed v =t , space mean speed v = s , verifying their relation by the
equation v = v +
t s , and using this to compute the density. To verify their
relation, the variance also need to be computed as = - v . For 2

s
2
convenience, the calculation can be done in a tabular form as shown in

table 1. The time mean speed (v ) is computed as: t
The space mean speed can be computed as:
The standard deviation can be computed as:
The time mean speed can also v be computed as:

t
The density can be found as:
6 Fundamental relations of traffic flow

The relationship between the fundamental variables of traffic flow, namely
speed, volume, and density is called the fundamental relations of traffic
flow. This can be derived by a simple concept. Let there be a road with
length v km, and assume all the vehicles are moving with v km/hr.(Fig 2).
Figure 2: Illustration of relation between fundamental parameters of traffic flow
Let the number of vehicles counted by an observer at A for one hour

be n . By definition, the number of vehicles counted in one hour is flow(q).
1
Therefore,
(9)
Similarly, by definition, density is the number of vehicles in unit distance.

Therefore number of vehicles n in a road stretch of distance v will be
2 1
density × distance.Therefore,
(10)
Since all the vehicles have speed v, the number of vehicles counted in 1
hour and the number of vehicles in the stretch of distance v will also be
same.(ie n = n ). Therefore,
1 2
(11)
This is the fundamental equation of traffic flow. Please note that, v in the
above equation refers to the space mean speed will also be same.
7 Fundamental diagrams of traffic flow

The relation between flow and density, density and speed, speed and flow,
can be represented with the help of some curves. They are referred to as
the fundamental diagrams of traffic flow. They will be explained in detail
one by one below.
7.1 Flow-density curve
The flow and density varies with time and location. The relation between
the density and the corresponding flow on a given stretch of road is
referred to as one of the fundamental diagram of traffic flow. Some
characteristics of an ideal flow-density relationship is listed below:
1. When the density is zero, flow will also be zero,since there is no

vehicles on the road.
2. When the number of vehicles gradually increases the density as well
as flow increases.
3. When more and more vehicles are added, it reaches a situation
he e ehicle can m e. Thi i efe ed a he jam den i
the maximum density. At jam density, flow will be zero because the
vehicles are not moving.
4. There will be some density between zero density and jam density,
when the flow is maximum. The relationship is normally represented
by a parabolic curve as shown in figure 3
Figure 3: Flow density curve
The point O refers to the case with zero density and zero flow. The point
B refers to the maximum flow and the corresponding density is k . The max
point C refers to the maximum density k and the corresponding flow is

jam
zero. OA is the tangent drawn to the parabola at O, and the slope of the
line OA gives the mean free flow speed, ie the speed with which a vehicle
can travel when there is no flow. It can also be noted that points D and E
correspond to same flow but has two different densities. Further, the slope
of the line OD gives the mean speed at density k and slope of the line OE
1
will give mean speed at density k . Clearly the speed at density k will be
2 1
higher since there are less number of vehicles on the road.
7.2 Speed-density diagram
Similar to the flow-density relationship, speed will be maximum, referred to

as the free flow speed, and when the density is maximum, the speed will be
zero. The most simple assumption is that this variation of speed with
density is linear as shown by the solid line in figure 4. Corresponding to the
zero density, vehicles will be flowing with their desire speed, or free flow
speed. When the density is jam density, the speed of the vehicles becomes
zero.
Figure 4: Speed-density diagram
It is also possible to have non-linear relationships as shown by the

dotted lines. These will be discussed later.
7.3 Speed flow relation
The relationship between the speed and flow can be postulated as follows.
The flow is zero either because there is no vehicles or there are too many
vehicles so that they cannot move. At maximum flow, the speed will be in
between zero and free flow speed. This relationship is shown in figure 5.
Figure 5: Speed-flow diagram
The maximum flow q occurs at speed u. It is possible to have two

max
different speeds for a given flow.

7.4 Combined diagrams
The diagrams shown in the relationship between speed-flow, speed-

density, and flow-density are called the fundamental diagrams of traffic
flow. These are as shown in figure 6. One could observe the inter-
relationship of these diagrams.
Figure 6: Fundamental diagram of traffic flow
8 Summary
Time mean speed and space mean speed are two important measures of
speed. It is possible to have a relation between them and was derived in
this chapter. Also, time mean speed will be always greater than or equal to
space mean speed. The fundamental diagrams of traffic flow are vital tools
which enables analysis of fundamental relationships. There are three
diagrams - speed-density, speed-flow and flow-density. They can be
together combined in a single diagram as discussed in the last section of
the chapter.
Exercises
1. Derive the relationship between fundamental parameters of traffic

with a detailed illustration of fundamental diagrams of traffic flow.
2. Derive the relationship between the time mean speed and space
mean speed. Verify the above relation using some hypothetical speed
data expressed in a frequency table.
3. Verify the relationship between the time mean speed and space
mean speed using some hypothetical speed data generated by you
(about 20-30 spot speeds) and represented in a frequency table.
4. Calculate the time mean speed and the space mean speed of the
following observation.
Speed Range Volume

(m/sec) (veh/hr)
10-12 12
12-14 18
14-16 24
16-18 20
18-20 14
5. The following travel times in seconds were measured for vehicles as

they traversed a 3 km segmeny of a highway.
Compute the time mean speed and space mean speed for this data.
Why space mean speed is always lower than time mean speed,
explain with a derivation.
6. For the data given below,compute the time mean speed and space
mean speed. Also verify the relationship between them. Finally
compute the density of the stream.
Speed range Frequency

1-4 5
5-8 15
9-12 23
13-16 24
17-20 16
References
1. Highway Capacity Manual. Transportation Research Board. National

Research Council, Washington, D.C., 2000.
2. L R Kadiyali. Traffic Engineering and Transportation Planning.
Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, 1987.
4. William R McShane, Roger P Roess, and Elena S Prassas. Traffic
Engineering. Prentice-Hall, Inc, Upper Saddle River, New Jesery,
1998.
5. C. S Papacostas. Fundamentals of Transportation Engineering.
Prentice-Hall, New Delhi, 1987.
Traffic Stream Models
Contents
1 Overview
2 G een hield mac o copic eam model
3 Calib a ion of G een hield model
3.0.1 Numerical example
4 Other macroscopic stream models
4.1 G eenbe g loga i hmic model
4.2 Unde ood e ponen ial model
4.3 Pipe gene ali ed model
4.4 Multi-regime models
5 Shock waves
Exercises
References
Acknowledgments
____________________________________________________________
_____________________________
1 Overview
To figure out the exact relationship between the traffic parameters, a great
deal of research has been done over the past several decades. The results
of these researches yielded many mathematical models. Some important
models among them will be discussed in this chapter.
2 G een hield macroscopic stream model

Macroscopic stream models represent how the behaviour of one parameter
of traffic flow changes with respect to another. Most important among them
is the relation between speed and density. The first and most simple
relation between them is proposed by Greenshield. Greenshield assumed a
linear speed-density relationship as illustrated in figure 1 to derive the
model.
Figure 1: Relation between speed and density
The equation for this relationship is shown below.
(1)
where v is the mean speed at density k, v is the free speed and k is the
f j
jam density. This equation ( 1) i of en efe ed o a he G een hield

model. It indicates that when density becomes zero, speed approaches
free flow speed (ie. v v when k
f 0).
Figure 2: Relation between speed and flow
Once the relation between speed and flow is established, the relation
with flow can be derived. This relation between flow and density is
parabolic in shape and is shown in figure 3. Also, we know that
(2)
Figure 3: Relation between flow and density 1
Now substituting equation 1 in equation 2, we get
(3)
Similarly we can find the relation between speed and flow. For this,
put k = in equation 1 and solving, we get
(4)
This relationship is again parabolic and is shown in figure 2. Once the

relationship between the fundamental variables of traffic flow is established,
the boundary conditions can be derived. The boundary conditions that are
of interest are jam density, free-flow speed, and maximum flow. To find
density at maximum flow, differentiate equation 3 with respect to k and
equate it to zero. ie.,
Denoting the density corresponding to maximum flow as k , 0

(5)
Therefore, density corresponding to maximum flow is half the jam density.

Once we get k , we can derive for maximum flow, q . Substituting
0 max
equation 5 in equation 3
Thus the maximum flow is one fourth the product of free flow and jam
density. Finally to get the speed at maximum flow, v , substitute
0
equation 5 in equation 1 and solving we get,
(6)
Therefore, speed at maximum flow is half of the free speed.
3 Calib a i n f G een hield m del

In order to use this model for any traffic stream, one should get the
boundary values, especially free flow speed (v ) and jam density (k ). This
f j
has to be obtained by field survey and this is called calibration process.

Although it is difficult to determine exact free flow speed and jam density
directly from the field, approximate values can be obtained from a number
of speed and density observations and then fitting a linear equation
between them. Let the linear equation be y = a + bx such that y is
density k and x denotes the speed v. Using linear regression method,
coefficients a and b can be solved as,
Alternate method of solving for b is,
where x and y are the samples, n is the number of samples,

i i
and x and y are the mean of x and y respectively.

i i
3.0.1 Numerical example
For the following data on speed and density, determine the parameters of
he G een hield model. Al o find he ma im m flo and den i
corresponding to a speed of 30 km/hr.
k v
171 5
129 15
20 40
70 25
Solution Denoting y = v and x = k, solve for a and b using equation 8 and

equation 9. The solution is tabulated as shown below.
Table 1: Solution to numerical example

x(k) y(v) (xi -x) (yi -y) (xi -x)(yi -y) (xi -x2)
171 5 73.5 -16.3 -1198.1 5402.3
129 15 31.5 -6.3 -198.5 992.3
20 40 -77.5 18.7 -1449.3 6006.3
70 25 -27.5 3.7 -101.8 756.3
390 85 -2947.7 13157.2
x= = = 97.5, y = = = 21.3. From equation 9, b = =-
0.2 a = y - bx = 21.3 + 0.2×97.5 = 40.8 So the linear regression equation
will be,
(10)
Here v = 40.8 and

f = 0.2. This implies, k = = 204 veh/km. The basic
j
parame e of G een hield model a e f ee flo peed and jam den i

and they are obtained as 40.8 kmph and 204 veh/km respectively. To find
maximum flow, use equation 6, i.e., q = max = 2080.8 veh/hr Density
corresponding to the speed 30 km/hr can be found out by substituting v =
30 in equation 10. i.e, 30 = 40.8 - 0.2 × k Therefore, k = = 54
veh/km.
4 Other macroscopic stream models

In G een hield model, linea ela ion hip be een peed and den i a
assumed. But in field we can hardly find such a relationship between speed
and density. Therefore, the validity of G een hield model a q e ioned
and man o he model came p. P ominen among hem a e G eenbe g
loga i hmic model, Unde ood e ponen ial model, Pipe gene ali ed
model, and multi-regime models. These are briefly discussed below.
4.1 G eenbe g logarithmic model
Greenberg assumed a logarithmic relation between speed and density. He

proposed,
Figure 4: G eenbe g loga i hmic model

(11)
This model has gained very good popularity because this model can be
derived analytically. (This derivation is beyond the scope of this notes).
However, main drawbacks of this model is that as density tends to zero,
speed tends to infinity. This shows the inability of the model to predict the
speeds at lower densities.
4.2 Unde d e nen ial m del
Trying o o e come he limi a ion of G eenbe g model, Unde ood p

forward an exponential model as shown below.
(12)
where v is the free flow speed and k is the optimum density. The model
f 0
can be graphically expressed as in figure 5. is the free flow speed and k is

o
the optimum density, i.e. the density corresponding to the maximum flow.
Figure 5: Unde ood e ponen ial model
In this model, speed becomes zero only when density reaches infinity
which is the drawback of this model. Hence this cannot be used for
predicting speeds at high densities.
4.3 Pi e gene ali ed m del

Further developments were made with the introduction of a new parameter
(n) to provide for a more generalized modeling approach. Pipes proposed a
model shown by the following equation.
(13)
When n i e o one, Pipe model e emble G een hield model. Th

by varying the values of n, a family of models can be developed.
4.4 Multi-regime models
All the above models are based on the assumption that the same speed-
density relation is valid for the entire range of densities seen in traffic
streams. Therefore, these models are called single-regime models.
However, human behaviour will be different at different densities. This is
corroborated with field observations which shows different relations at
different range of densities. Therefore, the speed-density relation will also
be different in different zones of densities. Based on this concept, many
models were proposed generally called multi-regime models. The most
simple one is called a two-regime model, where separate equations are
used to represent the speed-density relation at congested and
uncongested traffic.
5 Shock waves
The flow of traffic along a stream can be considered similar to a fluid flow.
Consider a stream of traffic flowing with steady state conditions, i.e., all the
vehicles in the stream are moving with a constant speed, density and flow.
Let this be denoted as state A (refer figure 6. Suddenly due to some
obstructions in the stream (like an accident or traffic block) the steady state
characteristics changes and they acquire another state of flow, say state B.
The speed, density and flow of state A is denoted as v , k , and q , and
A A A
state B as v , k , and q respectively.

B B B
Figure 6: Shock wave: Stream characteristics
The flow-density curve is shown in figure 7.
Figure 7: Shock wave: Flow-density curve
The speed of the vehicles at state A is given by the line joining the origin
and point A in the graph. The time-space diagram of the traffic stream is
also plotted in figure 8.
Figure 8: Shock wave : time-distance diagram
All the lines are having the same slope which implies that they are
moving with constant speed. The sudden change in the characteristics of
the stream leads to the formation of a shock wave. There will be a
cascading effect of the vehicles in the upstream direction. Thus shock wave
is basically the movement of the point that demarcates the two stream
conditions. This is clearly marked in the figure 7. Thus the shock waves
produced at state B are propagated in the backward direction. The speed
of the vehicles at state B is the line joining the origin and point B of the
flow-density curve. Slope of the line AB gives the speed of the shock wave
(refer figure 7). If speed of the shock-wave is represented as ω , then
AB
(14)
The above result can be analytically solved by equating the expressions for
the number vehicles leaving the upstream and joining the downstream of
the shock wave boundary (this assumption is true since the vehicles cannot
be created or destroyed. Let N be the number of vehicles leaving the
A
section A. Then, N = q t. The relative speed of these vehicles with respect

A B
to the shock wave will be v - ω . Hence,

A AB
(15)
Similarly, the vehicles entering the state B is given as
(16)
Equating equations 15 and 16, and solving for ω as follows will yield to:
AB
This will yield the following expression for the shock-wave speed.
(17)
In this case, the shock wave move against the direction of traffic and is
therefore called a backward moving shock wave. There are other
possibilities of shock waves such as forward moving shock waves and
stationary shock waves. The forward moving shock waves are formed
when a stream with higher density and higher flow meets a stream with
relatively lesser density and flow. For example, when the width of the road
increases suddenly, there are chances for a forward moving shock wave.
Stationary shock waves will occur when two streams having the same flow
value but different densities meet. traffic parameters. These models were
based on many assumptions, for instance, Greenshield model a med a
linear speed-density relationship. Other models were also discussed in this
chapter. The models are used for explaining several phenomena in
connection with traffic flow like shock wave. The topics of further interest
are multi-regime model (formulation of both two and three regime models)
and three dimensional representation of these models.
Exercises
1. Illustrate neatly on a single graph the speed-density relation by

Greenberg, Greenshield, Underwood, Pipe(n=0.5,2), two regime, and
three regime models, along with typical field observations
2. Explain with neat sketch the need and examples of multi-regime
stream models.
3. Sketch the three fundamental diagrams of traffic flow. Derive the
relation between maximum flow (q ), jam density (k ), and free flow
max j
speed (u ). Assume liner speed flow relation: u = u

f f .
4. Plot typical speed-density field data points. Draw the shapes of
various traffic stream models (5-7) including multi-regime models.
Write the equations of these models as well.
5. llustrate a three regime speed-density relation considering low,
medium, and high flow traffic states.
6. In a traffic study, the observed densities were 150, 120, 50, 70 and
20 veh/km and the corresponding speeds were 10, 25, 45, 40 and
32km/h. Find the jam density acco ding o G eenbe g loga i hmic
traffic stream model. (Hint: Linearize the expression)
7. For the following data on speed and concentration, determine the
pa ame e of G een hield model. Find he concen a ion
corresponding to a speed of 40 kmph. Find also the maximum flow.
Concentration(veh/km) Speed(kmph)
180 4
140 20
30 50
75 35
8. A study of flow at a particular location resulted in a calibrated speed-
density relationship as follows. v = 52.5 (1 - 0.35 k). For this
relationship, determine free flow speed, jam density, maximum flow,
and the relationship between fundamental parameters of traffic.
(Illustrate with a sketch)
9. If the mean speeds in kmph observed from a road stretch at various
time is given as: 10, 25, 45, 40, and 50, and the corresponding
densities in veh/km are: 150, 120, 50, 70, and 20. What would be the
maximum flow on this road stretch.
10. The speed density relationship of traffic on a section of highway
was estimated to be u = 18.2 log
x . (i) What is the maximum flow,
speed and density at this flow? (ii) What is the jam density?
11. Determine the parameters of Greenshields model for the
following data. Find the maximum flow and density for a speed of 45
kmph.
Speed (kmph) Density (veh/km)

5 150
20 120
30 100
40 70
12. A study of flow at a particular location resulted in a calibrated

speed-density relationship as follows. v = 47.5 (1 - 0.32 k) For this
relationship, determine free flow speed, jam density, maximum flow,
speed-flow relationship, and flow-density relationship. (Illustrate with
a sketch)
13. In a traffic study experiment, density values are obtained as
160, 120, 40, and 72 veh/km corresponding to speed values of 3, 18,
55, 32 e pec i el . De e mine he pa ame e of G een hield
model. Find the density corresponding to a speed of 40 kmph. Find
also the maximum flow.
14. The following speed and density is observed from a road
section. If we assume the speed decreases linearly with respect to
density, then: (a) what will be the density at a speed of 10 kmph, and
(b) what will be the maximum flow across the section

5 120
20 90
30 40
40 10
15. The speed and density observed from a road is given below.
What is the density and flow corresponding to a speed of 25 kmph.
State the assumptions/model used in the computation.

10 200
20 170
30 120
40 100
References

Transportation networks
Contents
1 Introduction
2 Graphs: Definitions and Notations
2.1 Directed Graph
2.2 Chain and Cycle
2.3 Path and Mesh
2.4 Accessible and connected nodes
2.5 Cut-Set
2.6 Undirected and mixed graphs
2.7 Tree and Arborescence
3 Flows and Conservation Laws
3.1 L F a d K c ff La
3.1.1 Numerical Illustration
3.2 Single O-D networks: Link flows
3.3 Multiple O-D Network: Chain Flows
3.4 Costs and Capacities
4 Network Algorithms
4.1 Minimal spanning tree
4.1.1 Prims algorithm
4.1.3 K a ag
4.2 D a e a ag
4.2.2 Numerical Example 2
5 Network Optimization
5.1 Maximum Flow Problem
5.2 Minimum Cost Flow Problem
5.3 Transportation Problem
5.4 Assignment Problem
5.5 Traveling Salesman Problem
6 Travelling salesman problem (TSP)
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Formulation
Exercises
References
Acknowledgments
____________________________________________________________
_____________________________
1 Introduction
1. Objective: a clear statement of the basic principles of underlying the
theory and application of network flows in transportation.
2. Applicable to road traffic, rail, shipping, and airline network.
3. Assist in transportation planning and traffic control applications.
4. Examples of network representation:
a. Road Network
b. Traffic Desire Network
2 Graphs: Definitions and Notations

2.1 Directed Graph
1. Directed graph [N,L] is a set of N unordered elements and a set

of L ordered pairs of elements of N.
2. Number of elements in N and L are n and l respectively.
3. N (n ,i = 1, 2, ,n) is the set of node and L (l (n ,n ), n ∈ N, n ∈ N,k =
i k i j i j
1, 2, ,l) is the set of links.

4. Here, we assume there is no parallel link.
5. If n = n then the link is a loop (nodes defining link may or may not be
i j
distinct).
6. It is common practice to call the nodes n and n defining the
i j
link l (n ,n ) as A node and B node respectively.

k i j
7. Partial Graph of the directed graph [N,L] is defined as [N,L ]

where L L. This is obtained by deleting links.
8. Sub Graph of the directed graph [N,L] is defined as [N ,L ] where N
N and L = {(n ,n )|(n ,n ) ∈ L,n ∈ N ,n ∈ N . Obtained by deleting
i j i j i j
nodes and attached links.

9. Complete Graph is graph with at least one link joining any two
distinct nodes of N, that is, n ∈ N, n ∈ N, n ≠n , (n ,n ) L ⇒ (n ,n ) ∈ L.
i j i j i j j i
10. Bipartite Graph is a graph in which the set of N nodes is

divided into two complementary set X,X, such
that, X ∪X = N and X X = ∅ and L = {(n ,n )|n ∈ X, n ∈X}
i j i j
Figure 1: Directed Graph N={1, 2, 3, 4} , L={(1,2); (1,3); (1,4); (2,3);

(2,4); (3,2); (3,4)}
Figure 2: Partial Graph N={1, 2, 3, 4} , L = (1,2); (1,4); (3,4)}
Figure 3: Sub Graph N={1, 2, 3, 4} , L={(1,2); (2,3)}
Figure 4: Complete Graph N={1, 2, 3, 4} , L={(1,2); (1,3); (1,4);

(2,3); (3,4), (2,4)}
Figure 5: B a eGa X= 1, 2 , a d X = 3, 4 , L={(1,3); (1,4);

(2,3)}
2.2 Chain and Cycle
If n1,n2 r are distinct nodes, then the sequence n1(n1,n2)n2(n2,n3)n3 r-

(n ,n
1 r-1 r r)n defines a chain from origin node n 14 to destination node n r.
If n1 = nr then chain becomes a cycle. In figure 1 1 (1,2) 2 (2,3) 3 (3,4) 4 is
a chain from node 1 to 4 while 2 (2,3) 3 (3,2) 2 is a cycle from 2 to 2.
2.3 Path and Mesh
If directions of links are not considered chain and cycle becomes path and
mesh respectively. If n1,n2 r are distinct nodes (ni , i+1 ) are links, then
a path from origin node n1 to destination node nr is defined by the
sequence n1(n1 , 2 ) 2 i(ni , i+1 ) i+1 r) where
either ni = ni and ni+1 = ni+1 (forward link) or ni = ni+1 and ni+1 = ni (reverse
link). The path becomes a mesh if n1 = nr.
2.4 Accessible and connected nodes
In a graph, n1 to nr is accessible if there exists a chain from n1 to nr and

is connected if there exists a path from n1 to nr. If n1 to nr is accessible,
that does not imply nr to n1 is accessible, however, if n1 to nr is connected,
that does imply nr to n1 is connected.
A connected directed graph is a graph in which all nodes are connected.
2.5 Cut-Set
If the set of nodes N is partitioned into complementary sets X and X then

the sub set L defined by (X,X) = {(i,j)|(i,j) ∈ L,i ∈ X,j ∈X is called a cut set.
Refer to the graph in figure 1: if X = {1, 2} and X = {3, 4}, then cut set
(X,X)={(1,3), (1,4), (2,3), (2,4)} and the cut set (X,X)={(3,2)}. Cut set has
several applications in transportation networks, for example the road links
crossing a screen lines and cordon lines can be modelled as cut sets.
2.6 Undirected and mixed graphs
The undirected graph [N,L], the elements of L are unordered pair of

elements of N and are denoted as (ni,nj) or (nj,ni). Arrow heads are not
required for their representation. Pedestrian link or two way streets are
some examples.
2.7 Tree and Arborescence
A tree denoted by [N,T] is a connected graph with no meshes (directions

are ignored). A graph is a tree if and only if every pair of distinct nodes is
connected precisely one path. A spanning tree of a graph [N,L] is a tree
[N,T] which is a partial graph of [N,L], that is, T L When directions are
considered, then the tree which consists of chains from home node to all
other nodes is called and Arborescence. Hence, an Arborescence is a
directed graph in which, for a node nr called as the root and any other
node ni, there is exactly one directed path from nr to ni. Spanning tree has
application in finding the shortest path.
Figure 6: Directed Graph G (N, L)
Figure 7: A G a G (N ,T) c a ee, b a a g ee f G (N, L)
Figure 8: A G a G (N,T ) c a a g tree of G (N, L)
Figure 9: Arborescence of the Directed Graph G (N, L)
3 Flows and Conservation Laws

1. When the links of a graph is used to denote flow of vehicles, goods,
or pedestrain, then the graph is referred as
a network or transportation network
2. Flow then denotes quantity per unity time, the rate at which flow takes
place (vehicles per hour, pedestian per hour, etc.)
3. Fundamental to any network dealing with flows (like electrical, or
water or transportation network) is the fact that flows are not lost in
the network.
4. K c ff law state the same concept, but note that we are
concerned with the steady state macroscopic conditions and not valid
under microscopic and stocastic conditions.
3.1 Li k Fl a d Ki chh ff La
Three kind of nodes exist in transporation network:
1. Intermediate node: sum of all flows entering the node equals the sum
of all flows leaving the node
2. Production Centroid or source: the sum of all flows leaving the node
equals the flow produced at that node
3. Attraction Centroid: or sink: the sum of all flows entering the node
equals the flows attracted to that node
Following notations may be stated first:
1. fij is the link flow on the directed link (i,j)

2. ai is the flow produced at the centroid (i)
3. bi is the flow attracted to the centroid (i)
4. All flows are assumed to be non-negative (fij, ai, bi 0)
5. A(i) is the set of nodes after node i, defined as:
(1)
6. B(i) is the set of nodes before node i, defined as:
(2)
Now, the K c ff f c e a law for a directed transportion

network [N; L] can be written as:
The last equation ensures some solution to the problem. Since, the no of
links are normally more than the number of node in typical transportation
networks, the number of unknown exceeds the number of equations and
hence there will be mutiple solutions to this problem.
Ve f K c ff a f e e g e f g e 10 for node 2 and 3.
Figure 10: Network illustrating flow conservation
Solution Node 2: For the node i=2, A(i = 2) = 3, 4 and B(i = 2) = 1, 3
Node 3: The above steps may be repeated.
3.2 Single O-D networks: Link flows
If i = 1 is the origin node and i = n is the destination node, the node 1 is

desgnated as the production zone with g where g is the flow produced and
zero flow attracted. Similarly, the node n is designated as the attraction
zone with g where g is the flow attracted and zero flow is produced.
The conservation equation for such a network can be written as:
where, g denote the flow value, and fij is the flow on link i,j.
Theorem The net flow across any cut-set (X,X) separating the origin and
destination is equal to the flow value.
Verify the above theorem that the net flow across the cut-
set (X,X) separating the origin 1 and destination 4 is equal to the flow value
of 7 for the network given in figure 11.
Figure 11: Network illustrating flow value across cut-set
Solution
1. The cut set is defined by X = {1, 3} and X = {2, 4}

2. The cut-set (X,X) = {(1, 2), (3, 2), (2, 3)}
3. The cut-set (X,X) = {(2, 4)}
4. The net flow f(X,X) - f(X,X) = 3 + 3 + 2 - 1 = 7.
The conservation equation can be conveniently represented in a matrix

form. The node-link incidence matrix in an n × l matrix E where the rows
corresponds to nodes (i)and the column corresponds to links (j,k) and each
cell denoted by jki defined as:
(7)
For example ...

and the resultant flow value vector g is
(8)
The flow conservation equations () can now be written as:
(9)
where f is the vector of link flows, g is the O-D vector.
and the resultant flow value vector g is

(10)
where f is the vector of link flows, g is the O-D vector.

3.3 Multiple O-D Network: Chain Flows
Link flow is superimposition of chain flow. Define:
1. fi is the set of links (i = 1, 2 )

2. hj is the set of chains (j = 1, 2 )
3. hj is the chain flow.
The flow value g is then the sum of all chain flows, that is:
(11)
To get the link flow, a term aij is defined as:
(12)
And now the link flow fi is given as:
(13)
Note that the link flow from chain flow is unique whereas the chain flow
from the link flow is not unique. The above things can be written in a matrix
form by first defining a link chain incident matrix Al×m with aij as it elements.
T Then, the link flow vector f is given as:
(14)
Now, the scalar flow value g can be given as:
(15)
where e is a column vecotor of size m and all elements equals to 1.

For the network given in Figure 12, the chain flows are given below. Find
the link flows and the flow values.
no Chains Chain Flow

m1 (1,2) (2,3) (3,4) 1
m2 (1,2) (2,4) 2
m3 (1,3) (3,2) (2,4) 3
m4 (1,3) (3,4) 1
Figure 12: A Single OD Network
Solution The link chain incident matrix Al×m can be written as:
Hence, the flow vector f is given as:
And for getting the flow value, the vector e is defined as:
and g is given as:

3.4 Costs and Capacities
The cost could be time, distance, delay, or disutility etc. The following
notations and definitions are normally used in transporation network
analysis.
1. Link cost: cij(fij) is the average cost or cost per unit flow. The unit link
cost is function of the flow on that link.
2. Total link cost: which is flow dependent can be defined as fij × cij(fij).
3. Route cost: on a chain or a path from origin to destination is the sum
of all the link costs of the links that define the route can be expressed
as:
(16)
4. Route cost with turn penalties: is defined as:
(17)
5. where p((ni,ni+1),(ni+1,ni+2)) is the penalty for turning from the

link (ni,ni+1) to (ni+1,ni+2).
6. Network cost: is the sum of all the total link cost of all the links of
the network, and is given as:
(18)
7. If a link is prohibited for movement, it can represented by
putting cij = and if a turn is prohibited, it can be represented
by p(.) =
4 Network Algorithms
4.1 Minimal spanning tree
In a connected weighted graph, all spanning trees have n-1 edges and will
have minimum or maximum sum of the weights. Tow algorithms are
prop ed: P ag a dK a ag .
4.1.1 Prims algorithm
Prims algorithm grows a spanning tree from a given vertex of a connected

weighted graph G, iteratively adding the cheapest edge from a vertex
already reached to a vertex not yet reached, finishing when all the vertices
of G have been reached. Break tie arbitrarily.
Input: G(N,L) weighted and connected

Initilize: T(G)=
Iteration: add cheapest edge that
incorporate a new vertex
Figure 13: Prims Algorithm
Find the minimum spanning tree of the network given in figure 14
Figure 14: Example network for minimum spanning tree problem 1
Solution
1. S a de 1, N= 1 , T=
2. Node 1 can be connected by nodes 2, 3, and 4, having weights 12,
17, and 10
3. Minimum weight is 10, for node 4. So N={1,4}, T={(1,4)}
4. Node 1 can be connected by nodes 2 and 3, having weights 12 and
17
19
6. Minimum weight is 12, for node 2. So N={1,4,2}, T={(1,4),(1,2)}
7. Node 1 can be connected by node 3, having weight 17
19
16
10. Minimum weight is 14, for node 3. So N={1,4,2,3},
T={(1,4),(1,2),(3,4)}
11. Node 1 can be connected by no nodes without loop
15. Minimum weight is 11, for node 3. So N={1,4,2,3},
T={(1,4),(1,2),(3,4),(3,5)} W=49.
Figure 15: Solution for the example network for minimum spanning tree
problem 1
4.1.3 K kal alg i h
The main concept of this algorithm is to maintain an acyclic spanning sub-

graph H, enlarging it by edges with low weight to form a spanning tree.
Consider edges in non-descending order of weight, breaking ties arbitrarily.
Input: G(N,L) weighted and connected

Initilize: se T= a sub-graph of G
Iterate: If the next cheapest edge joins
two components of T, then include
it, otherwise, discard it.
Terminate: when T is connected
Figure 16: Kruskal Algorithm
Example Find the minimum spanning tree of the network given in figure 14
Solution
1. Sort the links in the descending order of weights results in

2. 19 (4,5); 18 (2,3); 17 (1,3); 16 (2,5); 14 (3,4); 12 (1,2); 11 (3,5); and
10 (1,4)
3. T=(1,4) W=10
4. T=(1,4),(3,5) W=10+11
5. T=(1,4),(3,5),(1,2), W=10+11+12
6. T=(1,4),(3,5),(1,2),(3,4), W=10+11+12+14=47
4.2 Dijk a h e a h alg ih
This algorithm finds the shortest path for a graph from a starting node to
every other node. The algorithm is given in Figure 17 and each step is
described below.
1. Input to the algorithm is a graph G(N,L) with nonnegative edge

weights and a starting vertex u. The destination vertex v The weight
of the edge xy is w(xy) and w(xy) = if xy is not an edge.
2. Initilize step involves defining the solution set S with the starting
vertex as the only element. Further, a variable t associated with
vertex u is defined and set its value to zero.
3. Iteration starts by selecting all possible edges defined by the starting
node v from the set S and the end node z not in the set S. For each
of the end node z, the total cost up to that node is computed by
adding the total cost upto node v computed in previos iteration and
the weight of the edge (xy), that is t(z) = t(v) + w(xy). Find the node
which has minimum cost and add that node to the solution set S.
4. Termination of the algorithm happens when all the node becomes
element of the solution set S or the destination node is reached.
1 Input G(N,L), w(xy) 0, u

2 Initilize S = {u}
3 t(u) = 0
4 Iterate select v ∈ S and z S
5 such that t*(z)=Min t(z)
6 where t(z) = t(v) + w(vz)
7 set S* = S ∪ z
8 Terminate till S = V {G}
Figure 17: D a S e Pa Ag
Find the minimum shortest path of the graph given in figure 18 from the
node u.
Figure 18: Example network for shortest path problem 1
Solution
Table 1: Solution to the shortest path algorithm

{S} v vz t(z) t*(z) z* {S*}
u u ua 0+1=1 1 a ua
ub 0+3=3
ua u ub 0+3=3 3 b uab
a ad 1+5=6
ac 1+4=4
uab a ad 1+5=6
ac 1+4=5 5 c uabc
b bd 3+4=7
bc 3+5=8
uabc a ad 1+5=6 6 d uabcd
b bd 3+4=7
c ce 5+6=11
uabcd d de 6+2=8 8 e uabcde
c de 5+6=11
Note: t(z) = t(v) + w(vz), t*(z) = min t(z)
4.2.2 Numerical Example 2
Find the minimum shortest path of the graph given in figure 20 from the
node O to the destination node T.
Solution The solution is given in Figure 21.
Figure 21: Solution to the example network for shortest path problem 1
5 Network Optimization
5.1 Maximum Flow Problem
5.2 Minimum Cost Flow Problem
5.3 Transportation Problem
5.4 Assignment Problem
5.5 Traveling Salesman Problem

6 Travelling salesman problem (TSP)
6.1 Introduction
Travelling salesman problem (TSP) consists of finding the shortest rout e in

complete weighted graph G with n nodes and n(n-1) edges, so that the
start node and the end node are identical and all other nodes in this tour
are visited exactly once.
6.2 Formulation
Let C be the matrix of shortest distances (dimension nxn), where n is the

number of nodes of graph G(NL). The elements of matrix C represents the
shortest distances between all pairs of nodes (i,j),i,j = 1, 2, , . T e
travelling salesman problem can be formulated in the category
programming binary, where variables are equal to 0 or 1, depending on the
fact whether the route from node i to node j is realized (xij = 1) or not (xij =
0). Then, the mathematical formulation of TSP is as follows (the idea of this
formulation is to assign the numbers 1 through n to the nodes with the extra
variables ui, so that this numbering corresponds to the order of the nodes in
the tour. It is obvious that this excludes sub-tours, as a sub-tour excluding
the node 1 cannot have a feasible assignment of the
corresponding ui variables):
(19)
(20)
(21)
(22)
(23)
(24)
The constraint 23 ensures there is no sub-trours.
References
1. Frederick S Hillier and Gerald J Lieberman. Introduction to

Operations Research. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishers, New Delhi, 2001.
2. Renfrey B Potts and Robert M Oliver. Flows in transportation
networks. Academic Press, New York, 1972.
3. Douglas B West. Introduction to graph theory. Pearson education
Asia, New Delhi, India, 2001.

Intelligent Transportation System - I: Lecture Notes in Transportation Systems Engineering

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Intelligent Transportation System - I: Lecture Notes in Transportation Systems Engineering

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Intelligent Transportation System - I

Lecture Notes in Transportation Systems Engineering

Prof. Tom V. Mathew∗

3 ITS user services 3

Travel Time Prediction Bus Scheduling

Figure 1: ITS user services

utilization of the existing transportation infrastructure. It improves driving experience, safety

3 ITS user services

1. Travel and traffic management

2. Public transportation operations

4. Commercial vehicle operations

5. Advance vehicle control and safety systems

8. Maintenance and construction management

Figure 2: Pre trip information

3.1 Travel and traffic management

3.1.1 Pre trip information

3.1.2 En-route driver information

Figure 3: VMS showing routes

Figure 4: Showing congested routes

3.1.3 Route guidance

Figure 5: VMS showing routes and travel times

3.1.4 Ride matching and reservation

3.1.5 Traveler Services Information

3.1.6 Traffic Control

3.1.7 Incident Management

Figure 6: Incident management

3.1.8 Travel Demand Management

2. Parking management and control

3. Mode change support

4. Telecommuting and alternate work schedule.

3.1.9 Emissions Testing and Mitigation

3.1.10 Highway Rail Intersection

Figure 7: Different public transportation systems

3.2 Public transportation operations

3.2.1 Public Transportation Management

2. To maintain transportation schedules and to assure transfer connections from vehicle

3. To enhance security of transit personnel by providing access management of transit

3.2.2 En-Route Transit Information

3.2.3 Personalized Public Transit

1. diverting flexibly routed transit vehicles.

3.2.4 Public Travel Security

3.3 Electronic payment

3.4 Commercial Vehicle operations

E−Z Pass tag

The E−Z Pass Process

Figure 8: Electronic payment facility

2. Automated road side safety inspection

3. On-board safety monitoring administrative process

4. Hazardous material incident response

3.4.1 Commercial Vehicle Electronic Clearance

3.4.2 Automated Roadside Safety Inspection

3.4.3 On-board Safety Monitoring

3.4.5 Hazardous Materials Incident Response

3.4.6 Freight Mobility

3.5 Advanced vehicle control and safety systems

3.5.1 Longitudinal Collision Avoidance

3.5.2 Lateral Collision Avoidance

3.5.4 Vision Enhancement for Crash Avoidance

3.5.5 Safety Readiness

3.5.6 Pre-Crash Restraint Deployment

3.5.7 Automated Vehicle Operations (AVO)

3.6 Emergency management