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Geochemistry and petrogenesis of mafic magmatic rocks of the Jharol Belt,

India: Geodynamic implication

Article  in  Journal of Asian Earth Sciences · July 2005

DOI: 10.1016/j.jseaes.2004.05.006

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 Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 25 (2005) 557–581
www.elsevier.com/locate/jaes

Geochemistry and petrogenesis of mafic magmatic rocks

of the Jharol Belt, India: geodynamic implication
Z.S.H. Abu-Hamatteh*
Department of Natural Resources and Chemical Engineering, Tafila Applied University College, Al-Balqa’ Applied University,
P.O. Box 26, 66141 Tafila, Jordan
Received 18 February 2003; revised 30 July 2003; accepted 20 May 2004

Abstract
The belt consisting of deep-water meta-sediments of the Aravalli Supergroup hosts numerous mafic and ultramafic rocks occurring at two
different structural levels. These are the basal Bagdunda volcanics and the Gopir magmatic rocks represented by Gopir dikes and flows
associated with the ultramafic rocks along the Kaliguman lineament. The Bagdunda and Gopir mafic volcanic rocks are sub-alkaline, varying
in composition from high Mg-tholeiite to basaltic komatiite. They are predominantly LREE depleted, but some flat REE patterns are also
observed. Bulk geochemical data, especially the incompatible trace elements discount the possibility of crustal contamination.
Gopir dikes are highly enriched in terms of their REE [(Ce/Sm)N and (Ce/Yb)N] and other incompatible trace elements and closely
resemble the basal Aravalli volcanics. Their ratio (rock)/ratio (PM) and normalized multi-element abundance patterns depict their overall
enriched nature compared to N-MORB and primitive mantle. The Gopir and Bagdunda volcanics reflect trace element characteristics
transitional between E-MORB and OIB. Gopir dikes show remarkable similarity with continental tholeiite and Continental Flood Basalts
(CFBs) with negative Nb, P and Ti anomalies and low Nb/Ce ratio unlike the volcanics of both the suites. Petrogenetic modeling based on the
compositionally corrected [Mg] and [Fe] abundances for Gopir dikes, Gopir and Bagdunda volcanics indicates (a) their derivation from non-
pyrolitic sources (b) their derivation from sources that were variably enriched in [Fe/Mg] ratios with large variation in their [Fe] contents and
(c) olivine was a major phase to fractionate, followed by a lesser amount of clinopyroxene in the case of Gopir volcanics, whereas in
Bagdunda volcanics a combination of olivine and clinopyroxene fractionation is suggested.
Based on the geochemical data, supported by field evidence, we propose a geodynamic model for the development of the Jharol Belt in
which we suggest that the basement rock, i.e. the Banded Gneissic Complex (BGC) started rifting probably under influence of a mantle plume
during the late Archaean–early Proterozoic period. During the opening of the basin, magma derived from asthenospheric mantle reached the
surface contemporaneously with sedimentation. The first phase of volcanism is represented by Bagdunda volcanics. With continuous rifting,
the crust became highly attenuated and facilitated asthenospheric upwelling, causing high degrees of melting (indicated by a large volume of
mafic and ultramafic rocks) during the second phase of magmatism (Gopir volcanics) that occurred at later stages of Jharol sedimentation.
Coeval melting of the sub-continental lithosphere under the adjoining BGC craton probably caused the emplacement of dikes along with the
Gopir volcanics. At this stage of progressive rifting, an oceanic crust very similar to that in marginal basins developed in the Jharol Belt.
q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Geochemistry; Petrogenesis; Jharol Belt; Aravalli Supergroup; Tectonics; Proterozoic; Banded Gneissic Complex

1. Introduction and Bhandara cratons (Kumar et al., 2001; Naqvi and

In the Indian shield, Proterozoic rock sequences
are mostly found in its northern part. They are well deve-
loped and exposed in parts of the Aravalli, Singbhum
* Tel.: C962-3-2250326; fax: C962-3-2250431.
E-mail address: drziad_shh@hotmail.com.
1367-9120/$ - see front matter q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2004.05.006
Rogers, 1987). The NE–SW trending Aravalli–Delhi belt,
which occupies the northwestern margin of the Indian
shield, preserves one of the best developed Proterozoic
sequences of the Indian sub-continent (Fig. 1a).
The central part of the Aravalli mountain range exhibits
five lithostratigraphic domains and geological settings as
follows: (1) The Banded Gneissic Complex (BGC) of
Archaean age, serving as basement for the younger
558 Z.S.H. Abu-Hamatteh / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 25 (2005) 557–581

Fig. 1. (a) Map of India showing the location of Aravalli region, (b) Geological map of the Aravalli mountain belt, showing the distribution of Precambrian
rocks (Drury, 1990), (c) Simplified geological map of the Aravalli mountain belt, showing the various lineaments (Gupta et al., 1980) and (d) Simplified
geological map of the Jharol Belt, showing the distribution of various lithological units (Roy et al., 1988).
 Z.S.H. Abu-Hamatteh / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 25 (2005) 557–581
supracrustal belts, (2) The Bhilwara Belt, (3) The Udaipur–
Jharol Belt, (4) The Delhi Belt and (5) the Vindhyan Basin
(Fig. 1b), representing geological events from early
Archaean (3300 Ma; Gopalan et al., 1990) to late Proter-
ozoic (550 Ma; Crawford and Compston, 1970).
The mafic rocks of the Proterozoic supracrustal belts,
which are well exposed and little altered, provide an
opportunity to understand the tectonic-thermal and chemi-
cal conditions of their emplacement (Ahmad and Tarney,
1994). Geochemical data for these Proterozoic mafic
volcanic rocks may provide useful clues to understand the
magma genesis and the evolutionary history of the Aravalli
region in particular.
The present study deals with the mafic–ultramafic rocks
of the Jharol Belt of the early Proterozoic Aravalli
Supergroup. The Jharol Belt consists of mica-schists,
phyllites and thin bands of fine-grained quartzite containing
numerous mafic–ultramafic flows (Fig. 1). The basic
volcanics of the Jharol Belt occur at two different structural
levels, one at the base and the other at a higher structural
level associated with ultramafic rocks. The Jharol Belt
occurs in the central part of the Aravalli mountain belt and is
bounded by the Udaipur Belt on the east and the Delhi Belt
on the west (Fig. 1c). The Udaipur Belt constitutes the
shallow water facies sequence of the Aravalli Supergroup
(Roy et al., 1988). The contact relationship between the
Jharol and Udaipur Belts is marked by systematic lithofacies
changes from shallow to deep-water sediments (Golani,
1982). The Jharol and Udaipur Belts (Fig. 1d) are
considered as representing two sub-facies of a coupled
basin (Roy, 1988). The contact between the Jharol Belt and
the Delhi Belt (middle Proterozoic) is tectonic and has been
interpreted as a suture zone by some workers (e.g. Drury,
1990).
The present work is the first attempt to undertake a
detailed geochemical study of the early Proterozoic volcanic
rocks of Jharol Belt. Although some information on the
geology and stratigraphic position of the rocks is available
in the literature (Gupta et al., 1980; Roy and Paliwal, 1981;
Roy et al., 1988,1993; Sinha-Roy et al., 1993; Mishra et al.,
2000; Deb et al., 2001; Mamtani et al., 2001), little is known
about their petrology and geochemical characteristics,
except for the data of Abu-Hamatteh et al. (1994).
This study was aimed at generating a comprehensive
geochemical database on the mafic and ultramafic rocks of
the Jharol Belt. An attempt is also made to examine their
source composition and petrogenetic processes in terms of
degrees of partial melting and subsequent modifications of
their composition by various differentiation processes
including fractional crystallization, crystal accumulation,
and assimilation/fractional crystallization. An attempt is
made to identify the magma type or types, their genetic
relationships, the nature of their source region and the
tectonic environment of eruption and its significance in
the interpretation of regional tectonics. In the present study,
the geochemical data in combination with field evidence are
559
used to suggest a possible geodynamic model that could
account for the geological and geochemical characteristics
of the magmatic rocks of the Jharol Belt.
2. Geological framework
2.1. General geology of Aravalli mountain belt
The Indian shield consists of various crustal blocks with
distinct lithotectonic characteristics. The largest among the
blocks is the Aravalli craton, which occupies the north
western part of the shield (Fig. 1a). The rocks of this craton
range in age from 3300 to 550 Ma (Crawford and
Compston, 1970; Macdougall et al., 1983; MacDougall
et al., 1984; Gopalan et al., 1990; Deb et al., 2001; Mondal
et al., 2002), indicating that the area was tectonically active
sporadically from early Archaean to the end of Proterozoic.
The western margin of this craton is marked by the NE–SW
trending Aravalli mountain range (Fig. 1b). It is made up
principally of three tectonostratigraphic units with several
granitic, mafic and ultramafic extrusives and intrusives of
different ages. The oldest among these is the Banded
Gneissic Complex (BGC, Heron, 1953) varying from about
3300 to 2500 Ma (Roy, 1990; Gopalan et al., 1990). The
BGC served as basement for two younger units, i.e. the early
Proterozoic supracrustal rocks of the Aravalli Supergroup
(2500–1900 Ma; Roy, 1990) and the middle Proterozoic
supracrustals of the Delhi Supergroup (1900–1450 Ma;
Roy, 1990). Although the distribution, structural relations,
mutual correlation and stratigraphy of these units are still a
matter of debate, there is general agreement that the BGC
forms the basement of the Proterozoic Supracrustal
sequences.
In the Aravalli mountain belt, mafic and ultramafic rocks
occur at different structural levels. The oldest volcanic
activity is represented by early Archaean (3300 Ma)
amphibolites within the Banded Gneissic Complex
(Gopalan et al., 1990; Mondal et al., 2002). The next
magmatic episode is represented by early Proterozoic
komatiitic and tholeiitic lava flows occurring at the base
of the Aravalli Supergroup in its type area of the Udaipur
Belt (Ahmad and Rajamani, 1988,1991; Wiedenbeck et al.,
1996; Raza and Khan, 1993). Equivalents of these volcanic
rocks are found in the basal part of various sub-belts of the
Bhilwara Belt (Roy et al., 1981; Deb et al., 1989,2001). In
the Jharol Belt this volcanic activity is restricted along a
lineament known as Kaliguman lineament (Fig. 1b). Here
the magmatism is represented by the Bagdunda volcanics,
which occur at its basal part and are well exposed in the area
around Bagdunda (Sharma et al., 1988) and the Gopir
volcanics and dikes occurring between Gogunda and Gopir.
The mafic–ultramafic rocks of the Kaliguman lineament are
developed along the central part of the Jharol Belt. The
ultramafic rocks of the Rakhabdev lineament, which are
developed along its eastern margin, are younger than
560 Z.S.H. Abu-Hamatteh / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 25 (2005) 557–581
the Bagdunda volcanics, as they occur at a comparatively
higher structural level. The next younger phase volcanism is
represented by mafic volcanic rocks, which are found at two
levels in the meta-sedimentary sequence of the Delhi
Supergroup. The older rocks are those which occur at the
base of the Alwar Group (1700–1500 Ma; Volpe and
Macdougall, 1990) and younger ones occur within the
Ajabgarh Group (850–750 Ma; Volpe and Macdougall,
1990).
2.2. Geology of the Udaipur–Jharol basin
The Aravalli Supergroup (Fig. 1c) shows development of
two distinct lithofacies associations, i.e. a carbonate-bearing
shelf facies of the Udaipur belt in the east and a carbonate-
free deep-water facies of the Jharol Belt in the west (Roy
et al., 1988,1993; Roy and Kroner, 1996). A generalized
geological framework of this basin was given by many
workers (Heron, 1953; Raja Rao et al., 1971; Gupta et al.,
1980), and a detailed stratigraphic evolution of the basin
was worked out by Roy et al. (1988,1993) and Sinha-Roy
et al. (1993).
The Jharol Belt comprises a thick column of phyllites
with bands of quartzite and limestone (Sugden et al., 1990).
Although it comprises mainly deep-water sediments, its
basal part resembles the shelf facies basal formation rocks of
the Udaipur sequence. In the Bagdunda area, an inlier of
BGC occurs as an oval shaped exposure (Sharma et al.,
1988). Here, the succession begins with interlayered fine
grained quartzite bands (chert?) and mafic flows followed
by a thick sequence of meta-argillites containing mafic–
ultramafic flows and fine quartzite bands in the upper part
(Sugden, 1987). In the Jharol Belt the mafic–ultramafic
rocks occur in two N–S trending parallel belts. The first belt
occurs between Rakhabdev in the north and Dungarpur in
the south (Fig. 1c), and has been referred to as the
Rakhabdev lineament. This belt roughly coincides with
the contact between Udaipur and Jharol Belts and is
characterized by the occurrence of huge bodies of ultramafic
rocks. The second belt runs between Gogunda in the north
through Jharol to Gopir in the south. In a published map by
the Geological Survey of India (Gupta et al., 1980), this belt
is shown as the Kaliguman lineament (Gupta et al., 1980;
Fig. 1c). It was earlier considered to be made up entirely of
ultramafic rocks, but the present study shows that this linear
belt consists of both mafic and ultramafic rocks.
The Bagdunda volcanics occur as amphibolites (Sharma
et al., 1988) intercalated with fine-grained, locally fuchsitic
quartzite bands. This quartzite-volcanic unit overlies the
BGC with an unconformable contact relationship, and
resembles the basal unit of the Udaipur Belt (Roy and
Paliwal, 1981) although the quartzites in the latter belt are
coarse-grained. In addition to their intercalation with
quartzite, their extrusive nature is evident by the presence
of stretched and deformed amygdules. The samples of mafic
rocks collected from this area are referred to as Bagdunda
volcanics (BAV) throughout the text.
The other mafic rocks, which are found associated with
ultramafic rocks, occur as minor flows and dikes and are
well developed around the Gopir and Challi areas in the
southern part of the Jharol Belt. They have undergone
greenschist facies metamorphism and are serpentinized and
intensively deformed. They are intercalated with fine-
grained blackish quartzite bands. The quartzites exhibit
gradual contact with the ultramafics while the latter have
sharp contacts with the mica-schists.
In the Challi area, the ultramafic rocks are associated
with mafic rocks. Relicts of possible pillow lava structures
are present in the ultramafics found around the Challi area.
Further south, near Gopir village, the belt contains both
mafic and ultramafic rocks. The mafic rocks are very hard
and massive, containing no talc or serpentine, whereas the
ultramafic rocks are green in color, serpentinized and
talcose. Here the mafic rocks occur in two varieties, the
predominant fine-grained type show a well-developed
schistosity probably represents flows, while the other coarse
grained and massive type probably represents dikes. The
mafic rocks from this area are referred to as Gopir volcanics
(GRV) and Gopir dikes (GRD). The ultramafic rocks are
described herein as Jharol ultramafics.
3. Mineralogy
Three different types of rocks are found within the Jharol
Belt associated with the deep-water facies. These are (1) the
Bagdunda volcanics predominantly of mafic composition,
(2) the Gopir mafic volcanics and dykes and (3) the
ultramafic rocks.
Since these rocks have suffered multi-phase deformation
and regional metamorphism up to the grade of green schist
facies, the primary mineralogy and textures have generally
been partly obliterated. Jharol mafic–ultramafic rocks are
composed of secondary minerals, such as serpentine,
hornblende, chlorite, actinolite–tremolite, calcite and
quartz. Plagioclases and few clinopyroxene relicts appear
to be primary. There are three varieties of ultramafic rocks
occurring in Jharol Belt. The first one is fine to medium
grained, massive rock without any preferential orientation
of dimensional minerals. This variety consists mainly of
serpentine, which may be present as an alteration product of
olivine and pyroxene. There is no other major mineral
constituent, except for opaque minerals that could be
magnetite, chromite or chrom-spinel occurring as accessory
phases. The other variety of ultramafic rocks is made up
essentially of chlorite showing random orientation, and
probably was formed in response to metamorphic and
alteration process, commonly found in ancient mafic–
ultramafic rock associations (Condie, 1981). The third
variety consists mainly of actinolite tremolite with variable
proportions of talc, asbestos and carbonates.
 Z.S.H. Abu-Hamatteh / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 25 (2005) 557–581
The mafic unit of Gopir volcanics and dykes consists
more than 50% hornblende of fine to medium grained
verities. Generally the dykes are dark and massive, whereas
the flows are fine grained and show development of
schistosity. Plagioclase and quartz are present in very
small amount with magnetite or chromite as accessory
minerals. Some samples are made up predominantly of
epidotes. Bagdunda volcanics display uniform mineral
assemblages and textural relations. It consists of amphiboles
with variable quantities of plagioclase and quartz. Relicts of
clinopyroxene and plagioclase crystals are sometimes found
in relatively less altered mafic rocks of Gopir and Bagdunda
(Abu-Hamatteh et al., 1994).
4. Geochemistry
4.1. Analytical procedures
X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF), inductively
coupled plasma-atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES;
at WING, India), and inductively coupled plasma-mass
spectrometry (ICP-MS; at NGRI, India), were used to
perform the analyses. For the mafic samples Nos. GRD3,
GRD4, GRV5, GRV6, GRV7, BAV2, BAV3, BAV4 and
BAV5, all the major elements and trace elements including
Cu, Zr, Ga, Th, Pb, Ni, Rb, Zn and Sr were determined by
XRF at WIHG. Trace elements including Ba, Cr, Co, V, Y,
Nb and Sc, were analyzed using ICP-AES at WING. Mafic
samples Nos. GRV9, GRV11, GRV13, GRV18, GRV19,
GRV20, GRV22, GRV28, GRV3I, 6RV32, BAV7, BAV21,
BAV24 and BAV41 were analyzed for major elements and
Zr using XRF and some selected trace elements (V, Cr, Ni,
Sc, Y and Nb) by ICP at WING. The rest of the mafic
samples were analyzed at NGRI, using XRF following the
methods given in Govil (1985) for major elements and ICP-
MS for trace elements (except Zr) following the analytical
procedure as given in Balaram et al. (1992). Zr for all the
samples of Gopir (GRV and GRD series) and Bagdunda
(BAV series) mafic rocks were analyzed at WING using
XRF on pressed power pellets techniques. V, Cr, Ni, Sc, Y
and Nb for all the mafic samples were analyzed at WIHG by
ICP-AES and at NGRI by ICP-MS. The difference in data
generated at two laboratories is within the analytical
uncertainties.
The rare earth elements (REE) for samples GRD3,
GRV5, GRV6, GRV7, BAV3 and BAV5 were separated
from major and other trace elements using chromatographic
columns following the methods of Walsh et al. (1981). The
separated REEs were analyzed using ICP-AES, at WING.
The REE concentrations in the remaining mafic samples
were determined without separation using an ICP-MS
following procedures given in Balaram (1991a,b) and
Balaram et al. (1992) at NGRI.
In order to check the analytical precision, we
used international standards BR-1, BEN, BHVO-l, BIR-l,
561
AGV-1, W2, MRG-1, UBN, GSR-2, GSR-3, SP-13, JBI-a,
JP-1, JB-2, AC-E and MBH for the analyses. The precision
coefficient of variation and detection limits for various oxides
and elements analyzed at WING are the same as described in
Bhat and Ahmad (1990) and Rathi et al. (1991). For the
analyses carried out at NGRI, it is similar to those given in
Balaram (1991a,b), Balaram et al. (1992), and Govil (1985).
Major, trace and rare earth elements of Gopir volcanics
(GRV) and dikes (GRD) and Bagdunda volcanics (BAV) are
presented in Tables 1 and 2, respectively.
4.2. Rare earth elements (REE)
REE data on mafic rocks of Jharol Belt are not available
in literature except for few samples (Abu-Hamatteh
et al., 1994). In the present study 14 samples of Gopir
volcanics, 5 samples of Gopir dikes (Table 1) and 12
samples of Bagdunda volcanics (Table 2) were analyzed
for REE.
Chondrite-normalized (Sun and McDonough, 1989) REE
patterns of the Gopir volcanics range from depleted [with
avg. (Ce/Sm)NZ0.55 and (Ce/Yb)NZ0.75] to nearly flat
[avg. (Ce/Sm)NZ1.12 and (Ce/Yb)NZ1.23] (Fig. 2b–d).
Among all the samples showing depleted to flat patterns
(Fig. 2b–d), samples GRV7, GRV1 9, GRV24, GRV27 and
GRV33 show positive Eu anomalies (Fig. 2c). Gopir dikes
show LREE enrichment with average (Ce/Sm)NZ2.07 and
(Ce/Yb)NZ5.05 (Fig. 2a).
The REE abundances of the Gopir volcanics and dikes
suggest that they may have been derived from different
sources, or produced by various extents of melting of similar
source(s). These possibilities will be further examined in the
section dealing with petrogenesis and source chemistry.
Another feature of these samples is that the middle and
heavy rare earths (Gd–Lu) of all the samples, whether
depleted, flat or enriched in terms of their LREE ratios, are
essentially flat to slightly fractionated (Gd/Er)NZ0.91–1.68
(Fig. 2a–d). This feature is not commonly observed in
modern oceanic basalts (e.g. MORB and IAB) but
characterizes some of the Precambrian tholeiites (e.g.
Kolar Schist Belt: Rajamani et al., 1989; Abitibi Belt,
Quebec: Lafleche et al., 1992).
The chondrite-normalized patterns of the Bagdunda
volcanics are shown in Fig. 2e–g. As evidenced from
these figures, the Bagdunda volcanics are depleted in terms
of the LREE [avg. (Ce/Sm)NZ0.43 and (Ce/Yb)NZ0.72],
except for sample BAV3, which shows an enriched nature
[about 30!chondrite Ce and 12!chondrite Yb with
(Ce/Sm)NZ1.11 and (Ce/Yb)NZ2.63] (Fig. 2c). The
middle and heavy rare earths are moderately fractionated
with (Gd/Er) NZ1.04–2.04 and (Gd/Yb)N Z0.92–2.23
(Fig. 2e–g). In this regard the Bagdunda volcanics display
a more pronounced fractionation of MREE and HREE
compared to those of Gopir samples.
562 Z.S.H. Abu-Hamatteh / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 25 (2005) 557–581

Table 1
Major element abundance (in wt%) and trace element concentrations (ppm) of Gopir volcanics (GRV) and Gopir dikes (GRD), Jharol Belt, Rajasthan, India

Samples GRV05 GRV06 GRV07 GRV09 GRV10 GRV13 GRV16 GRV17 GRV18 GRV19
Major oxides (wt%)
SIO2 45.1 44.0 42.3 41.6 42.7 41.5 44.7 43.5 45.7 44.0
TiO2 1.49 2.10 1.70 1.81 1.04 1.75 0.98 1.18 1.27 1.71
Al2O3 11.4 13.4 13.9 12.5 12.4 12.6 12.0 11.9 13.6 13.8
FeOt 12.78 12.51 13.93 14.36 13.80 15.54 13.66 15.11 14.49 13.34
MnO 0.33 0.33 0.34 0.17 0.28 0.18 0.19 0.17 0.22 0.18
MgO 12.6 11.9 12.0 13.3 11.3 12.2 12.6 12.9 9.2 10.5
CaO 12.75 12.67 12.39 11.01 17.06 11.64 12.59 11.83 10.63 13.79
Na2O 1.39 1.92 2.09 1.34 0.42 1.83 2.00 1.97 2.28 1.75
K2 O 0.66 0.85 0.96 0.48 0.22 0.50 0.37 0.38 0.36 0.37
P2O5 0.17 0.18 0.23 0.18 0.15 0.28 0.07 0.10 0.17 0.16
LOI 1.66 1.51 1.52 1.86 1.96 1.16 1.01 1.16 0.98 0.99
Total 100.33 101.37 101.36 98.61 101.33 99.18 100.17 100.20 98.90 100.59
Mg# 63.73 62.90 60.55 62.27 59.34 58.32 62.17 60.34 53.08 58.38
[Fe]% 11.70 11.20 12.30 12.90 11.70 13.80 12.40 13.30 14.50 12.10
[Mg]% 23.90 23.40 23.60 24.90 21.60 23.40 24.10 24.20 18.80 20.90
T Liq8 C 1319 1307 1317 1343 1277 1323 1326 1334 1244 1266
Trace elements (ppm)
V 228 237 326 300 270 200 210 200 240 290
Cr 359 590 431 300 500 530 410 430 280 380
Ni 171 245 233 83 110 260 210 300 73 190
Co 65 63 71 * 55 * 60 68 * 45
Sc 52 71 60 57 50 56 38 36 49 49
Cu 313 299 283 * 210 * 222 176 * 228
Zn 69 181 197 * * * * 0 * *
Ga 24 29 28 * 22 * 17 16 * 27
Rb 8 10 11 * 6 * 4 9 * 8
Sr 359 616 603 * 595 * 192 96 * 672
Ba 28 31 33 * 11 * 12 15 * 63
Y 38 42 51 41 31 28 27 28 33 39
Zr 144 203 185 133 114 128 66 65 113 126
Nb 21 22 23 6 8 8 6 7 8 8
Pb 38 53 50 * * * * * * *
Th 1 BDL BDL * 0.47 * 1.8 0.73 * 0.32
U * * * * 0.12 * 0.32 0.21 * 0.22
Rare earth elements (ppm)
Ce 13.01 18.8 17.57 * 12.09 * 12.54 11.19 * 14.04
Nd 11.24 14.69 12.02 * 10.54 * 6.8 8.65 * 15.69
Sm 3.03 3.99 3.4 * 4.93 * 3.12 3.66 * 7.86
Eu 1.32 1.64 1.85 * 1.95 * 0.8 1.36 * 3.47
Gd 4.32 5.22 5.11 * 4.83 * 2.66 3.79 * 9.64
Dy 5.98 6.82 6.57 * 4.98 * 3.32 4.09 * 8.78
Er 3.81 3.99 4.22 * 3.21 * 2.21 2.9 * 4.69
Yb 3.54 4.03 4.37 * 3.92 * 2.44 2.92 * 5.18
Lu 0.52 0.52 0.57 * 0.45 * 0.27 0.38 * 0.63

Samples GRV20 GRV21 GRV22 GRV24 GRV25 GRV27 GRV28 GRV29 GRV30 GRV31
Major oxides (wt%)
SIO2 45.1 47.3 40.5 44.1 41.4 46.1 44.5 43.5 44.1 44.8
TiO2 1.72 1.50 1.87 1.08 1.95 1.35 1.59 1.50 0.27 1.61
Al2O3 11.9 11.6 12.8 13.8 12.4 13.5 12.6 13.7 11.9 12.9
FeOt 13.12 14.62 13.90 14.94 15.34 12.87 14.45 14.05 13.02 14.20
MnO 0.17 0.19 0.17 0.16 0.19 0.17 0.22 0.15 0.15 0.17
MgO 12.9 9.4 11.0 10.8 13.4 11.1 8.2 10.9 10.6 11.0
CaO 11.64 11.75 14.31 11.83 12.27 14.46 10.49 13.40 15.06 12.28
Na2O 1.97 1.63 1.98 1.54 1.17 1.57 3.12 1.10 2.61 1.79
K2 O 0.38 0.48 0.23 0.55 0.44 0.33 0.35 0.41 0.37 0.43
P2O5 0.16 0.15 0.21 0.19 0.15 0.15 0.21 0.15 0.11 0.12
LOI 1.16 0.78 1.68 0.92 1.48 0.72 1.74 0.89 0.84 1.22
Total 100.22 99.40 98.65 99.91 100.19 102.32 97.47 99.75 99.03 100.52
Mg# 63.66 53.40 58.51 56.30 60.89 60.58 50.28 58.03 59.20 57.99
(continued on next page)
 Z.S.H. Abu-Hamatteh / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 25 (2005) 557–581 563

Table 1 (continued)

[Fe]% 12.00 14.50 12.30 13.80 13.10 11.50 15.10 12.60 12.10 13.10
[Mg]% 24.50 18.70 22.50 20.80 24.70 21.30 18.10 21.00 22.10 21.40
T Liq8 C 1330 1241 1297 1276 1341 1271 1235 1271 1288 1282
Trace elements (ppm)
V 200 373 200 280 230 290 270 220 261 250
Cr 500 300 630 330 580 420 180 470 2000 470
Ni 260 139 370 150 310 203 62 230 560 230
Co * 51 * 52 80 37 * 103 62 *
Sc 56 53 57 38 54 53 48 57 21 55
Cu * 298 * 236 232 257 * 564 239 *
Zn * * * * * * * * * *
Ga * 18 * 28 23 32 * 22 23 *
Rb * 17 * 26 6 6 * 6 5 *
Sr * 154 * 633 816 858 * 483 452 *
Ba * 20 * 55 59 36 * 97 15 *
Y 31 40 52 33 40 34 38 29 31 42
Zr 172 82 156 112 174 131 90 118 77 124
Nb 12 15 15 7 20 9 9 11 3 9
Pb * * * * * * * * * *
Th * 0.24 * 0.36 0.34 0.31 * 0.13 1.07 *
U * 0.16 * 0.17 0.1 0.21 * 0.18 0.32 *
Rare earth elements (ppm)
Ce * 11.22 * 10.42 18.92 13.62 * 17.81 16.69 *
Nd * 14.04 * 10.51 19.94 14.48 * 18.59 12 *
Sm * 7.02 * 4.74 8.54 7.07 * 7.83 3.93 *
Eu * 2.47 * 4.42 3.2 3.38 * 2.35 1.13 *
Gd * 7.22 * 5.14 9.3 7.18 * 7.99 3.53 *
Dy * 8.43 * 5.46 9.78 8.34 * 8.23 4.17 *
Er * 5.29 * 3.37 5.58 4.41 * 4.08 2.75 *
Yb * 6.19 * 4.75 6.68 5.98 * 5.36 3.58 *
Lu * 0.84 * 0.6 0.84 0.69 * 0.61 0.49 *

Samples GRV32 GRV33 GRD03 GRD04 GRD11 GRD12 GRD15 GRD23 GRD26
Major oxides (wt%)
SiO2 41.7 44.1 38.5 38.2 43.7 44.1 44.2 44.7 43.1
TiO2 1.69 1.36 1.81 1.78 1.13 1.34 1.06 1.29 1.16
Al2O3 12.8 13.7 15.0 15.2 12.9 11.3 11.7 13.1 12.3
FeOt 14.43 13.47 10.95 11.57 12.94 14.55 14.19 14.16 15.31
MnO 0.19 0.15 0.17 0.17 0.14 0.23 0.32 0.16 0.20
MgO 12.2 12.1 12.9 13.9 10.5 11.7 14.4 10.5 11.0
CaO 12.74 12.64 17.75 17.21 12.79 13.21 11.64 13.84 14.12
Na2O 1.51 1.5 0.68 1.33 1.80 1.01 1.22 1.94 1.03
K2O 0.37 0.71 BDL BDL 0.50 0.42 0.32 0.44 0.52
P2O5 0.17 0.14 0.11 0.23 0.00 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.13
LOI 1.53 1.1 3.10 3.00 1.16 0.85 1.34 0.82 1.10
Total 99.33 100.97 100.97 102.59 97.56 98.86 100.39 100.95 99.97
Mg# 60.11 61.55 67.74 68.16 59.12 58.90 64.39 56.92 56.15
[Fe]% 12.70 12.00 8.80 9.10 12.30 13.20 12.50 12.90 13.60
[Mg]% 23.50 23.10 25.60 27.40 21.40 22.10 25.70 20.80 21.10
T Liq8 C 1317 1306 1333 1365 1278 1295 1355 1270 1279
Trace elements (ppm)
V 260 280 172 180 210 240 220 202 290
Cr 480 492 173 169 1800 310 330 1100 810
Ni 230 233 157 163 710 180 490 460 390
Co * 59 33 35 * 69 79 62 78
Sc 66 47 30 32 40 49 37 37 41
Cu * 241 204 193 * 245 237 217 223
Zn * 0 62 94 * * * * *
Ga * 29 23 19 * 17 24 24 23
Rb * 34 BDL BDL * 9 7 12 14
Sr * 550 966 856 * 171 1019 575 741
Ba * 55 10 8 * 15 10 30 103
(continued on next page)
564 Z.S.H. Abu-Hamatteh / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 25 (2005) 557–581

Table 1 (continued)

Y 54 36 69 63 69 33 63 64 76
Zr 143 108 244 221 128 76 194 138 185
Nb 12 19 15 14 8 9 14 22 14
Pb * 0 17 36 * * * * *
Th * 0.32 * * * 4.69 * 1.72 4.05
U * 0.12 * * * 1.39 * 0.21 0.46
Rare earth elements (ppm)
Ce * 12.14 160.8 * * 24.67 147.55 39.01 71.66
Nd * 11.65 70.17 * * 9.22 30.28 36.33 58.36
Sm * 5.39 13.3 * * 3.96 9.25 12.88 17.4
Eu * 3.13 2.83 * * 0.82 1.6 2.93 3.38
Gd * 6.7 11.47 * * 3.82 6.47 12.54 15.48
Dy * 6.61 11.72 * * 3.89 6.87 12.65 13.92
Er * 4.01 6.17 * * 2.52 3.63 7.25 7.43
Yb * 5.08 6.37 * * 2.45 3.5 8.1 8.31
Lu * 0.68 0.91 * * 0.34 0.39 0.99 0.94
*Not analyzed, BDL: below detection limit, LOI: loss on ignition. [Fe]%: compositionally corrected FeO, [Mg]%: compositionally corrected MgO. T Liq8C:
liquidus temperature, FeOt as total iron.

4.3. Magma types classification
In the AFM diagram (Irvine and Baragar, 1971), the
Bagdunda and Gopir volcanics and dikes plot above the
demarcating line, depicting their tholeiitic affinity, where
they follow an iron enrichment trend (Fig. 3a). The analyses
of Bagdunda and Gopir volcanics and dikes are plotted in
Fig. 3b in the same manner as suggested by Jensen (1976). It
is significant to note from this plot that the Bagdunda
volcanics classify as high Mg-tholeiite and the Gopir
samples predominantly as basaltic komatiite. In YTC
ternary diagram (Davies et al., 1979) (Fig. 3c) the samples
of the Bagdunda and Gopir volcanics follow the tholeiitic–
magnesian suite trend (Fig. 3c). The dikes form a separate
trend falling between the tholeiitic and calc-alkaline trends
because of high Zr and Y in the dikes. The YTC diagram
(Fig. 3c) also suggests that the Gopir and Bagdunda
volcanics have evolved along a common trend very similar
to that followed by cogenetic tholeiitic rocks, however the
dikes appear to have a different evolutionary trend. In the
Nb/Y versus Zr/TiO2 diagram (Winchester and Floyd,
1977), the Gopir and Bagdunda volcanics and dikes show a
sub-alkaline nature with predominantly basaltic compo-
sition, although few samples (especially the dikes) with high
Zr contents plot in the fields of basaltic andesite and
andesite (Fig. 3d). Their low Nb/Y ratio (0.10–0.55) is
typical of sub-alkaline magmatic series, which exhibits
Nb/Y!I (Pearce and Gale, 1977).
4.4. Tectonic setting classification
Pearce (1982) has proposed TiO2 versus Zr and Cr versus
Y diagrams to discriminate basalts from mid-oceanic ridge
island arc and within plate settings. In these diagrams
the Gopir and Bagdunda samples again plot in the field of
MORB (Fig. 4a and b). However, the outlined MORB field
overlaps the fields of island arc basalts and within plate
basalts. Thus, plots of Jharol samples in this diagram can
also be treated as to plot both in IAB and WPB, indicating
their transitional nature between the two settings or between
MORB and either of these settings, thus the picture remains
ambiguous. It is also possible that the overlap is due to the
involvement of sub-continental lithosphere in magma
genesis as pointed out by Watters and Pearce (1987). The
overlap of MORB and WPB fields in Fig. 4 has been
suggested to result from a transitional setting (Tarney et al.,
1981). However, the data should be interpreted with caution
since the rocks have been metamorphosed (Wang and
Glover, 1992).
To further assess the magma type of the Gopir and
Bagdunda volcanics with respect to their tectonic environ-
ment, we used multi-element patterns (Thompson et al.,
1983). Involving relatively less mobile incompatible trace
elements and REE, these diagrams are particularly useful in
comparing ancient with modern volcanic rocks. N-MORB
normalized geochemical patterns of Gopir and Bagdunda
mafic rocks are shown in Fig. 5. The samples of Gopir and
Bagdunda suites exhibit progressive enrichment of most of
the elements from right to left relative to N-type MORB
(Sun and McDonough, 1989). However, most of the
depleted samples [based on (Ce/SmN ratio] show distinct
negative anomalies for Ba and Ce and distinct positive Sr
and rarely Zr anomalies. In addition to negative Ba, the
enriched dike samples have also distinct negative anomalies
for P and Ti and positive Ce with high Ce/Nb ratio unlike
the depleted volcanic samples. The enriched trace element
features compared to MORB have been considered as a
typical characteristic of within plate continental and oceanic
basalt (Thompson et al., 1983). The anomalies shown by
the dike samples (Fig. 5a) are commonly seen in many of
 Z.S.H. Abu-Hamatteh / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 25 (2005) 557–581 565

Table 2
Major element abundance (in wt%) and trace element concentrations (ppm) of Bagdunda volcanics (BAV), Jharol Belt, Rajasthan, India

Samples BA02 BA03 BA04 BA05 BA07 BA10 BA14 BA18 BA19 BA21
Major oxides (wt%)
SIO2 52.2 49.5 50.50 51.8 48.90 48.3 47.1 47.8 47.7 48.3
TiO2 0.95 2.25 1.16 1.00 0.91 1.23 1.07 1.20 1.13 1.28
Al2O3 12.2 11.7 12.3 11.8 12.7 12.8 12.3 12.8 13.4 13.1
FeOt 10.39 12.51 10.8 10.05 11.38 11.90 11.20 11.05 10.91 12.79
MnO 0.17 0.19 0.2 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.17 0.17 0.20
MgO 8.8 8.9 8.2 8.3 9.9 9.7 12.7 10.3 8.9 8.0
CaO 9.97 11.18 12.75 11.89 13.23 11.77 11.79 12.28 12.23 10.46
Na2O 1.57 2.46 3.18 1.99 4.01 2.12 1.89 2.19 2.32 3.05
K2O 0.90 0.4 0.25 0.26 0.13 0.31 0.30 0.30 0.29 0.45
P2O5 0.18 0.24 0.15 0.14 0.04 0.13 0.07 0.12 0.11 0.15
LOI 2.31 1.79 2.01 1.98 0.93 1.96 0.79 0.82 0.77 0.89
Total 99.64 101.12 101.5 99.39 102.31 100.40 99.39 99.03 97.93 98.67
Mg# 60.15 55.90 57.50 59.54 60.79 59.23 66.89 62.42 59.25 52.71
[Fe]% 11.90 13.00 11.50 11.30 11.20 12.10 10.60 11.10 11.40 13.90
[Mg]% 19.10 18.80 18.40 18.20 21.30 20.00 24.40 21.20 12.90 17.90
T Liq8C 1232 1233 1216 1211 1270 1249 1320 1265 1231 1222
Trace elements (ppm)
V 272 261 351 304 220 200 245 190 180 250
Cr 418 291 284.00 325 460 460 710 410 410 340
Ni 169 171 222 160 160 150 330 215 140 110
Co 44 56 51 52 * 48 60 44 49 *
Sc 49 41 57 52 49 37 36 36 35 48
Cu 120 144 219 73 * 294 312 286 245 *
Zn 143 124 117 143 * * * * * *
Ga 24 22 25 19 * 16 15 17 17 *
Rb 4 BDL 3 BDL * 2 3 4 3 *
Sr 164 513 108 115 * 342 333 232 258 *
Ba 59 32 26 54 * 63 31 103 99 *
Y 25 30 33 29 29 26 23 24 22 34
Zr 96 170 80 71 58 98 89 79 76 70
Nb 7 15 12 9 8 10 6 8 8 9
Pb 20 BDL 16 5 * * * * * *
Th 5 6 BDL 4 * 0.15 0.16 0.2 0.11 *
U * * * * * 0.13 0.11 0.14 0.12 *
Rare earth elements (ppm)
Ce * 19.72 * 4.92 * 8.94 7.19 8.04 7.18 *
Nd * 17.23 * 6.51 * 15.55 12.21 12.31 10.43 *
Sm * 4.44 * 1.86 * 6.97 6.02 7.1 6 *
Eu * 1.82 * 0.83 * 2.3 2.13 2.08 1.64 *
Gd * 5.6 * 3.79 * 6.84 6.41 6.72 6.23 *
Dy * 5.09 * 4.52 * 7.4 6.23 5.47 5.14 *
Er * 2.21 * 2.87 * 3.7 3.26 3.46 3.41 *
Yb * 2.08 * 2.84 * 4.31 3.58 4.03 3.7 *
Lu * 0.28 * 0.41 * 0.56 0.5 0.53 0.42 *

Samples BA24 BA27 BA33 BA34 BA36 BA37 BA38 BA41

Major oxides (wt%)
SIO2 49.80 52.2 50.9 49.2 47.1 47.5 48.5 48.8
TiO2 0.96 1.00 1.52 1.63 1.59 1.13 1.12 0.98
Al2O3 13.30 11.5 12.7 13.0 12.2 12.9 11.9 12.5
FeOt 11.62 12.13 13.00 14.39 15.41 13.12 12.51 11.81
MnO 0.19 0.13 0.18 0.19 0.18 0.19 0.20 0.19
MgO 8.80 9.7 7.7 7.7 8.4 10.3 8.4 10.0
CaO 10.65 11.93 10.79 9.57 10.82 11.88 10.99 11.52
Na2O 3.34 1.43 1.39 1.86 1.23 1.99 2.56 3.46
K2O 0.31 0.21 0.32 0.55 0.51 0.26 0.34 0.24
P2O5 0.10 0.11 0.14 0.14 0.17 0.10 0.11 0.11
LOI 0.78 0.69 0.68 0.80 0.79 0.75 0.71 0.97
Total 99.85 101.03 99.32 99.03 98.40 100.12 97.34 100.58
Mg# 57.44 58.76 51.35 48.81 49.27 58.32 54.47 60.14
(continued on next page)
566 Z.S.H. Abu-Hamatteh / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 25 (2005) 557–581
Table 2 (continued)

Samples BA02 BA03 BA04 BA05 BA07 BA10 BA14 BA18 BA19 BA21
[Fe]% 12.50 12.50 14.10 15.90 15.70 12.80 13.60 12.10
[Mg]% 19.40 19.10 16.10 14.50 16.80 20.40 18.30 21.30
T Liq8 C 1243 1236 1190 1173 1214 1262 1228 1273
Trace elements (ppm)
V 190 220 290 330 340 250 240 220
Cr 460 420 180 160 181 270 330 280
Ni 160 203 138 148 156 191 187 93
Co * 42 52 60 64 53 46 *
Sc 45 46 48 47 48 48 40 46
Cu * 287 233 397 261 318 263 *
Zn * * * * * * * *
Ga * 17 20 22 22 16 17 *
Rb * 2 2 2 2 4 4 *
Sr * 122 94 58 27 88 63 *
Ba * 11 19 14 17 34 42 *
Y 26 29 35 39 37 31 32 29
Zr 61 52 101 104 114 60 58 57
Nb 4 14 11 10 12 8 8 5
Pb * * * * * * * *
Th * 0.21 0.33 0.4 0.29 0.14 0.22 *
U * 0.14 0.19 0.24 0.15 0.1 0.12 *
Rare earth elements (ppm)
Ce * 5.7 16.98 15.95 19.37 5.88 5.62 *
Nd * 10.75 20.19 20.43 30.03 10.92 9.87 *
Sm * 5.06 8.34 8.61 10.78 5.84 6 *
Eu * 1.84 2.39 2.29 2.74 1.92 1.59 *
Gd * 5.8 8.26 9.03 10.82 6.35 6.47 *
Dy * 6.92 8.72 8.77 9.33 8.19 7.06 *
Er * 4.13 4.81 5.45 5.58 4.91 4.47 *
Yb * 5.21 5.98 6.53 6.11 5.55 5.83 *
Lu * 0.71 0.81 0.9 0.75 0.76 0.65 *
*Not analyzed, BDL: below detection limit, LOI: loss on ignition, [Fe]%: compositionally corrected FeO, [Mg]%: compositionally corrected MgO, T Liq8C:
liquidus temperature, FeOt as total iron.

the continental tholeiites. The calc-alkaline and tholeiitic
island arc basalts also exhibit a subduction-related enrich-
ment in LILE and LREE, but they have lower abundances
of less incompatible elements with respect to MORB
(Pearce, 1983; Wilson, 1989). The Gopir and Bagdunda
samples do not show any subduction zone signature in their
chemistry, and they are classified as tholeiite (Fig. 3a–d).
They cannot be considered as tholeiitic volcanic arc basalts
because such basalts are generally depleted in Nb, Ti, Y,
Zr, P and Sm relative to N-MORB (Pearce, 1983). Only
one of the depleted samples (GRV30) shows depletion in
Ti relative to N-MORB (Fig. 5b), whereas the other
incompatible elements are similar to those of other
samples, except for Nb, which is also low compared to
other samples but still higher than N-MORB. Such low Ti
and Nb contents in this sample may be related to
fractionation of a Ti rich phase. However, the Ti/Y ratio
in all the Gopir samples is much lower, with much higher
Y abundances compared to both E-MORB and continental
tholeiites, although the Bagdunda samples have Ti/Y ratios
comparable with E-MORB.
Fig. 6 shows the PM-normalized patterns (Holm, 1985)
of the Gopir and Bagdunda volcanics and dikes. In these
diagrams the Gopir and Bagdunda volcanics display parallel
patterns and the dikes show enrichment of LREE with
distinct negative anomalies for P and Ti (Fig. 6a).
Significantly, as concluded from the N-MORB and
PM-normalized patterns, except for one sample (GRV30),
none of the LREE depleted samples of the Gopir and
Bagdunda volcanics shows any negative Nb anomaly
(Figs. 5 and 6). This feature suggests that crustal
contamination has not played a significant role in their
evolution because crustal components are characterized by
large negative Nb anomalies (Weaver and Tarney, 1981,
1983). Ahmad and Tarney (1994) have also emphasized
on the insignificant role of crustal contamination in the
evolution of the adjoining basal Aravalli volcanics of the
Udaipur belt. Instead they have suggested the significance
of mature continental lithospheric affinity during their
evolution.
The PM-normalized patterns of the Gopir and Bagdunda
volcanics (Fig. 6) when compared with those of mafic suites
of different tectonic settings (Ahmad and Tarney, 1991),
reveal a close resemblance between the Gopir dikes
(Fig. 6a) and Early Proterozoic dikes and continental flood
basalts and the north Indian basaltic rocks in term of
 Z.S.H. Abu-Hamatteh / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 25 (2005) 557–581 567

Fig. 2. Chondrite normalized REE patterns of (a) Gopir dikes, (b), (c) and (d) Gopir volcanics and (e), (f), and (g) Bagdunda volcanics. Normalizing values after
Sun and McDonough (1989).
568 Z.S.H. Abu-Hamatteh / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 25 (2005) 557–581

Fig. 3. Variation diagrams (a) AFM ternary diagram (AZNa2OCK2O, FZFeOt, MZMgO) compositional variation line after Irvine and Baragar (1971),
(b) Cation per cent Al–FeCTi–Mg ternary diagram (Jensen, 1976), (c) Ternary ZrCY–TiO2!100KCr (Davies et al., 1979) and (d) Nb/Y vs Zr/TiO2
(Winchester and Floyd, 1977), depicting the tholeiitic nature of Gopir and Bagdunda volcanics and dikes.

their Nb/Ce ratios and negative anomalies for P and Ti.
However, the predominantly depleted Gopir and Bagdunda
volcanics resemble N-MORB in terms of their LREE
depletion [shown by (Ce/Sm)N ratios] but are enriched in
these elements compared to typical N-MORB (Sun and
McDonough, 1989) (Fig. 5), although maintaining the
depleted LREE ratios [e.g. (Ce/Sm)N ratios]. The flat Gopir
volcanics and depleted Gopir and Bagdunda volcanics
resemble E-MORB in terms of other incompatible trace
elements, supporting a transitional nature of these rocks
between N-MORB on one hand and OIB on the other. Thus,
the N-MORB and PM normalized geochemical patterns
strongly suggest the transitional nature of the Gopir and
Bagdunda volcanics between N-MORB and ocean island
basalts.
5. Petrogenesis
Although differences exist in the compositions of the
Gopir and Bagdunda volcanics, their data in different
variation diagrams follow, more or less, common trends.
This feature suggests that the petrogenetic processes
including the nature of the source that controlled the
abundances and ratios of various elements were more or less
similar. However, it is necessary to account for the
differences in the chemical composition of these volcanics
on the one hand and with respect to dikes on the other. From
the detailed analyses of these differences, we may be able to
understand whether they are due to changing conditions of
magma generation or due to different sources generating the
parental magmas evolving along various trends/sub-trends.
 Z.S.H. Abu-Hamatteh / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 25 (2005) 557–581
Fig. 4. Binary diagrams for Gopir and Bagdunda volcanics and dikes. (a) Zr
vs TiO2 (Pearce, 1982) and (b) Cr versus Y (Pearce, 1982). MORB: Mid-
Oceanic Ridge Basalt, P: Primitive Mantle, IAB: Island Arc Basalt, WPB:
Within-Plate Basalt, VAB: Volcanic Arc Basalt.
Here the term sub-trend is being used to emphasis distinct
mineral assemblages that may fractionate from magmas of
essentially tholeiitic affinity (Fig. 3).
5.1. Major element geochemistry
MgO and SiO2 are considered as good indicators of
igneous fractionation, and negative correlation between
MgO and SiO2 in the Gopir and Bagdunda volcanics
indicates that fractional crystallization has played an
important role in the evolution of Gopir and Bagdunda
basic volcanics.
The Gopir and Bagdunda volcanics do not display simple
relationships between Mg-number and the contents of the
compatible and incompatible trace elements. Many of the
high Mg-number and low Mg-number samples display
569
similar trace element abundances, which probably reflects
more complex petrogenetic processes and/or heterogeneities
in their source regions. The Mg-numbers and MgO contents
of Gopir volcanics, Gopir dikes and Bagdunda volcanics
(Tables 1 and 2) are lower than primitive basaltic melts
(Green, 1971; Wilkinson and Maitra, 1987), which also
suggests that they have undergone magmatic differentiation.
In general, Gopir volcanics and dikes show higher Mg-num-
bers than Bagdunda volcanics, thus suggesting a relatively
more primitive nature of the former. The lack of negative Eu
and Sr anomalies in REE (Fig. 2) and PM-normalized
patterns (Fig. 6) for most of the volcanics also suggests that
plagioclase fractionation was insignificant.
The observed trend may be interpreted in terms of
different extents of melting of a MORB-type source (in
terms of these elements and ratios) and/or their evolution
from a MORB-type parental melt through fractional
crystallization of olivine, pyroxeneGplagioclase. As oli-
vine and plagioclase have very low Kd values for Ti
compared to clinopyroxene, the influence of clinopyroxene
fractionation is expected to show up strongly in these
diagrams (Irving, 1978).
The higher CaO/Al2O3 ratio for the Gopir samples with
respect to those of Bagdunda volcanics may indicate more
control of Al with respect to Ca in the case of Gopir
volcanics. This in turn may imply that the Gopir volcanics
were generated at greater depth, where Al-bearing phases
such as garnet and/or Al-bearing pyroxenes are stable
(Nesbitt et al., 1979). However, the absence of any HREE
fractionation in the REE patterns (Fig. 2) indicates that
garnet was not present in the source. This discounts the
possibility that the parental melt of Gopir volcanics was
derived from deeper sources compared to that of the
Bagdunda volcanics.
Based on the findings of Ford et al. (1983) and
Rajamani et al. (1985) modified the original cation mole
percent (Mg)–(Fe) diagram of Hanson and Langmuir
(1978), taking into consideration the effects of melt
composition (up to 22 wt% MgO), temperature (up to
1600 8C) as well as pressure (up to 25 Kbar) on olivine-
melt distribution coefficient (Fig. 7). The utility of this
diagram has increased after the modifications carried out
by Horan et al. (l987).
Compositionally corrected [Mg] and [Fe] abundances of
the studied volcanics and dikes are presented in Tables 1
and 2, along with their olivine saturation surface tempera-
ture. The [Fe] and [Mg] values have been calculated
assuming that the parental liquidus of these samples had
equilibrated with liquidus olivine. In this diagram most of
the samples plot outside the calculated melt field for the
pyrolite source. The samples of both the volcanic suites and
dikes actually plot closer to the solidii of non-pyrolite
source at 2.5 GPa indicating their non-pyrolite source
characteristics.
The effect of partial melting and fractional crystallization
can be evaluated in this diagram based on the behavior of
570 Z.S.H. Abu-Hamatteh / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 25 (2005) 557–581

Fig. 5. N-MORB normalized multi-element patterns of (a) Gopir dikes, (b), (c) and (d) Gopir volcanics and (e), (f), and (g) Bagdunda volcanics. Normalizing
values after Sun and McDonough (1989).
 Z.S.H. Abu-Hamatteh / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 25 (2005) 557–581 571

Fig. 6. Primordial mantle normalized multi-element spidergrams for (a) Gopir dikes, (b), (c) and (d) Gopir volcanics and (e), (f), and (g) Bagdunda volcanics.
Normalizing values after Sun and McDonough (1989).
572 Z.S.H. Abu-Hamatteh / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 25 (2005) 557–581

Fig. 7. Calculated [Fe] vs [Mg] plot for Gopir and Bagdunda volcanics and dikes (after Rajamani et al., 1985; Horan et al., 1987). [Mg] and [Fe] are defined as
compositionally corrected Mg and Fe abundances in cation mole % using the equation of Ford et al. (1983). Filled circle represents the calculated melt field for
the pyrolite source with [Fe/Mg] ratio of 0.12 and olivine with Fo89 on solidus are shown for 1 atm. and 2.5 GPa pressure; filled squares 1 and 2 are solidii
composition for the pyrolite mantle source. Open circle with [Fe/Mg] ratio of 0.25 and olivine with Fo80 on solidus represent the non-pyrolite source at 1 atm.
and 2.5 GPa (25 Kbar) pressure where open squares 1 and 2 indicates the solidii for the non-pyrolite mantle source. Fractional crystallization (FC) and
assimilation fractional crystallization (AFC) trends for olivine followed by clinopyroxeneCplagioclase with 5% increment tick marks are adopted from
Rajamani et al. (1989). The basal Aravalli trends after Ahmad and Rajamani (1991) are also shown for comparison.

calculated [Mg] and [Fe]. With increasing degree of partial
melting, the magmas produced will show a slight increase of
Mg to almost similar [Mg] contents but lower [Fe] contents.
However, in the case of fractional crystallization the
removal of olivine causes a severe depletion of [Mg] but
only a marginal increase in [Fe] content in the evolving
liquids (Langmuir and Hanson, 1980). The involvement of
plagioclase and/or pyroxene in addition to olivine may
cause a more pronounced [Fe] enrichment.
The compositions of the Gopir and Bagdunda volcanics
and dikes in Fig. 7 indicate their derivation from non-
pyrolitic source(s) variably enriched in [Fe/Mg]. The
majority of the Gopir volcanics and dikes follow an
olivine fractionation trend. However, a sub-trend is also
evident for the volcanics, which shows some increase in
[Fe] with decreasing [Mg], indicating the involvement of
clinopyroxene fractionation along with olivine. The sub-
trend does not follow the clinopyroxeneCplagioclase
trend, although [Fe] increases in the sub-trend, the
increase is not that high, however the drop in [Mg] is
much higher, indicating that plagioclase was not a major
fractionating phase. The Bagdunda volcanics display
a trend which is similar to the basal Aravalli volcanics
(Ahmad and Rajamani, 1991), although the former appear
to be less evolved as indicated by restricted variation in
[Fe] compared to the Aravalli trend. For the Bagdunda
suite also two sub-trends are apparent, the minor one is
parallel to the olivine fractionation trend, and the major
trend follows the olivineCclinopyroxeneGplagioclase
fractionation line. Gopir dikes have restricted [Fe] for
similar [Mg] compared to the Gopir volcanics. However,
the overall distribution of data in this diagram clearly
demonstrates more enriched composition in terms of both
[Mg] and [Fe] in the case of Gopir volcanics, apparently
indicating greater depths of generation for this suite,
compared to the Bagdunda volcanics. The position of
Gopir samples in the [Mg]–[Fe] diagram probably
indicates their generation from a more fertile source (to
account for the higher FeO) and higher degrees of melting
(to account for the higher MgO).
 Z.S.H. Abu-Hamatteh / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 25 (2005) 557–581 573

5.2. Trace element geochemistry

The relationships of Nb, Y and TiO2 with Zr are shown in

Fig. 8a–c. The dike samples form separate trends and at
least two sub-trends each are observed in both the volcanic
suites, suggesting distinct combinations of olivine and
clinopyroxene or olivine–plagioclase–clinopyroxene as
crystallizing phases in different proportions. In the absence
of negative Eu anomalies in the REE patterns for the
volcanics (Fig. 2) the latter combination appears less
appropriate. However, the dike samples do also show
negative Eu anomalies in their REE patterns (Fig. 2a). The
positive relationship between Zr and TiO2 (Fig. 8c) reveals
that Ti-bearing phases were not been a fractionating phase.
When a Ti-bearing phase begins to crystallize, the removal
of Ti results in severe decreases in Ti/Zr ratio (Watters and
Pearce, 1987; Keer et al., 1996,1997), which is not observed
in these samples. This is also consistent with the high
abundances of Ni and Cr. Fractionation of Ti-bearing phases
would have also caused drastic drops in Ni and Cr contents,
which are also not observed in these mafic suites, as the low
TiO2 samples contain high Cr and Ni abundances (see
Tables 1 and 2).
The middle and heavy REE for all the samples, whether
depleted, flat or enriched, display slightly fractionated to flat
sub-parallel patterns (Fig. 2). N-MORB-normalized multi-
element patterns (Fig. 5) depict very clearly that all the
samples, whether depleted or enriched in terms of LREE,
are actually enriched in all the elements with respect to
typical N-MORB abundances. Although the (Ce/Sm)N ratio
for the majority of the samples is similar to N-MORB [(Ce/
Sm)N!1; Fig. 2], the LREE abundances are higher for most
of the incompatible elements (including MREE HREE)
abundances and ratios (Fig. 5) probably indicating a
transitional nature of the volcanics between N-MORB and
oceanic island tholeiite (Holm, 1985; Floyd, 1989).
The following possibilities or a combination of these can
be put forward to account for the LREE enrichment in the
Gopir dike samples (Fig. 2a): (1) the melt was derived from
Fig. 8. Plots of Zr versus (A) Nb, (B) Y and (C) TiO2 for Gopir and
a source different from that of the volcanic suites, (2) the
Bagdunda volcanics and dikes showing the less mobile nature of these
melt has experienced crustal contamination or assimilation- elements and illustrating the sensitivity of these element ratios to source
fractional crystallization during ascent or in the crustal composition. Primordial mantle ratios after Sun and McDonough (1989).
magma chamber, if generated from a depleted source or (3)
may represent an end member which has dominant
components of continental volcanics, if the whole suite is and Nb/Zr ratios of these volcanics are much higher in
considered as transitional between the oceanic and con- comparison with the primitive mantle (Sun and McDonough,
tinental tholeiites. 1989) indicating their enriched source characteristics for
The high FeOt and TiO2 contents of Gopir and Bagdunda the elements that are relatively less incompatible in nature
volcanics are not expected if these melts are considered to compared to the LREEs. Zr/Nb has been widely used to
have undergone crustal contamination, because most of the discriminate between enriched and depleted sources (Le
contaminated rocks generally have low FeOt and TiO2 Roex et al., 1983). The Zr versus Nb plots of Gopir and
contents (Carlson et al., 1981; Arndt and Jenner, 1986; Keer Bagdunda volcanics and dikes (Fig. 8a) suggest their
et al., 1996,1997). Except for LREEs, moderate enrichment derivation from moderately enriched source. The more
of incompatible trace elements in the sources of the enriched nature of Gopir volcanics (especially the dikes)
volcanics is clearly indicated by the Zr–Nb, Zr–Y and compared to Bagdunda volcanics is also obvious from
Zr–TiO2 relationships (Fig. 8a–c). Further the Zr/Y, Zr/TiO2 Zr–Y relationship in Fig. 8b.
574 Z.S.H. Abu-Hamatteh / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 25 (2005) 557–581
Fig. 9. (a) Plot of Ce vs Nd for Gopir and Bagdunda volcanics and dikes, showing the least effect of contamination and reflecting their magmatic characteristics
(after Horan et al., 1987) and (b) is a blown up part of A. Chondrite values after Sun and McDonough (1989).
To further assess the role of crustal contamination in the
evolution of the volcanics, the Ce–Nd contents are plotted in
Fig. 9. In this diagram the samples of both the Gopir and
Bagdunda volcanics fall below the chondritic line. How-
ever, all the dike samples plot above the chondritic line,
confirming our inference that the sources for the dikes were
enriched but depleted in case of the volcanics, in terms of
LREE. It has been observed (Horan et al., 1987; Bhat and
Ahmad, 1990) that the basalt which resulted from
contamination or assimilation fractional crystallization
processes would not plot along the line intersecting the
origin. Instead, they would plot along the line, which
intersects the Nd-axis. The variation of data in this diagram
also indicates that the mafic magmatic rocks represent
varying degrees of melting from w10% to higher extents of
melting (O20%) (Fig. 9b).
Fig. 10 shows the incompatible trace element ratios plot
for the Gopir and Bagdunda volcanics and dikes. Following
Ahmad and Tarney (1993) this approach is adopted to
constrain the chemical nature of the sources of the rocks in
terms of incompatible trace element ratios. Ratios in which
the denominator element is relatively more incompatible
(e.g. Ti/Zr, Ti/Th, Ti/Nb, Ti/Ce, Y/Ba, Y/Rb, Y/Nb, Y/Ce,
Zr/Nb, Zr/Ce, etc.) will plot below or above the PM ratio
line if the samples are derived from enriched or depleted
sources, respectively, with respect to the primitive mantle.
However, they will plot along the line if they are derived
from a flat source like PM. Conversely, ratios in which the
denominator is less incompatible (e.g. Zr/Y, Zr/Yb, Ti/Y,
Ti/Yb, etc.) will show apposite relationship with respect to
the PM ratio. In this diagram element ratios of the volcanics
are normalized to the respective ratios in primitive mantle
(Sun and McDonough, 1989) to be used as reference for
comparison (Thompson et al., 1983; Myers and Breitkopf,
1989). The ratios used in this diagram are considered to be
less affected by fractional crystallization and high degrees
of partial melting (Knoper and Condie, 1988) and therefore,
may reflect very closely the mantle source ratios (Myers
et al., 1987; Myers and Breitkopf, 1989). When these
element ratios are normalized to the corresponding ratios of
primitive mantle [Ratio(Rock)/Ratio(PM)] the effect of
fractional crystallization, if any, will be further minimized
by such double normalizing (Ahmad and Tarney, 1993).
The normalized ratio patterns for averages of Bagdunda
volcanics (BAV) depleted Gopir volcanics (GRV-D), flat
Gopir volcanics (GRV-F) and Gopir dikes (GRD) are shown
in Fig. 10b. It is interesting to note that all the patterns show
a general relative enrichment compared to PM (Sun and
McDonough, 1989). However, these patterns are quite
distinct from each other in terms of enrichment with respect
to PM and one from another, attesting to our earlier
classification based on (Ce/Sm)N ratios.
The Bagdunda and depleted Gopir volcanics display
similar patterns, indicating their relative depletion with
respect to the other patterns (especially for Th and Ce
among the elements considered), but demonstrate their
slight enrichment with respect to PM, which is also evident
from their PM-normalized multi-element patterns (Fig. 6).
 Z.S.H. Abu-Hamatteh / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 25 (2005) 557–581 575

Fig. 10. Primordial mantle-normalized incompatible trace element ratio spidergram patterns for (A) Aravalli volcanics (after Ahmad and Tarney, 1993) and
Archaean lower/middle crust (after Weaver and Tarney, 1984) are shown for comparison and (B) Bagdunda volcanics (BAV), depleted Gopir volcanics
(GRV-D), flat Gopir volcanics (GRV-F) and Gopir dikes (GRD), PM values after Sun and McDonough (1989).

However, the depleted Gopir volcanics are slightly more
enriched (probably due to their generation from a more
fertile source; Fig. 7) compared to the Bagdunda volcanics
(all the BAV are depleted in terms of (Ce/Sm)N ratio). The
Gopir dikes average pattern resembles closely those of basal
Aravalli volcanics (Fig. 10a and b). The enriched nature of
the basal Aravalli volcanics is considered to reflect enriched
source characteristics (Ahmad and Tarney, 1994). The
resemblance of Gopir dike samples with the basal Aravalli
volcanics and the evidence presented earlier against the
contaminated nature of these samples, imply that the
enriched nature of the average ratio patterns probably
reflects the source characteristics. The pattern for average
flat Gopir volcanics is transitional between the dikes and the
depleted Gopir volcanics.
From this diagram it becomes clear that the Bagdunda
volcanics are derived from slightly depleted (in LREE, Th)
to nearly flat source(s) like those for N-MORB (Le Roex,
1987). The Gopir volcanics were derived from two distinct
end member sources, one is slightly depleted to nearly flat
(like that for the Bagdunda volcanics) and the other is highly
enriched compared to PM (like that for OIB: Le Roex, 1987;
Sun and McDonough, 1989). The flat Gopir samples
probably reflect mixing of these sources or mixing of the
melts generated from these distinct sources. The predomi-
nance of LREE depleted patterns and high Nb/Ce ratios for
576 Z.S.H. Abu-Hamatteh / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 25 (2005) 557–581
the Bagdunda and Gopir volcanic samples probably indicate
predominance of an asthenospheric mantle source in the
generation of these volcanics. This is also supported by the
absence of any indications of crustal contamination in these
rocks, probably indicating that the lithosphere/crust was
highly attenuated in this region. The enriched source
characteristics of the Gopir dike samples may have some
lithospheric influence as indicated by low Nb/Ce ratios,
which are also seen in the neighboring basal Aravalli
volcanics. This reasoning is supported by the similarity of
N-MORB and PM-normalized multi-element patterns for
the Gopir dikes with those of the basal Aravalli and other
continental tholeiites.
6. Geodynamic implications
The evolutionary history of Proterozoic igneous rocks of
the Aravalli region has been in dispute for a long time.
Various models have been put forward involving Wilson
cycle (Sinha-Roy, 1988,1990) to resurgent rifting (Roy,
1988,1990; Bhattacharyya, 1990).
In the various tectonic models proposed for the evolution
of the Aravalli region, the tectonic setting of the Jharol Belt
has been interpreted in different ways. Based on structural
data, Roy et al. (1971,1981,1988), Roy and Jain (1974),
Wiedenbeck et al. (1996), Roy and Kroner (1996), Naha
et al. (1984), Naha and Chaudhuri (1968), Naha and
Halyburton (1974,1977), Sugden (1987) and Sugden et al.
(1990) have suggested that the Bhilwara, Udaipur and Jharol
Belts record similar tectonic histories. Roy (1990) proposed
that the shallow water sediments of the Udaipur belt and
deep-water sediments of the Jharol Belt were deposited in a
couplet eugeosynclinal and miogeosynclinal and that the
ultramafic rocks occurring along the Rakhabdev lineament
were intruded during the terminal phase of Aravalli
sedimentation. According to Roy (1990), the Bhilwara,
Udaipur, Jharol and the Delhi Belts evolved as ensialic fold
belts through the development of a series of rifted basins.
A rift-related origin of the Bhilwara and Udaipur belts
has also been suggested by many workers (Ahmad and
Rajamani, 1988,1991; Raza and Khan, 1993; Deb, 1993;
Deb et al., 2000). Geochemical data on the basic volcanic
suites of the Bhilwara (Deb, 1993) and Udaipur belts
(Ahmad and Rajamani, 1988,1991; Raza and Khan, 1993)
support that the Bhilwara and Udaipur sequences were
deposited in rifted basins formed through lithospheric
stretching.
Sinha-Roy (1988) has proposed that the linear sequences
of Aravalli and Delhi belts developed through a Wilson
cycle. In his model, the mafic–ultramafic rocks of the Jharol
Belt occurring along the Rakhabdev lineament are con-
sidered as ophiolites that were emplaced as a result of
collision at about 1800 Ma.
Sugden et al. (1990) interpreted the Jharol Belt in two
ways: (1) as a telescoped sequence of deep pelagic
continental rise sediments (and the rocks of the Delhi fold
belt were deposited in a back-arc basin, which was formed
due to eastward subduction) and (2) as an accretionary
prism formed tectonically above a subduction zone with a
westward polarity and the Delhi rocks were deposited in
fore-arc basin.
Although the tectonic setting of the Jharol Belt has been
interpreted in different ways by various workers, the
geochemistry of its mafic and ultramafic rocks has not
been taken into consideration. Even though, these mafic–
ultramafic rocks have been visualized as part of oceanic or
back-arc basin crust, their chemical characteristics have not
been examined, due to the lack of adequate geochemical
data on Jharol Belt.
A synthesis of the available geochemical data (Ahmad
and Rajamani, 1988,1991; Volpe and Macdougall, 1990;
Deb and Sarkar, 1990; Raza and Khan, 1993; Raza et al.,
1993; Deb, 1993; Ahmad and Tarney, 1994; Wiedenbeck
et al., 1996; Mishra et al., 2000; Mamtani et al., 2001; Deb
et al., 2001; Mondal et al., 2002 and the present study) on
mafic rocks of Aravalli region suggests the following
significant features.
(1) The volcano-sedimentary sequences of the Bhilwara
and Udaipur Belts contain continental basalt, which erupted
in an initial rifting environment. (2) There is no geochem-
ical evidence that subduction has played a role in the
formation of the mafic volcanics of these early Proterozoic
belts. (3) The Jharol Belt represents the deeper portion of the
Aravalli Supergroup, consisting of mafic–ultramafic rocks.
The mafic rocks (Bagdunda and Gopir volcanics) of this belt
show depleted LREE characteristics similar to N-MORB
but with overall enriched characteristics resembling
E-MORB, indicating a transitional nature between
N-MORB and OIB, implying an attenuated lithosphere
allowing for derivation of these melts from asthenospheric
sources. The Gopir dikes, on the other hand, resemble
continental tholeiite and CFB, with trace element charac-
teristics indicating their generation from a sub-continental
lithospheric source. The ultramafic rocks may represent part
of an ophiolitic melange, probably related to the closure of
the Jharol oceanic basin. (4) The mafic volcanics of middle
Proterozoic Ajabgarh Group of the Delhi Supergroup are
subduction related. (5) The MORB-like chemistry of mafic
rocks of Phulad in the south Delhi fold belt attests their
ophiolitic nature.
The Gopir and Bagdunda volcanics and dikes are of
tholeiitic basalt character (Fig. 3). The mid-oceanic ridge
basalt (MORB) affinity of these volcanics is not supported
by the MORB-normalized multi-element patterns (Fig. 5),
as both the Bagdunda and the Gopir volcanic suites show
enrichment with respect to typical N-MORB (Sun and
McDonough, 1989). They closely resemble E-MORB for
most of the incompatible trace elements except for LREE,
which are similar to N-MORB and the flat patterns also
resemble to E-MORB patterns. The Gopir dike samples
show similar trace element characteristics as that of
 Z.S.H. Abu-Hamatteh / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 25 (2005) 557–581
the continental tholeiites. Overall, the whole suite appears to
be transitional between oceanic and continental tholeiites.
The presence of an oval shaped exposure of the BGC in
the Bagdunda area (Sharma et al., 1988) and the occurrence
of fine-grained quartzite (chert bands?) intercalated with the
Bagdunda volcanics, which unconformably overly the
Archaean continental basement (BGC), are features that
apparently are not consistent with typical oceanic environ-
ments. The younger Gopir volcanics and dikes and the
associated ultramafic rocks occur within a thick column of
deep-water meta-sediments and are also intercalated with
fine grained quartzite (chert?) bands, probably suggesting
chemical precipitation of these quartzites at the time of
volcanic eruption. Some of these fine quartzites also have
micaceous minerals, which on metamorphism gave rise to
the observed fuchsitic nature at places. The clean-washed
detrital quartzites associated with the basal Aravalli
volcanics suggest their continental derivation, but the
quartzites associated with Jharol volcanics are fine grained
to almost glassy, which could be chemically precipitated, as
the continentally derived quartzites are not expected to be
deposited in a deep water facies environment. Moreover, the
quartzites associated with the latter do not preserve any
sedimentary structures, supporting a chemically derived
nature. On the other hand, those found associated with the
basal Aravalli volcanics preserve some sedimentary struc-
tures indicating their detrital nature. These volcanics did
preserve their LREE depletion pattern, indicating very little
interaction with crust, as the latter is expected to have been
very thin or non-existing under the inferred ocean rift
tectonic environment. The overall low abundances of mafic
and ultramafic rocks compared to the sediments of in the
Jharol Belt do not support a typical ocean floor basalt
setting, unless most of the basaltic oceanic crust was
consumed through subduction (because in typical oceanic
environment the volcanics are expected to be much more
abundant than the associated sediments). All these features,
as well as the geochemical data on mafic rocks, therefore,
put some constraints on the model proposed by Sinha-Roy
(1988), Sen (1981) and Sychanthavong and Desai (1977), in
which these rocks are considered as part of obducted true
oceanic crust.
The Jharol volcanics, having intercalations of deep-water
sediments and possibly situated near an Archaean con-
tinental mass (BGC: Roy, 1988), do not show any
subduction-related signature in their chemistry. Thus,
neither the chemistry nor the field characteristics indicate
a subduction-related origin of the volcanics.
7. Conclusions
The observed features can be explained by a situation
where plume-related lithospheric extension produced intra-
cratonic rifts and caused the eruption of Bhilwara–Aravalli
volcanics in linear belts within the BGC craton. The Jharol
577
Basin developed at the margin of the BGC craton in
response to the same extension that caused further
attenuation of the crust/lithosphere, which was naturally
thin due to its location at the BGC continental margin, and
would have facilitated shallowing of the asthenosphere.
Jharol volcanics with trace element characteristics transi-
tional between N-MORB and OIB and the associated deep-
water sediments support the above inferences regarding the
development of the Jharol Basin. It is possible that the
enriched Gopir dikes are related to the same extension, but
were generated from sub-continental lithospheric sources
(similar to those inferred for the basal Aravalli: Ahmad and
Rajamani, 1991; Ahmad and Tarney, 1994) somewhere
below the BGC craton and were emplaced in the form of
dikes in the Jharol basin. Emplacement of such dikes is a
common feature of rift tectonic settings (Tarney, 1992).
The chemical characteristics and the field evidence as
discussed above can be interpreted in terms of a model
(Fig. 11) in which the basement rock, i.e. BGC was rifted
probably during the late Archaean–early Proterozoic period.
With the opening of an intracratonic basin, the magma
derived from sub-continental lithosphere reached the sur-
face in the form of Bhilwara and basal Aravalli volcanics
along with the sedimentary processes operating on the crust.
As discussed earlier, the LREE-depleted chemistry of
Bagdunda volcanics occurring at the margin of the BGC
craton and in the basal part of Jharol stratigraphy and their
intercalation with fine grained quartzite are the features
which can be best explained in a continental margin
extensional environment. The absence of evidence for any
significant crustal contamination suggests their ascent
through a thin continental crust that was undergoing
extension. The magma evolved chemically by crystal
fractionation during their ascent through the conduits/
fractures with minimum effect of wall rock contamination
and assimilation.
With continued rifting, the crust became highly attenu-
ated, which therefore initiated the next phase of volcanic
activity (Gopir volcanics) at the later stages of Jharol
sedimentation (Fig. 11). During this phase the pulses of
primitive magmas rising from the asthenospheric mantle
through a very thin lithosphere/crust, were much less
hindered and reached the surface through a fracture-
controlled conduit system. The high-Mg basalts and
ultramafic lava reached the surface contemporaneously
with sedimentation. At this stage of progressive rifting, a
marginal sea developed. Due to the highly attenuated nature
of the crust the erupted basaltic lavas (generated from
asthenospheric sources) acquired (some of their) chemical
characteristics closely similar to those of basalts extruded in
an oceanic environment. Contemporaneous with the lava
eruption, some dikes were also generated from lithospheric
sources, somewhere below the BGC, and were emplaced
during the development of the Jharol oceanic basin. The
occurrence of these mafic–ultramafic rocks in a linear belt
with intercalated deep-water sediments also opens
578 Z.S.H. Abu-Hamatteh / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 25 (2005) 557–581

Fig. 11. A simplified presentation of the proposed geotectonic evolutionary model of the Jharol Belt (a) Archaean basement (BGC) during the early stages of
rifting, (b) attenuated crust with fracture system: intracratonic volcanism in Bhilwara and Udaipur belts, marginal basin volcanism at the base of the Jharol Belt
(Bagdunda volcanics) and (c) Further attenuated continental lithosphere and upwelling of asthenosphere due to progressive rifting: second phase of volcanism
(Gopir volcanics and dikes).

the possibility that they represent a suture zone (?) within
the Jharol basin or at least that their deposition in a linear
belt has some tectonic control. The former is possible if we
consider the Basantgarh–Ajari meta-volcanics of the Delhi
Supergroup (Deb and Sarkar, 1990) to be the products of
subduction of the Jh1arol oceanic crust. However, the scale
of magmatism expected under such conditions is incom-
mensurate if Basantgarh–Ajari volcanics are considered as
the only product. It is possible that the real arc, which had
developed in response to this subduction, could not be
preserved or it underlies the thrusted Delhi sequence or
the Basantgarh–Ajari volcanics represent only a portion of
the arc, which could survive subsequent tectonism.
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