16 Chapter 2

120 Theorem If n is a positive integer, then

yn − xn = (y − x)(yn−1 + yn−2x + · · · + yxn−2 + xn−1 ).

Proof: We first prove that for a 6= 1.

1 − an
1 + a + a2 + · · · an−1 = .
1−a

For, put S = 1 + a + a2 + · · · + an−1 . Then aS = a + a2 + · · · + an−1 + an . Thus S − aS = (1 + a + a2 + · · · + an−1 ) −

(a + a2 + · · · + an−1 + an ) = 1 − an , and from (1 − a)S = S − aS = 1 − an we obtain the result. By making the
x
substitution a = we see that
y € Š
 ‹2  ‹n−1 1 − x n
x x x y
1+ + + ··· + =
y y y 1 − yx
we obtain  ‹  ‹2  ‹n−1   ‹n
x x x x x
1− 1+ + + ···+ = 1− ,
y y y y y
or equivalently,
 ‹ 
x x x2 xn−1 xn
1− 1 + + 2 + · · · + n−1 = 1− .
y y y y yn
Multiplying by yn both sides,
 ‹    ‹
x n−1 x x2 xn−1 xn
y 1− y 1 + + 2 + · · · + n−1 = yn 1 − ,
y y y y yn

which is
yn − xn = (y − x)(yn−1 + yn−2x + · · · + yxn−2 + xn−1 ),
yielding the result. ❑

☞ The second factor has n terms and each term has degree (weight) n − 1.

As an easy corollary we deduce

121 Corollary If x, y are integers x 6= y and n is a positive integer then x − y divides xn − yn .

Thus without any painful calculation we see that 781 = 1996 − 1215 divides 19965 − 12155.

122 Example (Eőtvős 1899) Shew that for any positive integer n, the expression

2903n − 803n − 464n + 261n

is always divisible by 1897.

Solution: By the theorem above, 2903n − 803n is divisible by 2903 − 803 = 2100 = 7 · 300 and 261n − 464n is divisible by
−203 = (−29) · 7. This means that the given expression is divisible by 7. Furthermore, 2903n − 464n is divisible by 2903 −
464 = 2439 = 9 · 271 and −803n + 261n is divisible by −803 + 261 = −542 = −2 · 271. Therefore as the given expression
is divisible by 7 and by 271 and as these two numbers have no common factors, we have that 2903n − 803n − 464n + 261n is
divisible by 7 · 271 = 1897.

123 Example ((UM)2C4 1987) Given that 1002004008016032 has a prime factor p > 250000, find it.