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Nutrition, Feeding, and Behavior of Fish

Article  in  Veterinary Clinics of North America Exotic Animal Practice · June 2009

DOI: 10.1016/j.cvex.2009.01.005 · Source: PubMed

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 Author's personal copy

Nutrition, Fe e ding,
a nd Behavior of Fish
Santosh P. Lall, PhD*, Sean M.Tibbetts, MSc

KEYWORDS
 Fish  Nutrition  Feeding  Behavior  Feeds  Diet

Nutrition and feeding influence growth, reproduction, and health of fish and their
response to physiologic and environmental stressors and pathogens. The basics of
fish metabolism are similar to those of warm-blooded animals in that they involve
food intake, digestion, absorption, and transport of nutrients to the various tissues.
Fish, however, being the most primitive form of vertebrates, possess some distin-
guishing features, such as the absence of a stomach in certain species, lack of
mandibular teeth, and nondifferentiated small and large intestines. Some major phys-
iologic and metabolic differences between other vertebrates and fish include the
mechanisms involved in intestinal cell wall absorption by pinocytosis, metamorphosis
in larval fish development, and the shift in osmoregulation in salmonids during sea
water adaptation, carbohydrate metabolism, nitrogen excretion, and skeletal develop-
ment. Unlike warm-blooded animals, which are homoeothermic, fish are poikilo-
thermic, so their body temperature and metabolic rate depends on the water
temperature. Environmental temperature influences energy expenditure and nutrient
intake. At low temperatures, the cell membranes of fish remain fluid because of the
incorporation of high amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids from dietary fish oils
and other lipid sources. Many fish efficiently use protein and lipid for energy rather
than carbohydrates. Fish are also unique among vertebrates in their ability to absorb
minerals not only from their diets but also from water through their gills and skin.

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF FISH

All the essential nutrients for other animals, including amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins,
minerals, and energy-yielding macronutrients (protein, lipid, and carbohydrate), are
important for fish also. A diet must supply all the essential nutrients and energy required
to meet the physiologic needs of growing animals or for successful reproduction of
broodstock. The rapid growth of global aquaculture has resulted in the production of
more than 123 finfish species in intensive and extensive culture systems. Despite
considerable advances reported over the past 5 decades, the quantitative

Institute for Marine Biosciences, National Research Council of Canada, 1411 Oxford Street,
Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada B3H 3Z1
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: santosh.lall@nrc-cnrc.gc.ca (S.P. Lall).

Vet Clin Exot Anim 12 (2009) 361–372

doi:10.1016/j.cvex.2009.01.005 vetexotic.theclinics.com
1094-9194/09/$ – see front matter. Crown Copyright ª 2009 Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
 Author's personal copy
362 Lall & Tibbetts

requirements for all essential nutrients for most farmed fish species are not well estab-
lished. The criteria of nutrient adequacy for approximately 40 specific nutrients and their
quantitative nutrient requirements have been made for rainbow trout, Pacific salmon,
channel catfish, tilapia, and common carp, while partial nutrient requirements have
been established more recently for numerous other fish species.1,2 Although the
minimum nutrient requirements established promote growth and prevent deficiency
signs, higher intakes of vitamins, minerals, amino acids, and essential fatty acids
increase buildup of their reserves in the tissues. The continued intake of certain nutri-
ents in excess amounts causes saturation of various coenzymes. Certain fat-soluble
vitamins (eg, vitamin A) and trace elements (eg, copper, selenium) are toxic when taken
in excess. Deficiencies or excesses of each of the major dietary components, including
proteins, fats, total calories, vitamins, and trace elements may have profound effects on
disease development and the survival of the fish, largely through their effects on host
defense mechanisms. Nutritional deficiencies may influence the integrity of skin and
epithelial tissues, alter the composition of tissues and body fluids, and reduce mucus
secretions, consequently predisposing the fish to infections. Major nutrient deficiency
and toxicity signs are summarized in Table 1.

Macronutrients
Protein is an important component of fish diets, and to satisfy this dietary requirement
a well-balanced mixture of amino acids from various animal and plant protein sources
is critical to ensure proper growth and health of the fish. Protein is the most expensive
component of the diet and levels greater than that needed to satisfy requirements
result in elevated nitrogenous waste excretion into the surrounding waters. Excessive
levels of protein in the diet are thus economically and environmentally undesirable.
Most herbivorous and omnivorous fish require 25% to 35% protein in their diet but

Table 1
Major nutrient deficiency and toxicity signs in fish

Symptom Nutrient Deficiency NutrientToxicity

Fin erosion Riboflavin, niacin, vitamin C, Vitamin A, leucine, cadmium
inositol, lysine, tryptophan, zinc
Fin and skin hemorrhage Vitamin A, vitamin K, vitamin C, Oxidized fish oil
thiamin, riboflavin, pantothenic
acid, niacin, inositol
Scoliosis and/or lordosis Vitamin C, tryptophan, Vitamin A, lead, cadmium,
magnesium, phosphorus, oxidized fish oil
essential fatty acids
Exophthalmia Vitamin A, vitamin E, pantothenic Oxidized fish oil
acid, folic acid, niacin
Fatty liver Choline, inositol, essential fatty Oxidized fish oil
acids, excessive dietary fat
(mainly gadoids)
Cataracts Vitamin A, riboflavin, methionine, Choline, oxidized fish oil
histidine (mainly salmon smolts),
tryptophan, zinc
Skeletal deformity Phosphorus, manganese, zinc Vitamin A, oxidized fish oil
Anemia Folic acid, iron Oxidized fish oil
Nephrocalcinosis Magnesium Selenium
Convulsions Thiamin, magnesium —
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Nutrition, Feeding, and Behavior of Fish 363

carnivorous species require higher levels of protein ranging from 40% to 55% of diet.1
This difference seems to be related to the limited use of carbohydrate as an energy
source by carnivorous fish, which in turn use dietary protein for energy purposes.
The efficient use of dietary protein in these fish is also attributable to the mechanism
by which ammonia, produced by deaminated protein, is excreted by way of the gills
with limited expenditure of energy. Energy density of the diet and the ratio of energy
to protein in the diet also influence dietary protein requirements. The dietary require-
ment for protein is essentially a requirement for the amino acids contained within the
protein. Ten amino acids, namely arginine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methi-
onine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine, are considered indispensable
(essential) for most fish species studied to date. Among the dispensable (nonessential)
amino acids that commonly make up protein, two are particularly important for their
ability to partially replace or spare indispensable amino acids. Tyrosine can spare
approximately 50% of phenylalanine in meeting the total aromatic amino acid require-
ment of fish and cystine can replace a similar amount of methionine as part of the total
sulfur amino acid requirement.
No dietary requirement for carbohydrates has been demonstrated in fish; however,
if carbohydrates are not provided in the diet, a higher percentage of protein and lipid
are catabolized for energy. The ability of fish to use dietary carbohydrate for energy
varies considerably, with most carnivorous species having more limited ability than
herbivorous or omnivorous species. The amount of soluble carbohydrate included in
prepared diets for carnivorous species is generally less than 20%, whereas diets for
omnivorous species generally contain between 25% and 40% soluble carbohydrate.
Non-starch polysaccharides, such as cellulose, hemicellulose, and chitin, are essen-
tially indigestible by most fish species.
Lipids supply essential fatty acids (EFAs) and energy in the diet of fish and the EFA
requirement of most fish can only be met by supplying the long-chain unsaturated fatty
acids of linolenic (18:3 n-3) and linoleic (18:2 n-6) series. Salmonid and marine fish
tissues contain eicosapentaenoic acid, 20:5 n-3 and/or docosahexaenoic acid, 22:6
n-3, particularly in cell membranes. This finding reflects a high dietary requirement
for these fatty acids (20:5 n-3 and/or 22:6 n-3). These fish seem to have limited ability
to chain elongate and desaturate 18:3 n-3 and 18:2 n-6 to meet their requirement,
unlike many freshwater fish that have been shown to meet their requirements for these
essential fatty acids.3 Dietary lipids also serve as precursors of steroid hormones and
prostaglandins in fish and provide a vehicle for intestinal absorption of fat-soluble vita-
mins. Lipid from the diet deposited in the flesh may affect the flavor and storage quality
of edible products derived from the fish, particularly when the dietary oils are oxidized.

Micronutrients
Fish have unique physiologic mechanisms to absorb and retain minerals from their
diets and from the surrounding water.4 The knowledge of trace element requirements
and their physiologic functions and bioavailability from feed ingredients is limited.
Although the main functions of minerals involve skeletal structure maintenance,
cellular respiration, oxygen transport, immune function, and regulation of acid–base
equilibrium, they are also important components of hormones, enzymes, and enzyme
activators. An excessive intake of minerals either from the diet or from gill uptake
causes toxicity, and therefore maintaining a fine balance between mineral deficiency
and surplus is vital for aquatic organisms to maintain their homeostasis either through
increased absorption or excretion. Quantitative dietary requirements have been re-
ported for phosphorus, magnesium, zinc, iron, copper, manganese, iodine, and sele-
nium for selected fish species. Dissolved minerals in the aquatic environment may
 Author's personal copy
364 Lall & Tibbetts

contribute to satisfying the metabolic requirements of fish and interact with dietary sour-
ces. In particular, fresh water of moderate hardness (w50 mg/L as CaCO3) has been
shown to provide fish with adequate calcium to sustain metabolic functions in the pres-
ence of low levels of dietary calcium. Chloride, potassium, and sodium are other minerals
that may be present in fresh water at concentrations sufficient to partially meet the meta-
bolic requirements of fish. Dietary deficiencies of most of the macrominerals generally
have been difficult to produce in fish because of the presence of these minerals in the
surrounding water. Supplementation of phosphorus in fish diets, however, is often critical
because its presence in the water is limited and the availability from common plant feed
ingredients is low. Although supplementation of practical diets with other microminerals
has not been shown to be necessary in most fish species, a mineral premix is typically
added to most nutritionally complete diets to ensure adequacy.
Most vitamins that are considered essential for terrestrial animals are also required
by fish. Quantitative dietary requirements for fat-soluble (vitamin A, D, E, and K) and
water-soluble (thiamine, riboflavin, pyridoxine, pantothenic acid, folic acid, niacin,
biotin, vitamin B12, vitamin C, and choline) vitamins have been determined for channel
catfish, tilapia, common carp, rainbow trout, and Pacific salmon, while partial vitamin
requirements have been established for some other fish species as well. The functions
and dietary deficiencies of many of these vitamins are well documented1,2 (see Table 1).
These requirement values have been used to provide guidelines for vitamin supple-
mentation for those fish species for which such information is not available.

FEEDING BEHAVIOR

The feeding behavior of fish is complex and has been studied extensively in cultured
fish and wild fish from ecological perspectives.5,6 Several behavioral responses have
been linked to methods of feeding, feeding habits, frequency of feeding, mechanisms
of food detection, and food preferences. The food organisms consumed by fish in
natural environments may range from algae, plants, and detritus to small prey, such
as crustaceans, mollusks, polychaetes, and other fish. It is well recognized that
various combinations of sensory systems during the different phases of gustation
and feeding are required to achieve desired food consumption; however, the accep-
tance or rejection of feed is physiologically dependent on inputs from chemorecep-
tion.7 Fish possess several chemosensory systems, which include gustation (taste),
olfaction (smell), and chemical sensory and chemoreceptor cells. The role of each
system is often difficult to distinguish because each system responds to aqueous
chemical stimuli, some of which may be common in these different systems. It seems
that the gustatory system is the most important in acquisition and ingestion of food
and with the rejection of potentially harmful and toxic substances.8 The gustatory
system, which is highly developed in several fish species, also consists of taste
buds in the epithelia of the oropharynx Fig. 1, Table 2.
Like all animals, food intake in fish is controlled by a central feeding system in combi-
nation with a peripheral satiation system regulated by various key neuropeptides and
hormones.9–11 Various endocrine and metabolic factors convey information regarding
nutritional status to the fish’s brain, either directly or indirectly by way of the vagus
nerve.12 The information is then processed by the brain and neuropeptide signaling
systems are triggered to secrete factors that either initiate or terminate feeding.13–15
Although most neuropeptides down-regulate feeding behavior, a smaller number
have a stimulatory effect.10,11 Certain biochemical factors that control food intake to
some extent in fish are cholecystokinin, gastrin-releasing peptide, ghrelin, glucagon-
like peptides, insulin, amylin, and leptin; these have been discussed in detail elsewhere9
 Author's personal copy
Nutrition, Feeding, and Behavior of Fish 365

Fig. 1. The complexity of factors affecting feeding behavior in fish.

and are beyond the scope of this section. With the exception of the gastric factor ghre-
lin, all of these factors serve as satiety signals to reduce food intake and feeding
behavior. Certain nutrients or related compounds, such as carbohydrates, peptides,
amino acids, and lipids, may also affect food intake. For example, glucose administra-
tion induces hyperglycemia in fish and intraperitoneal injections of glucose cause
a decrease of food intake and increase in food latency time in carp and tilapia.16

FEEDING RHYTHMS

The major factors that can influence feeding behavior of fish, such as stocking density,
sex ratio, reproductive status, and biologic rhythms, have been subject to limited inves-
tigation and results often conflict between and within species.17 Endogenous clock
mechanisms may control some of these rhythms, but environmental factors, such as
day length or temperature, may either control others or act as time setters or synchro-
nizers. Rhythmic feeding activity, whether based on days, weeks, or months, is gener-
ated within the fish and the extent to which the external factors can influence feeding
rhythms is complex. The anticipatory behavior seems to persist in fasting animals;
thus it seems that there are internal timing mechanisms in fish similar to birds and
mammals. The practical implications are that fish may adjust to the feeding of meals
at set times, and there are likely optimum feeding times for each species. One important
topic is whether the presence of rhythms can influence not only the amount of food
consumed but also the efficiency with which food is converted into somatic growth.
Recent developments in improving the understanding of the physiologic rhythms in
farmed fish are providing useful information that allows selection of proper times for
feeding fish to maximize growth, improve feed efficiency, and reduce feed wastage
and fecal output to minimize the environmental impacts of aquaculture.
The three predominant feeding rhythms that affect food consumption in fish are diel
(daily), annual (seasonal), and tidal (lunar) rhythms. Most fish in culture systems have
diel feeding rhythms whereby they are either diurnal feeders (eat during the day) or
nocturnal feeders (eat at night). Many fish species change their preferred time of
feeding throughout the day based on the influences of biotic factors18 (such as threat
of predation) and abiotic factors19 (such as lighting conditions). In a culture situation, it
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366 Lall & Tibbetts

Table 2
Factors that affect feeding behavior of fish as related to the culture system used and their relative
controllability

Culture System

Tank Tank
Influencing Factor Pond Cage (Outdoor) (Indoor)
Rearing system characteristics
Shape 1 1 1 1
Color   1 1
Light
Intensity   1 11
Photoperiod   1 11
Spectrum   1 11
Shadowing 1 1 1 11
Water temperature   1 11
Waves
Height   1 n
Frequency   1 n
Water flow
Velocity 1  11 11
Direction 1  11 11
Water chemistry
Dissolved oxygen 1 1 11 11
Nitrogenous compounds (NH3, NO3, NO41,   1 1
and so forth)
Other dissolved gases   1 1
pH    
Salinity   1 1
Toxicants or pollutants (drugs, antibiotics,   1 1
biofilms, pesticides, herbicides, and so forth)
Turbidity   1 1
Stocking density 11 11 11 11
Social structure
Size variability 11 11 11 11
Sex ratio    
Dominance hierarchy (aggression) 1 1 1 1
Predators   1 11
Human disturbances
Acute (weighing, sampling, cleaning, disease 1 1 1 1
treatment, transferring, and so forth)
Chronic (prolonged noise or vibration, 1 1 1 1
and so forth)
Feeding rhythms
Diel (diurnal or nocturnal) 1 1 11 11
Tidal and lunar   1 n
Annual (seasonal)    n
(continued on next page)
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Nutrition, Feeding, and Behavior of Fish 367

Table 2
(continued)

Culture System
Tank Tank
Influencing Factor Pond Cage (Outdoor) (Indoor)
Nutritional factors
Pellet physical characteristics 11 11 11 11
Dietary nutrients 1 1 1 1
Caloric density 1 1 1 1
Feeding stimulants 1 1 1 1
Deterrent compounds 1 1 1 1
Antinutritional factors 1 1 1 1
Access to natural prey   1 11
Feed delivery system 11 11 11 11
Historical exposure (adaptation) 11 11 11 11
Feeding level/frequency 11 1 11 11
Neurologic factors
Inhibitory neuropeptides    
Stimulatory neuropeptides    
Hormones    
Species/strain 11 11 11 11
Health status 1 1 11 11
Age
Developmental stage 11 11 11 11
Reproductive stage 1 1 1 1

Factor is easily controllable (1 1), controllable (1), difficult to control () or not a factor (n).

is important to know the optimum time of day to feed the fish when their appetite is
highest to promote high growth rates and minimize feed wastage.
The feeding preference of fish can also be affected by other environmental rhythms,
such as annual (seasonal) changes and tidal (lunar) rhythms.17 Annual or seasonal
changes are often predictable because they are closely correlated with other environ-
mental factors, namely water temperature and day length. Most cold-water fish
(eg, Arctic char, rainbow trout, Atlantic salmon, and turbot)19–23 and warm-water fish
(eg, European sea bass, catfish, and goldfish)24–27 cultured under ambient water temper-
atures with access to natural light and photoperiods typically increase their feeding
behavior in the spring and throughout the summer months when the days are longer
and water temperatures higher. They gradually reduce feeding in the autumn and into
the winter months as water temperatures fall and day length decreases. This cycle gener-
ally holds true for most fish in the growth phase before sexual maturation, but is often
broken by the onset of sexual maturity and preparation for spawning, at which time
feeding activity may diminish or completely cease.28–31 Tidal or lunar rhythms have little
or no effect on fish cultured in indoor or outdoor tank systems with artificial lighting and
sufficient filtration to minimize natural prey items from entering the culture water. In open
surface outdoor tank systems and in ponds and cage/net pen systems, however, the
daily tidal and lunar cycles can significantly affect feeding behavior of fish.17 The mech-
anism is most frequently associated with the abundance of natural prey items present in
seawater during incoming and high tides. This phenomenon is illustrated in killfish,
 Author's personal copy
368 Lall & Tibbetts

wherein stomach fullness has been directly correlated with the high-tide cycle.32 Similar
observations have been made with other fish species also,33–35 although it is not always
clear whether the effect is due to the high-tide abundance of food or the lunar effects of
increased light for foraging during a full moon. It is likely that during periods of full moon
and high tides both factors are working together synergistically.

FEEDING STIMULANTS AND DETERRENTS

Fish primarily detect food in the natural aquatic environment through olfaction (smell)
and sight; however, appearance, feel, and taste of the diet are key factors in determining
whether food will be swallowed or rejected by fish held in captivity.36 A well-defined and
species-specific tuning of the taste receptors of fish for particular cues is known to be
present in their food items. Generally, various substances are added to fish feeds in an
effort to enhance palatability and feed acceptance. The use of feeding stimulants is
particularly important in the production of larval and starter feeds, wherein feed accept-
ability is a major concern. Four major chemical characteristics of feeding stimulants for
fish have been identified: (a) low molecular weight (<1000), (b) nitrogen- containing, (c)
nonvolatile and water soluble, and (d) simultaneous acid and base properties or ampho-
teric.37 Several compounds are known to act as feeding stimulants in carnivorous and
omnivorous species, including betaine and amino acids, notably glycine and alanine or
mixtures of L-amino acids, and the nucleotides inosine or inosine 50 -monophosphate.
Some dipeptides elicit a greater feeding response in combination than either of the
constituent amino acids presented alone.38 Limited data exist on feeding stimulants
for herbivorous species; however, organic acids along with certain amino acids and
dimethyl-b-propiothetin were found to be stimulatory for carp and tilapia.39 In general,
the following patterns related to feeding stimulants have emerged from laboratory
studies: (1) carnivores show a positive response to alkaline and neutral nitrogenous
substances (such as glycine, proline, taurine, valine, and betaine) and (2) herbivores
respond more to acidic substances (such as aspartic acid and glutamic acid). Studies
conducted on common feed ingredients used to produce fish feeds for cold-water fish
show that certain high-quality fish, crustacean, krill, and squid meals or their hydroly-
sates stimulate feeding behavior in salmonids and marine fish.
Fish have the ability to discriminate between high-quality and poor-quality feeds and
refuse to ingest the latter. Certain compounds present in feeds are known as feeding
deterrents. Trimethylamine (or its oxidation products), produced in decaying fish flesh,
is known to cause a decrease in food consumption when added to the diet. Highly
oxidized oils and fish meals in salmonid and marine fish feeds are also known to cause
food aversion. Improper storage and use of poor-quality feed ingredients in feed manu-
facture are the common cause of rancidity in commercial feeds. The presence of afla-
toxins, produced by molds growing on improperly stored feed, depress feed intake and
can result in death if consumed by the fish in significant amounts. In addition, the pres-
ence of adventitious toxins (antinutritional factors) such as gossypol in cottonseed
meal, protease inhibitors in soybean meal, glucosinolates in canola/rapeseed meals,
and numerous others results in anorexia due to inactivation of digestive proteases
and reductions in digestion, absorption and physiological utilization of dietary nutrients.

FEED INTAKE

Generally, hunger stimulates feeding behavior in fish. When feed is offered, fish may
initially feed at a faster rate and slowly decrease or stop with a gradual decline of appe-
tite. Environmental factors, such as light, temperature, water velocity, social factors,
predators, and disturbance by humans, may also influence fish feeding behavior.
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Nutrition, Feeding, and Behavior of Fish 369

Feeding practices, such as the even distribution of the feed into the water, can also
affect the fish’s chances of gaining access to food. There may thus be numerous combi-
nations of biotic and abiotic factors that can have an important influence on feeding
behavior of fish. Often, fish suddenly stop feeding for no apparent reason and the rates
of feeding can either decrease or increase over a period of days. A better understanding
of the factors that can influence feeding may allow for better feed management and the
allocation of food, and reduce the variability in feeding and growth rates that are usually
evident among individuals and among groups of fish.
It is generally accepted that fish feed to satisfy their energy requirements. Fish fed a diet
low in energy content are forced to increase their consumption rate and gastric evacuation
rate to compensate for the lower caloric diet. Other nutrients also impact feed intake,
however, with anorexia being a common symptom of nearly all nutrient deficiencies.1
Particle size is closely related to feed intake and the correct feed particle size induces a posi-
tive behavioral response. Feed particles must be sufficiently small to be ingested, while
being large enough to be consumed without expending too much energy in the process.
To increase the efficiency of farming systems through proper feed management, the
prediction of feed intake and growth under a wide range of environmental and culture
conditions is necessary. Several environmental, genetic, and physiologic factors have
been identified that correlate with feed intake and are considered as regulators of feed
intake. When food availability is unlimited, the amount of food eaten is referred to as
the voluntary feed intake (VFI). One key feature of VFI is the description of regulatory
feedback mechanisms, which are not clearly identified for most fish. In particular, the
identification of multiple feedback signals and their integration into specific responses
may ultimately control the feeding behavior. Biologic factors, including fish size, phys-
iologic stage, and genotype, are known to influence VFI. Among the environmental
factors, both water temperature and photoperiod control feed intake. Feed intake is
also under close metabolic, endocrine, and neuronal control, all of which are intimately
related to the nutritional status of the animal. Several techniques are available to
monitor individual feed intakes and the passage of feed through the digestive tract.
They include radiography and analysis of gut contents.40,41
Like higher vertebrates, when there is an increase in the energy density of the feed, the
VFI is reduced at any given production level. If the feed provides a lower ratio of protein to
energy than required, fish may increase feed intake to obtain sufficient protein. There is
growing evidence that fish are capable of adjusting their VFI depending on the quality of
the diets and especially on the dietary digestible energy (DE) content.42,43 Excessive DE
in the diet may affect VFI and cause lower intake of other nutrients, which may cause
metabolic imbalance and accentuate marginal nutrient deficiencies. Knowledge of
nutrient and energy balance in diets is therefore considered important to better under-
stand the mechanisms involved in the control of feed intake. Feeding tables have been
developed for the major farmed fish species that take into account the water tempera-
ture, fish size, genotype, growth rate, dietary energy density, and nutrient concentration,
but few take into account the principles of nutritional bioenergetics in fish.44

FEEDS AND FEEDING

Feeds and feeding of fish depend on the type of culture system used: extensive, semi-
intensive, or intensive. In the first two systems, fish derive all or a substantial part of
their nutrients from natural food organisms in culture ponds. Fish maintained in inten-
sive fish culture systems (tanks, raceways, and cages) are totally dependent on the
provision of nutritionally complete diets produced in dry, semi-moist, or moist forms.
Diets fed to fish are subject to leaching of nutrients while they remain in the water
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370 Lall & Tibbetts

column or at the bottom of the culture system. This leaching creates a challenge for
feed manufacturers, particularly when small-sized granules or flakes are used to
feed larval and small fish, often referred to as fry or fingerlings. Formulated dry feeds
are more common and produced either by steam or cold compression pelleting or by
a cooking extrusion process to produce feed in various physical forms and shapes,
and of different buoyancy (floating, slow sinking, or fast sinking). Catfish, salmon,
and shrimp, for example, require floating, slow-sinking, or fast-sinking feeds, respec-
tively, because of their different preferred feeding habits in the water column. Extru-
sion technology is widely used to produce feeds of cold-water salmonids and
marine fish. Application of extrusion technology allows for the production of feeds
with high energy contents based on high levels of lipid (w20%–40% of the diet).
The heat processing associated with extrusion also inactivates antinutritional compo-
nents that can be present in plant ingredients and increases the digestibility of protein,
carbohydrate, and other nutrients. Gelatinization of starch during extrusion processing
also increases feed stability and allows for higher absorption of lipid into the pellets.
Proper feed distribution is necessary to achieve good feed efficiency. The amount of
feed offered to fish per day has been based on feeding tables developed on the basis
of a percentage of body weight and water temperature. Young fish require feed at
a greater percentage of their body weight per day (>5%) than older fish. Demand or
ad libitum feeding is commonly used in hatcheries where demand feeders dispense
small quantities of feed when activated by the fish. Automatic feeders or hand feeding
are used to feed fish in tanks or sea cages where fish feeding behavior can be moni-
tored manually or on video camera. Frequency of feeding is important, with larval fish
and fry offered a small amount of feed more than 12 times per day and the frequency is
gradually decreased to 1 to 4 times per day. Additional time is required to feed fish at
cold temperatures when their metabolic rate and appetite are lower.
Because fish live in aquatic environments, water quality affects their feed consump-
tion, growth, survival, and health. Overfeeding results in feed wastage and deteriora-
tion in water quality, particularly when there is an increase in suspended particles and
lower dissolved oxygen levels. Generally, undigested protein or carbohydrate
produces suspended solids and this increases biologic oxygen demand, which should
be kept minimized. The principal excretory end products of protein catabolism, an
ionized and a nonionized form of ammonia, are excreted through the gills and the latter
is toxic to fish. Fat not properly retained in the feed may leach out producing a thin film
on the surface water causing respiration problems.
Feeding of larval fish requires special consideration because their digestive systems
are not fully developed after hatching. Currently, larviculture depends on feeding live
food organisms (eg, brine shrimp [Artemia], rotifers, and other planktonic organisms)
that have been enriched with specific nutrients (essential fatty acids, vitamins, amino
acids) to improve their nutritional value. Manufactured dry feeds are becoming increas-
ingly important in hatcheries because diets can be tailored to provide optimum levels of
nutrients and incorporate ingredients that adapt to larval digestive and metabolic needs
(eg, hydrolyzed protein). Visual and chemical stimuli are important considerations for
capture and acceptance of artificial food by larvae. Larvae are gradually weaned onto
highly digestible, water-stable microparticulate dry feeds of appropriate particle size
(w100–600 mm) or flakes and attractive color and organoleptic properties.

REFERENCES

1. National Research Council. Nutrient requirements of fish. Washington, DC:

National Academy Press; 1993. p. 114.
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