Distinguishing Sex and Gender

Author(s): Rose McDermott and Peter K. Hatemi

Source: PS: Political Science and Politics, Vol. 44, No. 1 (January 2011), pp. 89-92
Published by: American Political Science Association
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 The Profession

SexandGender
Distinguishing
Rose McDermott, Brown University
Peter K. Hatemi, United
StatesStudies
Center,
University
ofSydney

1EBTWÎHI We arguefortheimportance ofadequatelydistinguishingbetweentheconcepts

ofsex,gender,and sexualorientation. We reviewtheliterature acrossdisciplinesto sug-
gestwaysthatpoliticalscientists mightbenefitbytakingintoaccountimportant biologi-
in additionto cultural
cal distinctions factorsregarding sex,gender,and sexualityin their
research.We clarify the distinctionbetweentheseconceptsin an effort to help reduce
discriminationanddefusemisconceptions, andimposedsocialroles.Webelieve
stereotypes,
thatitwouldbe fruitful forus as a disciplineto bettercommunicate thisresearchto the
widerpublicinthehopethatpublicopinionandelitediscoursewillshiftina moretolerant
andpositivedirection as a result.
Editor'snote:Thisarticleispartofa seriesofshortpiecesorga- scholarship andfurther publicdiscussion in hopesofproducing
nizedbytheCommittee on theStatusofWomenin theProfession morehumanepublicpolicies.
(CSWP) on topicsrelevant forgenderandpolitics.Wenotethat In thisarticle, we reviewtheliterature acrossdisciplines to
thistopicmaybeviewedas controversial, withsomestrongly reject- suggestways that politicalscientists might benefit by taking
ing thenotionthat all thesegenderissuesarenotsocializedor account ofimportant biologicaldistinctions inaddition tocultural
thattheauthorsaretrying in waysthatdo not
tobeessentialist factors regarding sex,gender, andsexuality intheir research. This
respect
individuality.However, theauthors'attempttoexaminedif- articleseekstoclarify theseconcepts andthesourcesofindivid-
ferencesempirically,ratherthanassumingconcordance, pro- ual difference acrossthesedomainsin an effort to helpreduce
videsanalytictractionforfutureinvestigationsofsexandgender. discrimination and defusemisconceptions, stereotypes, and
TheCSWPencourages thiskindofarticle,
whichboldlyaddresses imposed socialroles. The assumption underlying our review is
theseimportant andcontentious issueswithintegrity
andserious thatthemorethatsciencelearnsaboutsex,howitoverlaps but
scholarship. differs from gender, andthewaysinwhichsexuality emanates in
from innate sources, the more it is that
- Kristen MonroefortheCSWP largepart likely public
opinionandelitediscourse willshift in a moretolerant andpos-
itivedirection. We believethatit wouldbe fruitful forus as a
its importance formanypublicpolicy
discipline tobetter communicate thisresearch tothewiderpub-
choices, themajority ofscholarship inpolitical sci-
lic.Werecognize thatmanybiologically basedphenomena remain
encedoesnotadequately distinguish, either theo-
socially stigmatized, and,thus, showing that, forexample, sexual
retically ormethodologically, between theconcepts
orientation may involve someinteraction between biological dis-
ofsex,gender, and sexualorientation. We begin
position andsocialdevelopment may notprovesufficient tosway
bynotingthatthistopicis emotionally tingedandfraught with
thosealreadyinvestedin entrenched biasesthatprivilege one
thekindsofdifficulties thataccompany anyattempt applycat-
to
overanother. However, edu-
egories toidentity. Whilerecognizing thatone'sidentity ishighly developmental pathway historically,
cating leadersand the publicon thesemattershas proven
individual andpersonal andthatindividuals shouldalwayshave
beneficial.
Whileactionisneverimmediate, changecan
thefullrangeoffreedom tochoosetheir multitudinous identities, extremely
occuroverrelatively shorttimeframes.
itcannonetheless proveuseful toanalytically distinguish between
The conceptofgender,particularly as a demographic con-
a fewcategories- suchas sexandgender-to allowmoreprecise
struct, actually embodiesthreeseparatebutoverlapping, corre-
Rose McDermottis a professor ofpoliticalscienceat BrownUniversity.A 2008-09Fel- lated,and distinct components. In otherwords,whenpolitical
lowat theCenterforAdvancedStudiesin theBehavioralSciencesat Stanford Univer- scientists referto in a
"gender" survey, theyarereferring to and
McDermott
sity, has also taught at Cornelland UCSB and at
heldfellowships Harvard's conflating several and
overlapping meaningfully distinct under-
OlinInstitute
forStrategic StudiesandHarvard'sWomenandPublicPolicyProgram.
lyingconstructs. Theseelements remain linked, buttheydiffer in
ShewillbeafellowattheRaddiffe Institute
forAdvanced StudyatHarvardUniversity dur- critical The first
ways. component encompasses biological sex,
ingacademic year2010-11.Shecan bereachedatrose_mcdermott@brown.edu. shortofsurgical andhormonal remains con-
PeterK. Hatemiis a Fellowat theUnitedStatesStudiesCenter, Australia.He received
which, intervention,
hisPh.D.inpoliticalscience
stant for most individuals across their life span. While there are
fromtheUniversity ofNebraskaandcompleted a postdoc-
toral
fellowshipin human and
genetics psychiatry at the Institute
Virginia forPsychiat-
some individuals who undergo sex changes and a not-trivial num-
ricand BehavioralGenetics. He worksprimarily on thestudyofneurobiological berwhoarebornintersex, mostpeoplepossessbiological organs
foundationsofsonai and politicalbehaviors.He can be reachedatphatemi@gmail.com. of that
reproduction distinguish themas maleorfemale.1

doi:io.ioi7/SiO49O965ioooi939 PS • January
2011 89

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The Profession: DistinguishingSex and Gender

Thesecondaspectofcategorization incorporates thenotionof tiesneedstobe kepttheoretically distinct.In addition,thisdis-

genderandrelatesto traitsofmasculinity orfemininity, includ- tinctionis important toachievea fullerunderstanding ofthetrue
ingsuchcharacteristicsas sex-typed interestsand occupations, waysinwhichsex,gender, andsexualpreference maybe related,
appearance,mannerisms, and nonverbal behavior (Lippa2005). and how each mayindependently and incombination affectpolit-
Theconceptofgenderis assumedto correlate withvariousrole icaloutcomes ofimport. Wenoteherethatsomemayarguethat
definitions,
personality andcomponents
traits, ofidentity. These scholarship cannotbe progressive and essentialistat thesame
constructions
become infusedwithcultural valuesthatdifferacross time(Butler We
1990). disagree. The measurement ofan identity
timeandplaceandwerehistorically assumedtoresultfrom on a
pro- category survey represents an essentialistmove; however,
cessesofsocialization.
However, modernexaminations provide theuseof survey work to advance ina
understanding progressive
muchstronger supportforbiologicalfoundations of gender waycanavoidsomeofthepitfalls ofessentialism.2
and Swaab2010).Theseconstructs
(Garcia-Falgueras caninflu- Opinionsregarding gaymarriage proveinstructive in this
encea widevariety ofbehaviors thataffectsocietalnotionsof regard, sinceattitudes haverelaxedas moreinformation regard-
work,
relationships, andparenting, amongotherfactors. ingsomeoftheinnatesourcesofsexuality has passedintothe
Various of
ways measuring gender exist.
One of the bestknown, publicdiscourse. In 1993,Science published a highlyinfluential,
theBernSex RoleInventory (Bern1981),allowsindividuals to though stilldebated, study ontheinnatenature ofhomosexuality
assesstheirmasculinityand femininity alongdistinct continu- (Hameret al. 1993),in whicha teamof geneticists fromthe
ums.No a priori
assumption the
regarding relationship between National Cancer Institute (NCI) identifieda gene relatedtomale
an individual's
gender construction and biological sex exists
in homosexuality on the X chromosome. The same year, debate
the
thistheoretical
model.Eachfactor canvaryindependently, such overthelegalization ofsame-sex marriage re-emerged inthecourts.
thatindividuals
canbe defined as masculinefemales orfeminine In 1993,theHawaiiSupremeCourtheldthatthelaw banning

As withthenotionofgenderitselfwhichis oftenusedtorefer tobothsexandgender, the

conceptofsexualpreference alsoincorporatesseveraldistinct
elements.Thephysicalacts
thatconstitute sexualpreference
a givenindividual's can beseparatedfromthenatureofthe
individualswithwhomtheychoosetoengageinsuchpractices. Foranalytic
purposesalone,
eachoftheseidentitiesneedstobekepttheoretically In addition,
distinct. is
thisdistinction
important toachieveafullerunderstanding ofthetruewaysin whichsex,gender, andsexual
preferencemayberelated, andhoweachmayindependently andin combination affect
outcomes
political ofimport.

males;alternatively,onemaybe bothhighly masculine andfem- same-sexmarriage was unconstitutional. A littleovera decade

inineorneither. Thisapproach toclassificationmeansthatindi- later,in2004,Massachusetts becamethesixthplaceintheworld
vidualscanhavegenderidentity preferences thatdiverge from to legalizegaymarriage. The trendtowardgreatertolerance
thebiological category intowhich they wereborn. became national,and today, although a slightmajority ofAmer-
A thirdaspectof categorization regards sexual preference. icansstill the
opposegaymarriage, majority of the population
Scholarstypically do notlinkthisaspectofidentity to sexand nowapproves ofcivilunionsbetween homosexuals. Thisnumber
gender, butin reality, thesenotionsareoftenconflated in the represents a remarkable changeinattitudes overthecourseof20
publicdiscourse,whether intentionallyornot.Inaddition, notions years.Furthermore, a greatdealofthischangecoincides withshifts
and
ofgendernonconformity homosexuality areoften linked in inelitediscourse.Indeed, in a recent panelsurvey wans,Red-
ofIo
societalassumptions andpolitical but
punditry, they arenot atall lawsk and Tolbert (2010) noted a significant shiftinpro-gay mar-
thesame.Forthosewhodoubtthistendency, consider therecent riageattitudes and a concomitant declinein anti-gay marriage
discussion inCongress overtheallowance ofgaysinthemilitary, attitudes afterthestateSupreme Courthadruledon theconsti-
inwhichconcepts ofsex,gender, andsexualpreference wereoften tutionality ofthematter. Thus,in thatcaseatleast,as elitesand
conflated. Masculine straightmen represent the epitome ofvalue science moved, so too did publicopinion.
in thiscommunity, despitethefactthatover10%ofthearmed Yet,a perspective thathighlights thedistinction between sex
forcesarewomen.Justlikesex and gender, sexualorientation andgendersharply contrasts witha greatdealofextantscholar-
remains a distinctanalyticcategory;individual menandwomen shipthattreatstheseconceptssynonymously (Urdy2000).We
canbe attracted toeithermenorwomen.Masculinewomencan encourage a separation ofthenotionofsexfromtheconceptof
be straight,justas masculine mencanbe gay. genderand,evenfurther, fromdefinitions ofsexualorientation.
Aswiththenotionofgender whichis often
itself, usedtorefer To remove themoraljudgments imposedbysomeindividuals on
tobothsexandgender, theconcept ofsexualpreference alsoincor- others, itbecomescritical toseparate notions ofchoicefrom those
poratesseveraldistinct elements.The physical actsthatconsti- ofnaturaldisposition; justas peopledo notchoosethecolorof
tutea givenindividual's sexualpreference canbe separated from theireyesorhair,individuals do notsimply choosetheirnatural
thenature oftheindividuals withwhomtheychoosetoengagein genderorsexualorientation, although peoplehaveoftenchosen
suchpractices. Foranalytic purposesalone,eachoftheseidenti- tonotactontheirinherent preferences as a resultofthecultural

90 PS • January
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andpolicy punishments associated withdeviating from heteronor- enceofsex,gender, orpreference onpolitical outcomes, butgreater
mativity. Conflating these realities only serves to elide and hide clarityin variable specification can lead to greater precision in
potentially important theoretical and empirical distinctions. In and
modeling prediction.
addition, suchtruncation makesnotionsofdeviancefromsome Moreimportant, suchcategorization canhelpilluminate the
particular societal norm salient to many individuals in ways that of
diversity sexual and gender and
experience expression, and allow
causeinordinate andunnecessary discomfort. Theseconcepts obvi- manyindividuals tofeellessisolated, thusencouraging theemer-
ously remain quitecomplex in their manifestation, but treating gence of social groups that can agitate for the proper allocations
sexand genderas thoughtheyrepresent identicalphenomena ofrights dueallindividuals, regardless oftheirsex,gender, orien-
provides a limited understanding of the myriad ways in which tation,creed,age, race, or ethnicity. Increasing recognition of some
anykindofidentity informs behavior. Bybreaking theconstruc- ofthebiological basesofgenderidentity andsexualorientation
tionofsexintoitscomponent parts, wecanbegintoquestion and canhopefully enhancetolerance and encourage andstrengthen
clarifytheassumptions thatpresume theuniformity ofsex,gen- democratic diversity, inclusion, participation, and freedom of
der,and sexual identity This
preference. strategy allows for greater expression. Disseminating such information can create more wide-
empirical andtheoretical traction. spreadpublicacknowledgement andacceptance ofdifferent iden-
Forexample, a
although great deal of work has explored the titiesand potentially help reduce discrimination and improve
biological basisofsexuality, thedistinction betweenbiological publicpolicy.
sexandgender interms ofexistential perceptions ofmasculinity Questions regarding sex,gender, andsexualorientation, and
andfemininity hasoften beenoverlooked. However, gender iden- thepolitical and
provocations pitfalls that surround them, invoke
titycandevelopindependently ofsex,andit canexertdifferentquintessential issuesofidentity, equality, andhumanrights. In
influences on politicaloutcomes ofinterest. A recentpaperby publicdebatessurrounding thesetopics, including thoseinvolv-
Hatemietal. (forthcoming) foundthatgender, defined in terms ingreproduction andhomosexuality, decision-makers andother
offemininity-masculinity, results largely from genetic andunique elitesoftenfinditpolitically profitable toengageindebatesthat
environmental influences, including individual in-utero effects, centeraroundarguments abouttheostensible immutability or
butsocialization makesno significant contribution tothedevel- choiceinvolved in thesephenomena. Forexample, manyright-
opment ofthisidentity. In addition, bothchildhood gendercon- leaningpoliticians suggest thatbeinggayrepresents a conscious
formity as well as adult genderidentity(masculinity and choice to engage in "deviant" behavior, while manyleft-leaning
femininity) canbe distinguished from sex,andsuchgender mea- politicians considersexuality to be a manifestation offreedom
suresare significantly relatedto supportforpoliticalparties. and self-expression. Theseand similarpositionsoftenuncon-
Genderconformity existsacrossa modestly widespectrum, not sciously orstrategically conflate notionsofsex,gender, andsex-
unlikepolitical ideology. A critically important noteto thefind- ualorientation inwaysthatonlyservetodivideandconfuse, rather
ingsreported inthisstudy is thatgaysandlesbianswereremoved thanenlighten andcomfort. Butifwe careabouthumanrights,
from thesampletoshowthatgender varied, sexorsexuality with- decency, and thevalueofindividual identity and freedom, we
standing. Thefindings suggest thatforcing everyone intoa male shouldstrive toreplacemanipulative rhetoric withrespectful and
orfemale category needlessly restricts thewidevariety ofhuman responsible intellectual discourse. Political scientists canstrive to
and
experience expression, diversity the ofwhich can serve many properly inform leaders and the public about the science under-
functions. pinning thesenotions, as wellas worktodiminish publicrhetoric
Indeed,theimportance ofspecifying conceptual distinctions thatoften appearsdesigned to inflame the public achieveper-
to
liesprecisely inourability tolocatemoreclearly thecausalmech- sonalpolitical gain. Some will refuse tobelieve oracceptscientific
anismsofinterest betweenoursocialand politicalvariablesof findings or willexperience difficulty overcoming theirprecon-
interest.Iftheconcept ofgenderactually contains severaldiffer- ceivedbeliefs. Nonetheless, webelievethatoneofthecritical func-
ent,albeitoverlapping, elements, greater clarity canhelprefine tionsofscholarship is itsability tomakeimportant information
causalmodels.Thisprocesscanworkin a manner similartothe availableto thepublic,including elites,in hopesofalleviating
waythatepidemiology allowobservers torelate medical andsocial suffering wherepossible.
variables. To properly diagnosetherelationship between genetic Onewaythatthisaimcanbe accomplished is byhighlighting
predisposition and environmental exposure, epidemiologists must and celebrating the individual differences that bringsuchrich-
firstcarefully the
specify appropriate of
categories vulnerability ness and texture to our and
humanity bydisseminating informa-
andrisk.In a similar fashion, scholars haverefined thecategory tionaboutthemultiple biological and social that
pathways develop
ofracetoincludea widervariety ofcategories, subcategories, and and definegenderand sexualorientation in waysdistinct from
possibilities forself-identification invarioussurveys toexamine biological sex.Biology andenvironment donotrepresent entirely
thedifferent waysthatperceptions influence politicaloutcomes separate pathways, andbehavior doesnotemerge solelyfrom per-
ofinterest. We suggestthatundertaking a concomitant decon- sonal,volitional choice.Individuals do notchoosetheirsexual
struction ofthenotions ofsexandgender wouldallowforgreater orientation anymorethantheychoosetheir sexatbirth(although
in
precision modeling outcomes and could provesimilarly pro- parents mayseektochoosethesexoftheirchildren, withuntold
ductive andusefulin defining andpredicting political attitudes damage,precisely because of some of the social prejudices and
andbehaviors. Ifthisutility in predicting different political out- biases we seek to ameliorate with the arguments presented here).
comesofinterest is demonstrated, suchthatsexpredicts some To be clear,wenotethatsexuality is an extremely complex pro-
variablesbetter whilegender predicts others moreeffectively, then cess thatencompasses a widevariety of socialand biological
theutility ofthevariable isonlyheightened through greater accu- processesand practices; genesor hormones aloneneverdeter-
racyindescription. Clearly, suchspecification cannotsolveevery minea givenoutcome. Rather, a combination ofgenetic, epige-
problem thatmight ariseinseeking toexplainorpredict theinflu- netic, andenvironmental processes affect thelikelihood ofa person

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The Profession:Distinguishing
Sex and Gender

developing a homosexual orheterosexual identity.Thecomplex- 1. Currentestimatessuggestthatabout 1 in 100 individualspossess chromo-

somes consistentwithbothsexes (Blacklesset al. 2000).
ity ofthis which
development, clearly existsalonga continuum,
tobemore 2. We thankAaronBelkinforveryhelpfulfeedbackand discussionon thisand
suggestswhysomeindividuals mayfindtheir sexuality otherpointsin thisarticle;all mistakesor misrepresentations remainourown.
malleable thanothers.A morewidespread recognition ofthevast
varietyofpossibleidentitiesshouldservetostrengthen thebody
The
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