Introduction to Literature Module

By Joshua Isaac Kumwenda BA (Ed), MA, PhD

Unit 1: The Field of Literature

Introduction

The aim of this unit is to introduce you to different facets of literature. We shall define

literature from different points of view. The different views shall point towards various
genres and/or forms of literature. We shall also explain how significant literature is to the
individual and society.

Key words:

literature, genre, oral literature, defamiliarization, identity, ideology, aesthetics

Pre-requisite knowledge

You have all been exposed to literature during your primary and secondary school
education through some of the books you have been reading. You may also have come
across some literature in newspapers and audio-visuals such as the radio, television,

videos, cinemas, DVDs and the internet. You will find that knowledge useful in
understanding the content of this unit.

Learning objectives:

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define literature
 describe the nature and function of literature
 apply specific terms used in literature with precision
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  explain differences and similarities amongst the three genres of literature

Resources needed

In studying this unit, you will need the following books:

Reading literature: Stories, Plays and Poems by Joseph Satin

Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe

The Unsung Song: An Anthology of Malawian Writing in English by Reuben Chirambo et al

Aspects of a Novel by E. M. Foster

Literary Theory: An Introduction by Terry Eagleton

Emma by Jane Austen

Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte

The Smouldering Charcoal by Tiyambe Zeleza

Reading the African Novel by Simon Gikandi

1.1 The definition of literature

This unit tries to locate the term “literature” as understood in literary studies. Literature
is said to exist in both written and unwritten forms. Before we go any further, let us begin

with the question: What is literature? This question has been debated by many scholars
for a long time. There is a general consensus that “literature” is difficult to define. Some
scholars have therefore suggested that rather than attempting to state what literature is,

we may gain some idea of it by looking at what it does. Since actions speak louder than
words, this approach is a useful one and that is how we shall try to understand literature.

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So, whether we are dealing with written or oral literature we must remember that the
impact literature has on human beings is the same.

The terms “written” and “oral” usually attached to the word “literature” merely reflect

the means by which literature is communicated or indeed consumed, but what is

literature? Joseph Satin in his book, Reading Literature: Stories, Plays and Poems defines

literature as “good writing which has a truth to tell about people and their world, and

tells that truth in a way which compels the sensitive reader to re-live the writer’s
experience with his own mind and emotions”(p. 14).

Satin has given a very general definition of literature which does not tell us everything
we need to know about literature. One thing that is not clear in Satin’s definition is

whether literature is something that has aesthetic value or whether it is a work of fiction.
Nevertheless, the strength of his definition lies in the fact that it has touched on many
important aspects of literature which we shall comment upon very briefly. The first point
Satin makes is that literature is good writing.

What is meant by good writing? A piece of writing is good when the language used in it

is accurate. This implies many things: that the words used mean what was intended; that
they relate harmoniously with others in the passage; that the emotions described are

genuine and that the characters are well developed. The characters are round or complete
beings and not puppets who speak and move at the behest of the author. Many of us
remember good books years after we have read them. For instance, Chinua Achebe’s
Things Fall Apart is an unforgettable book. In the novel, Okonkwo’s physical and

psychological qualities are well observed and recorded that the character has assumed
an indelible identity. When he kills Ikemefuna against his better judgment and the advice

of the old man, Ezeudu, we know it is because he was ashamed of his father’s laziness
and cowardice when he was a young boy. He learned about it through the word “agbala”

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(meaning woman or lazy person) which was a derogatory applied to his father. He was
hoping to be cheered by his people for undertaking a brave act by killing Ikemefuna

against established traditional practices. However, he instead estranged his son who ran
away from home to join the Christian missionaries.

One major point of debate about literature as you may have already noted is on what,
between form and content, makes a text literary. Form means the nature of language used

whereas content refers to the issues presented including whether they are real or
fictitious. Some critics argue that a piece of work is literary because it is fictitious. They
point out that the story presented in a literary text does not depict events which have

actually taken place but rather those whose occurrence is probable under the prevailing
circumstances. Such critics observe that such events refer to the general state of affairs
and not the particular or simply put, that they have universal truth. They assert that a

literary text presents an imaginary story unlike historical or journalistic texts which
present what has actually happened. This does not however mean that events in a literary
text are always imaginary. Some works such as autobiographies, diaries, epic poetry,

historical novels and others are based on actual events and feature real people. A group
of people called Formalists argue that a text is literary because of the nature of language

used and the presence of poetic and narrative techniques which bring about
defamiliarisation or estrangement. They argue that poetic devices, diction and narrative
techniques transform the ordinary events or experiences into extraordinary ones. This

process sharpens the reader’s perception and in turn enhances his or her mode of
experiencing the events being described.

Literary texts are created to perform aesthetic function. Therefore, the Formalist view
about defamiliarization or estrangement of lexical elements is in sharp contrast with that

of other groups such as Feminists, Marxists and others who consider a literary text a tool
for achieving certain sociological or philosophical aims. They consider literature a vehicle

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for propagating certain ideologies. To them, literature is a social practice which depicts
social realities. Literature is perceived as a mirror, a reflector of social realities like
oppression, injustices, moral degradation and others.

Literature is not only that which is written down. Some ideologies are carried from one
place or person to another through the word of mouth. Such literature also exhibits a
great deal of aesthetic pleasure. Such a body of information with aesthetic delight that is

orally passed from one generation to another is generally referred to as oral literature. Its
form and content is not different from the written texts. Details of literary texts shall be
dealt with in the next unit.

Literature is therefore both form and content. The two cannot be divorced from each

other. The two aspects of literature will be discussed in details when you will be studying
literary theory and criticism.

1.2 Forms of literary expression

Broadly speaking, literature appears in three forms: prose fiction, poetry and drama.
Prose fiction includes a number of genres such as the short story, the novel, the diary,

biography and autobiography. In this module, however, we are going to restrict

ourselves to the novel and the short story due to their prevalence and popularity in the

contemporary society. Both the short story and the novel are imaginative prose narratives
in which the author depicts human beings interacting in complex social relationships and
situations.

Activity 1

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Imagine that you have picked up a page from a book which you have never heard of. The
text reads as follows:

“He watched them eating in fives, sixes, or sevens, depending on what brought them

together in the first place. Luka himself refused to eat before the meeting to avoid the
coughing that usually attacked him after a meal. It was as if the cough never wanted him
to eat. Every time his stomach was full, he would cough until sometimes he would throw

up and feel empty again. This would always leave him wondering what kind of cough
this was, that aimed at fighting the fullness of his stomach. Did his people not say a
woman’s pride lay in her man’s full belly? To put it crudely, what good was a man to a

woman on an empty stomach? But at seventy-nine, he had learnt to accept that things
hanged the older you grew.”

All he had asked for was thobwa, his favourite sweet beer which did a good job of

energizing him in readiness for the address. His wife had made sure she had brought the

millet flour and had personally brewed the drink to meet Luka’s special need. He called
for Nkaneni.

“Call everybody to gather under the mango tree,” he said to his grandson. “It’s time we
got started.” (Madala’s Grandchildren (p.87)

There should be context and content before the questions on elements of a literary text

Questions

(a) What elements make that text a literary text?

(b) Apart from the elements identified in (a) above, what else would make a text
literary?

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1.3 The functions of literature

Once again, we are indebted to Joseph Satin who in Reading Literature: Stories, Plays and
Poems has summarized the functions of literature in the following words: “The plain truth

is that literature may never make you richer in the pocket, but it will certainly make you
richer in the mind, for it multiplies the limited experience of the individual life, and it
deepens the understanding of others and of the self. It is a source of interest and pleasure

when other sources fail” (Satin p. 15). Anyone familiar with any form of literature will
agree with Satin’s analysis of what literature does to human beings. For instance, little
children listen to folktales told by grandma because she tells them with gust, acts out
some aspects of Kalulu’s exploits to which they respond with enthusiasm and great joy.

The children will be compelled to return to the same fireside the following evening to
hear more and participate with greater zeal. In the same way, a thriller that keeps readers

at the edge of their chairs compels them to read it from the beginning of the novel to the
end. Every episode heightens the readers’ curiosity and will excite the reader to keep
reading until the end. Such is the power of literature. Literature is closely tied to the

history and culture of the society that has produced it. That is why many universities
encourage literature to be studied alongside the history and culture of the society.

1.4 Unit assessment

1. In your own words, what is literature?

2. Illustrate any three major forms of literature.

3. How is oral literature different from written literature?
4. Explain any four functions of literature

1.5 Unit summary

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Literature is good writing which has a truth to tell about people and their world, and tells
that truth in a way which compels the sensitive reader to re-live the writer’s experience

with his own mind and emotions. It is also imaginative writing as opposed to historical
or functional writing. Historical and functional texts refer to the particular and serve
immediate purposes while literary texts refer to the general state of affairs and have no

immediate practical use. The language of literature is elevated or extraordinary in that it

transforms the mundane into something strange and beautiful. That is to say, a literary
text has several devices that generally serve aesthetic, rhetorical, stylistic and ideological

roles. The main forms of literature include prose fiction, poetry and drama. These forms
differ significantly in their mode of expression and in the way they are consumed. The
chapters that follow will show this.

Further reading

Abrams, M. H. (1980) A Glossary of Literary Terms. New York: Rinchart and Winstone Inc.

Blamires, H. A. (2003). A History of Literary Criticism. Houndsmill: McMillan.

Di Yani, R. (1990). Literature: Reading Fiction, Poetry, Drama and the Essay. New York:
McGraw Hill, Inc.

Eagleton, T. (1990). Literary Theory: An Introduction. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Gill, R. (1997). Mastering English Literature. Heinemann: London.

Goring, P. et al (2001). Studying Literature: the Essential Companion. London: Hodder

Arnold.

Satin, J. (1968). Reading Literature: stories, plays and poems. Boston: Houghton Miffin
Company.

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Unit 2: Oral literature

2.1 Defining Oral Literature

A great deal of what is known as literature today has its roots and sources in oral
literature. Hence in order to further our understanding of literature, it is of paramount
importance to explore Oral Literature. Oral literature is a work of verbal art that is

communicated in spoken form and in which the communicator aims at offering pleasure
and illumination through the imaginative or creative use of language. Examples of oral
literature include folktales, songs, poems, proverbs, and riddles.

Key words

Orature, oral performance, tradition, riddle, creativity, panegyric, trickster

Pre-requisite knowledge

You have probably been exposed to oral art forms such as proverbs, folktales, riddles,
popular sayings and others in everyday interaction with fellow human beings. Most

media houses such as radio and television stations feature oral art forms in their
programmes. In addition, books and newspapers carry some of these oral art forms
regularly. If you are lucky, you may have listened to your grandma or other elders using

these art forms to entertain or educate others through these oral art forms. Such exposure
will be very useful in understanding the content of this unit.

Learning objectives:

2.2 Elements of Oral Literature

Oral literature is known by the three major elements, namely: oral composition, oral
performance and oral transmission. Oral literature is composed mentally, that is, without
the aid of writing. The composer performs or communicates what he or she has produced

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orally. Orally denotes the use of the spoken word. The performance is made before an
audience, who consumes or appreciates the performance aurally, that is, using the ears.

Transmission is the third element of oral literature. Forms of oral literature such as
narratives, poems, songs, and proverbs are passed on through oral tradition. In other
words, they are handed down from generation to generation by word of mouth. People

sometimes adapt what has been handed down to them – to suit the times in which they
are living. For example, the answer to the riddle “Zungulira uku tikum ane uku” was
originally “mkuzi”, but people later adapted it to be “lamba” to suit the modern times.

People at any time and in any place continue to make up tales or oral narratives, poems,
songs, proverbs, riddles. For example, the Tonga riddle “Telefoni mu mbale”, whose

answer is “delele” (okra), is a modern-time composition. Take note that it would be

wrong to refuse to consider adapted and new forms as oral literature simply because they
are not traditional. They too qualify as oral literature because of their creativity.

Just as in written literature, compositors and performers of oral literature use language
creatively. Creativity includes cleverly, skillfully and amusing use of language. They

choose words carefully and also arrange them carefully. Their aim is to make the
audience understand clearly what is being talked about in the composition and also to
arouse feelings in the audience on what is being talked in the composition.

In order to achieve creativity, composers and performers of oral literature observe people

and things very closely. They also use lively imagination in choosing words so that they
can express their ideas accurately and effectively. Close observation, lively imagination
and accurate expression make up creativity in oral literature. Composers and performers

of oral literature may be simple, unsophisticated, not technologically advanced people.

But their compositions should not be regarded as crude. They display a high level of
creatively, and are therefore refined and sophisticated works of art.

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 Activity 1

Briefly explain the relationship between oral tradition and oral literature.

2.3 Forms of Oral Literature

Oral literature has both short and long forms. Short forms include proverbs, riddles,
popular sayings, jokes, tongue twisters. In this unit we are going to study only the first

two of these short forms. One of characteristics of short forms is that most of the times
they are brief. Brevity (shortness) involves use of short sentences or even single phrases.
Economy is another characteristic of short forms. Economy involves the ability to convey
a great deal of information in as few words as possible.

2.3.1 Riddles

A riddle is a word-game in which the speaker poses a puzzle for the audience to provide

an answer. It is usually a metaphor or word picture of an object or a situation. Its purpose

is to describe the object or action in accurate figurative terms, while concealing the reality
so that the listener is baffled. Some examples of riddles:

Riddle Answer

Zungulira uku tikumane uku (Cheŵa) Lamba (belt)

Ŵamwali ŵakotama ku dambo (Tumbuka) Jumi (dew)

Amfumu alira powavula chisoti (Cheŵa) Botolo la kokakola (coca-cola bottle)

Azilu azilu m’mbale (Tonga) Mafuta (cooking oil)

Riddles are generally performed as contests between the speaker and an audience. In a
typically traditional riddling session a riddle has the following six parts: the challenge,

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the acceptance, the posing of the riddle, guessing of the answer by the audience,
demanding a prize when all guesses are wrong or rejecting the answer if is considered

inadequate. The riddler boastfully enjoys the prize and finally offers the solution: The
answer is given by the riddler after receiving an appropriate prize.

Activity 2

Write down several riddles from your local community. For each riddle include the
challenge, the acceptance and the answer.

2.3.2 Proverbs

The proverb is the most widespread and respected form of African oral art form. There

are several uses of proverbs. For example, proverbs are quoted in everyday
conversations. They are also quoted in the settlement of political and judicial matters.
Furthermore, quoting an appropriate proverb can help one to win a debate or an

argument. Lastly, proverbs are used in other forms of oral literature – songs, folktales,
and poems. They add credibility to whatever one is saying.

Proverbs are widely used because of their attributes. One of the characteristics of
proverbs is that they are brief; they use as few words as possible. The word ‘proverb’

means ‘what represents many words’. They are direct comments on a situation. They use
appropriate imagery, i.e. imagery that fits the situation commented upon. The power of
a proverb is mainly due to the appropriateness of the imagery used to the situation.

2.3.3 Oral Poetry

Oral poetry is another example of short forms of oral literature. There are various types
of oral poetry. Oral poetry is grouped into the following types based on its performance.

For example, lyric poetry is recited or performed with the accompaniment of a musical

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instrument called lyre. Panegyric or praise poems are chanted, and songs are normally
sung. Epic poems, being story-like, long and elaborate, are usually narrated.

The structure of an oral poem is not different from that of written poetry. Just as in written

poetry, in oral poetry the thoughts of the poet are organized into groups of lines. These
groups of lines are called stanzas.

Oral poetry is distinguished from other forms of oral literature mainly by sound. On the
one hand, rhythm in an oral poem is delivered at a steady beat to which one can clap,
drum or dance. Pace is generally delivered at a faster speed than ordinary speech. On the
other hand, pitch is generally delivered in a louder voice than ordinary speech.

Oral poetry is distinguished by its features of composition. One of the features of

composition is colourful language. Oral poetry is said to exhibit colourful language
because it is full of imagery. Imagery are words that appeal to the senses. It also has

onomatopoeia, which are words that sound like the idea or concept they express. For
example, kwayera and payera in the song “Birimakhwe”. Oral poetry contains idiophones:
sounds that imitate the idea or concept they express. For example words such as mbe in

“Birimakhwe”). Other features of oral poetry that make the pieces colourful include
hyperbole or a tendency to exaggerate its points. Oral poetry explores poetic license.

Poetic license means that oral poetry does not always follow rules of grammar. Oral
poetry is also marked by tightness of structure. It uses compressed language by making

use of ellipsis (leaving a word or words out of a sentence) and elision (leaving a sound

out when saying a word). For example, in the popular Cheŵa song “Kapitlire unka iwe
‘ko” the poet has used ellipsis of “kumene unka iwe” and elision of the word uko.

Repetition is another feature that is common in oral poetry. Certain words or lines such

as refrains are repeated at regular intervals. These are usually words or points the poet
wants to emphasize.

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In the written version of an oral poem, repetitions look monotonous. Oral poems are
however intended for performance. Repetition is important in performance because it

serves three main purposes: Firstly, it underlines the main points or theme of the poem.
Secondly, it gives an opportunity for the audience to participate in the performance in a
memorable refrain. Lastly, it divides the poem (through the repeated refrain) into clear

sections. When analysing an oral poem, we should consider the type, occasion, and
purpose of a piece being analysed. Most oral pieces may be featured during installation
ceremonies of chiefs, wedding ceremonies, funeral ceremonies, Vibwaila, chinkhoswe, or

chisiki, or when doing some work such as pounding, hunting, hoeing, harvesting.

Sometimes oral poems are performed during leisure period that includes dancing and
games.

Activity 3

Google Zulu praise poets in action on YouTube and listen to at least three praise poems
being recited. As you listen/watch the oral performance, take note of at least five features
of oral poetry covered in this section and explain them to your friends.

In order to unpack the purpose of oral piece being performed, we should ask the

following questions: Why is the poem performed? What is it intended to do? For example,
oral pieces are performed in order to send the baby to sleep, to praise someone or
something, and to entertain guests or the audience. Some oral poems are used as tools for

teaching or instructing people such as those performed at initiation ceremonies and

wedding, and to mourn someone such as eulogies. Oral poems may present social
comment or criticism as they are a powerful tool for pointing out short comings in

individuals including leaders in society. Oral poetry is an essential tool for self-expression

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too. For example, in a lyric poem, the performer expresses his/her feelings about nature
or human experience.

2.3.4 Folktales

Folktales constitute one of the major aspects of oral literature. Most African folktales
feature animal characters. We begin this section with a few observations concerning the

place of animal characters in folktales. The principal animal characters in southern

African folktales are Hyena and Hare. Hyena is always depicted as stupid, greedy,
selfish, and irresponsible. He is always cheated and left in misery. Hare is always

depicted as cunning, intelligent, wise, and resourceful. He cheats all other animals in the
forest, including the mighty Elephant. Only the smaller animals (Tortoise and
Chameleon) are able to outdo or outwit kalulu the hare. The beauty of animal folktales

lies on the symbolic meaning in animal folktale. Animal folktales are not tales about
animals. They are tales about men, women and children. Animals are personified.
Personification mean that inanimate objects such as animals are made to speak and

behave like human beings. The roles they play in the tales reveal that they characterize a
particular kind of human behaviour. Therefore, each animal is a symbol of a specific kind

of human behaviour which is either good or bad, valuable or objectionable. For instance,
Hyena is a symbol of bad or objectionable human behaviour that displays greed and/or
stupidity. On the other hand, Hare is a symbol of good or valuable human behaviour

such as wisdom, intelligence, and resourcefulness as already indicated. Although Hare

lies and cheats, we identify him as one who is wise and intelligent. Hare never uses
violence or bodily strength to fight against his opponents but simply uses intelligence.

Hare is resourceful and uses a new trick in each tale to outwit his opponents. His wisdom
is endless.

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Animal tales are popular because they allow the narrator to say those things that would
be difficult to state openly in real life. They are an indirect means of teaching the values

of our society. Animal tales are popular because they teach us in a humorous manner
how to guard ourselves against tricksters, cheats, conmen, thieves and liars. In narrating
a tale, the narrator seems to be telling his audience the following: “Do not allow yourself

to be deceived through simple tricks? Otherwise you will be laughed at the way we laugh
at Hyena when he allows himself to be cheated by Hare. Animal tales are popular because
they give an accurate picture of the human world. This means that some human beings

behave the way animals behave in the tales. For example, like Hare, who did not
participate in digging a well in a popular folktale but needs to use the water, there are

people who avoid communal labour and yet want to benefit from community projects –
they like to get free things, things for which they do not have to work. Animal tales are
popular because they champion the cause of the weak, helpless, poor and lowly in

society. In the tales it’s mostly the small animals (hare, tortoise) that triumph over the big
animals (lion, elephant, leopard, and hyena). The weak and helpless always overcome
the strong and mighty. Therefore, the tales are an expression of the belief that the poor

and lowly human beings in the society can rise to high positions, while the rich and those
in power (e.g. oppressive rulers) can fall and be destroyed if they misuse their positions
of strength.

Activity 4

Write two folktales from your local area, one with Hare as the main character and the

other with Hyena as the main character. For each tale state what kind of human behaviour
each main character symbolizes.

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There are three main types of folktales, namely: etiological tales, myths, and legends.
Etiological tales are tales that explain why certain things happen the way they do. Most

etiological tales end with the formula: “And that is why……” For example: That is why
roosters crow at dawn, That is why dogs live with people, That is why pigs have a turned-
up snout. In short, etiological tales explain simple natural facts.

Myths are tales that explain the origin of things. For example, there are some myths about

the origin of death, the origin of fire, the origin of a particular custom such as marriage.
Myths differ from etiological tales because they explain the hard facts of life, while
etiological tales explain simple natural facts. Myths have the following characteristic

features: Unlike most folktales, they do not have opening or closing formulas. Unlike
most folktales, they are believed to be true, not fictitious. (Some people hate lizards
because they really believe they are responsible for why people die). They are tales about

things that happened at the beginning of time, at the beginning of the world. They are
associated with supernatural beings, gods and God. They have a normative character.

Lastly, legends are tales about the heroes of a community. Like myths, they are believed
to be true. People tend to believe that whatever is stated in a legend actually happened.

Unlike myths, legends are based on actual historical facts and real people who once
existed and did great things in a particular society. But these facts and people are
embellished (made more interesting) with imaginative details. Unlike myths, legends are

not associated with supernatural beings. The heroes in legends are earthly people and the
events in them are understood to have taken place in this world. Legends are about events
that happened in the comparatively recent past, not at the beginning of time as in myths.

Unlike myths, legends are localized to a particular community. They deal with specific
places, which are actually found in those communities.

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 Unit assessment exercise

1 State what is meant by the following:

a) Idiophone
b) orality
c) poetic licence

d) onomatopoeia
2 Compare and contrast myths with etiological tales.

3 Explain why parents tell their children tales in which Hare lies and cheats.

4 Briefly discuss symbolic meaning in African animal folktales.

Unit summary

This unit has discussed the following forms of oral literature: short forms, oral poetry and
narratives. On short forms the unit has looked at characteristics, structure and uses of

riddles and proverbs. It has discussed the types, structure and features of composition of
oral poetry. On narratives, it has discussed the types of folktales in general, and mainly
dwelt on African animal folktales. It has examined the symbolic meaning and the

popularity of such tales and the principal animal characters of the tales. This unit has
shown in this unit that African animal folktales champion the cause of the small and
physically powerless animals over against the big and mighty animals. Symbolically this

means that the mighty human beings can lose their power if they misuse their positions.
In the units that follow, I am going to explore written literature in its various categories
or genres such as the short story, the novel, poetry and drama

Further Reading

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Dundes, A. (1980). Interpreting Folklore. Bloomington: Indiana University Press

Finnegan, R. (2012). Oral Literature in Africa . Cambridge: Open Book Publishers.

Okpewho, I. (1992). African Oral Literature. Washington DC: Library of Congress

Publication

Oring, E. (ed) (1989). Folk Groups and Folklore Genres. Logan: Utah State University Press

Toelken, B. (1996). The Dynamics of Folklore. Logan: Utah State University Press

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Unit 3: Written literature – The short story

In this unit, you are going to study a literary form (genre) called the short story. This
literary form, together with the novel, belongs to the same broader category called prose
fiction. As such, most of the elements that apply to the short story also apply to the novel.

The short story

A short story is a brief fictional prose narrative that is shorter than a novel and that
usually deals with only a few characters. The short story is usually concerned with a
single issue conveyed only in one or a few significant episodes or scenes. The form

encourages economy of setting, concise narrative, and the omission of a complex plot.
The other point we may need to know about the short story is that characters are not

usually fully developed as compared to the novel that we have explained in the next
chapter. Despite its relatively limited scope, though, a short story is often judged by its
ability to provide a “complete” or satisfying treatment of its characters and the subject

matter. In terms of its emergence, the short story was born in the 19 th century in Europe
out of various types of brief narratives: jests, anecdotes, studied digressions, short
allegorical romances, moralizing fairy tales, short myths, and abbreviated

historical legends.

Elements of the short story

In analyzing a short story, there are six key elements that the reader should look for in
the story. All short stories begin with a seed of an idea. From that point, the author then
should plan his story around these elements: Setting, Conflict, Character, Plot, Theme,

Point of view. These essential elements keep the story running smoothly and allow the
action to develop in a logical way that the reader can follow and each of these aspects

should be expected in the story. We will now try to explain each of these elements in

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some detail. However, since the elements of the short story are the same as those of the
novel, we urge you to read the next unit more carefully where these elements have been

explained.
Activity 1: Reading exercise

Try to get hold of Andrew Kulemeka’s short story titled “A Small Matter” or Shem
Nyirenda’s “The darkest hour is before dawn” and appreciate how various elements of

the short story have been used. Alternatively, find two short stories from newspapers
mainly Weekend Nation and Malawi News and discuss with a friend how various
elements of the short story have been used.

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Unit 4 The Novel

This unit explores the novel as a work of art. It describes various aspects of the novel and
how the novel can be meaningfully analysed or evaluated. The aspects of the novel are
features which distinguish the novel from other genres of literature such as poetry and

drama.

Key words

Narrative, prose, genre, aesthetics, satire, character, theme, irony, fiction

Prerequisite knowledge

You have probably read novels for pleasure or as part of the secondary school
curriculum. In most secondary schools, the reading of pacesetters is a popular and

valuable activity aimed at initiating students to the world of prose fiction.

Learning objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define a novel

 describe aspects of the novel

 analyse given novels in terms of theme, style, characterization and setting

 distinguish the novel from other genres of literature

 use terminologies related to the novel such as satire, irony and others with
precision

Resources needed

In studying this unit, you will need the following textbooks:

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Studying the novel by Jeremy Hawthorn
Reading the African novel by Simon Gikandi

How to study a novel by John Peck

Aspects of the novel by E.M. Forster
Mastering English Literature by Richard Gill

In addition to the above content textbooks you will read the following novels to help you
understand aspects of the novel discussed in this unit:
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe

Emma by Jane Austen

So Long a Letter by Mariama Ba

Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte

Second class citizen by Buchi Emecheta

Description of the novel

Hawthorn (2004) defines the novel as a fictitious prose narrative or tale long enough one
or more volumes in which characters and actions representative of real life are portrayed

in a plot of a more or less complexity. Hawthorn goes further by stating that unlike other
prose narratives such as romances, fables and myths, a novel contains well developed
and consistent images of people (characters) who interact in complex social contexts as

they undergo their day-to-day lives. In his regard, descriptions in a novel tend to be vivid,
detailed and full of cultural aesthetics.

The structure of the novel

In terms of structure, a novel is known for having the beginning, the middle and the end.

The material is deployed in such a way that it gives the image of coherence, continuity
and completeness or wholeness. In other words, the content of a novel makes a single
unified action. Besides, the conflicts and anticipations surrounding the central character
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are carried through the entire length of the novel and are resolved at the end. Sometimes,
they are never resolved at all.

Types of novels

Novels can broadly be divided into realistic and non-realistic categories. Realistic novels

parallel life as lived by people in society whereas non-realistic novels feature dream-like
experiences and characters are removed from the world of human beings as we know it.
Sometimes writers base their novels on real events as experienced or observed by the

writers. For such stories to succeed, the writer re-arranges the events in the story, creates,
omits, embellishes certain incidents and exaggerates others to fulfill the purpose of his or

her story. In the end, the story in the novel may have little or no resemblance to the
observed events or personalities (the original story/real events).

Elements of the novel

Story
In his book titled Aspects of the novel, E.M. Forster (1993) explains that the fundamental

element of the novel is its story-telling aspect. He observes that the story runs through a
novel like a backbone in a fish or snake. By definition, a story is a narrative of events
arranged in their time sequence. No novel can be written without firstly arranging the

incidents in their time sequence. As Forster emphasizes, there is always a sense of time
and a sense of some arrangement of incidents in their natural time sequence at the back
of the mind of the person reading the novel.

Plot

The story or story-line explained above is assumed to exist at the back of the mind.
However, the reader of the novel in essence actually experiences the plot. The plot refers
to the narrative of events or how the author has weaved the incidents to reveal the causes
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and effect of the main action. Plot focuses on why certain incidents occur in the story,
hence it requires connecting issues within the story (intelligence), careful observation of

whatever is happening in the story (a spirit of inquiry) and good memory of whatever
takes place and who does what and why. Usually issues are interconnected in the story.
It takes a careful reader to reveal that interconnectedness and find the true meaning or

significance of the story. Most novels do not begin where the events actually began but
may begin in medias res (in the middle), then develop in a flashback. Medias res is a

technique of starting the story from inside, usually by capturing the most exciting

incident and then returning to where the story did not touch. Flash back is often used in
medias res to link the exciting incident that opens the story with the rest of the incidents.

In Things Fall Apart, Chinua Achebe uses this technique to open his story when he

captures a very fierce wrestling match in which Okonkwo defeated the famous Amalinze
as follows:

“…..The drums beat and flutes sang and the spectators held their breath. Amalinze was
a wily craftsman, but Okonkwo was as slippery as fish in water. Every nerve and every
muscle stood out on their arms, on their backs and their thighs, and one almost heard

them stretching to breaking point. In the end Okonkwo threw the cat.” (p.1).

The narrator afterwards notes:

“that was many years ago, twenty years or more, and during this time Okonkwo’s had
grown like bush fire in the harmattan.” After these words, the author presents Okonkwo
in his present state.

According to Mc Gann (1991) the plot of a typical novel unfolds and is not a collection of

episodes that merely succeed one another chronologically. A good plot is characterized
by flashback, flash forward (foreshadowing), ellipsis (deliberate omission of certain
information, suspense and mystery.
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Activity 1.

Read Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte and discuss the plot of that novel.

Amongst other things, you will note that the reader is never told what Heathcliff does

after his sudden disappearance up to the time of his reappearance. The text is silent, but
the reader is forced to imagine and examine the man, Heathcliff more closely upon his
return, to try to figure out where he has been and what he probably was doing. While

talking about plot, we need to bear in mind that plot is created through conflict, that is, a
clash of opposing forces or ideologies. Conflict can be external or internal. External

conflict can be a conflict between the main character and another character, it can also
occur between a character and a force of nature such as rainfall or illness. In Emma by

Jane Austen, for example, Harriet has failed to turn up for a party at Randalls due to

illness. Her absence takes the events of the story to another direction.

On its part, internal conflict takes place within the character’s mind. A character may find

it problematic to make an important decision over a situation due to personal convictions

stemming from cultural or religious beliefs. For instance, a very intelligent girl in a novel
(the star in class and the teacher’s favourite) may face internal inflict on whether she

should abort her pregnancy or not out of religious convictions in conflict with her
ambition to go to university and do her teacher proud.

Apart from conflict, the reader must also identify the problem in the story. Usually the
novel ends with the main character either resolving the problem or failing to resolve the

problem.
Activity 2.
Read Emma by Jane Austen and discuss with your classmate the problem in the story.
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You will note that the main problem in the story is Emma’s spirit of looking at herself as
superior to everybody else in the story. This is called superiority complex. How does this

problem manifest and what are the consequences of characters’ obsession with the
question of superiority or inferiority in the novel?

Types of plots
There are basically two types of plots, namely simple and complex plots. Things Fall Apart
by Chinua Achebe has a simple plot while Petals of Blood by Ngugi wa Thiong’o or

Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte, you will note that these other two novels were

constructed on the complex plot plan. You are strongly urged to read these novels to

appreciate the two types of plots. What do you think characterizes each of the two plot
types?

Structure of plot in a novel

Every story begins with exposition (the beginning part of the story) which provides some
background information which the reader needs to make sense of the action. An

exposition describes the setting and introduces the main characters in the story. It may
also introduce the major conflict between the main characters. After an exposition, the
plot develops a series of complications which are essentially an intensification of the

conflict leading to a crisis or moment of great tension. The crisis may reach a climax or
turning point. A climax is a moment of greatest tension which fixes the outcome. After
the climax, the action falls off (there is unraveling) as the plot’s complications are sorted

out and resolved. Sometimes there is no resolution as some stories end in suspense.

Character and characterization

Characters are imaginary people doing things or experiencing things in a story. The
characters could be people, animals, cars, trees etc. Where the characters are non-human,
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they are given human characteristics such as talking to each other, interacting, thinking,
working and others. As a rule of thumb, every character in a novel must have a clear

identity comprising a name, physical appearance, profession and social position or class
in society. The author takes considerable amount of time constructing the identity of his
or her characters who are categorized as major characters and minor characters. A major

character (also known as a central character) never disappears from the scene. The entire
story revolves around him or her. As such he or she is part and parcel of each and every
action or incident. On the other hand, minor characters come and go. Besides, their

actions are marginal to the story. Some of them appear only once and disappear for good.

What is characterization?

Characterization is the way the author reveals or creates the personality of a character.
There are two main ways in which the author may reveal the character’s personality.

These are: telling (or direct revelation) and showing (indirect revelation). Direct
revelation occurs when the author tells the readers what a particular character is like. On
the other hand, indirect revelation occurs when the writer lets the readers observe what

things are like and make their own conclusions. The reader is allowed to determine the
personality of the character by looking at what the character does or says. The character
in question can speak in a harsh manner, thereby revealing the kind of person he or she
is. In Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe, for instance, Nwoye’s mother wants to know

from her husband, Okonkwo how long the boy he has brought is going to stay. In
response, Okonkwo asks her, “When did you become one of the ‘ndichies’ of Umuofia?”

Using that exchange, what would you say is Okonkwo’s personality? External details
such as the author’s description of the character’s physical appearance, dressing and

others may sometimes constitute indirect revelation and serve as valuable hints to the
personality of the character. The personality of a character can also be worked out by
paying attention to what other characters say about the character under consideration.
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Activity 3

Read Emma by Jane Austen and describe the techniques the author has used to reveal the

personality of Mr Elton, Emma and Frank Churchill.

Types of characters

Characters are either flat or round. Flat characters are simple characters with one or two
dominant personality traits. As such, their personality can be summarized in one phrase

such as lazy, brave or arrogant man just for example. In most cases, flat characters do not
change from the beginning of the novel up to the end. In Things Fall Apart by Chinua

Achebe, is undeniably a flat character. In contrast, round characters are complex and
dynamic. They change their attitudes, behaviour and mentalities as the story progresses.
As a result, they have multiple personality traits. They behave according to the situation

just like real human beings. Within the same novel, a certain character may display traits
of being a bad person in the beginning and transform into a very sweet-natured person
by the time the novel ends or vice versa. Round characters are usually main characters

and are sometimes referred to as three-dimensional characters. This is so because they

are thought to have length, breadth and height, and are hence complete human beings
and not just caricatures. The author in a novel makes sure the characters are convincing

by making them act or respond to situations just like real human beings would. Writers
often base their characters on real people they know but disguise and exaggerate them.

Theme

Before explaining what theme is in prose fiction, you may have noted that every novel

has a title. Besides the title, it also deals with a specific subject matter or what the story is
all about. Let us use this imaginary story to clarify our point. A certain family forced its
fourteen-year-old daughter to get married to a certain man for economic interests. As it
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were, the girl conceived immediately she entered marriage and later that year, she died
while giving birth. The title of the story would be “Too hard to chew”. If you consider

this story, then you can quickly say that its subject matter is “early marriages”. This is
what you would surely say if someone asked you what the story is all about. Theme, on
its part, is not what the story is all about. Rather it is the author’s message to the reader

or his/her insight into life. It is what the author considers the truth about life or indeed
his or her comment on life. Usually theme is a well-reasoned and constructed statement.
In the story referenced above, its theme could be a whole statement such as “Early

marriages can cost a girl her life”. As you can see, theme is a sensible statement capturing
what the author says through his or her literary text. In every novel, the author is issuing

an implicit statement about life in society. Talking about theme, Meredith and Fitzgerald
(1972) state the following: “All traditional novels demonstrate that certain people have
had certain experiences and these experiences comment on life, leaving the reader with

some conclusion about the nature of human existence that can be factually verified. This
conclusion is the theme of the novel.”

Theme provides intellectual significance to the novel to such an extent that a novel
without a theme is as useless as work without pay. Everything happening in the novel
(all incidents) contribute to the theme of the novel. Every novel has a major theme and

sometimes minor themes too. It is usually easy to tell what the major theme of a particular
novel is as there is usually a good connection among the title, subject and theme is a well-
written novel. In today’s society, having a title like “cheating does not pay” or “tit for tat

is a fair game” followed by the story depicting what the respective title is saying would
be regarded as old fashioned.

Activity 4.

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Read The Smouldering Charcoal by Tiyambe Zeleza and discuss the major theme of the

novel by exploring the relationship among the title, subject and incidents. In your

discussion, highlight how the author has developed the theme.

Setting

Setting is the place and time in which the story unfolds. Things which influence how
characters act, perceive things and reason or react to situations include: the culture in
which they live, the era in which they live and the beliefs they hold. All these factors

constitute the setting of the story. Some stories are set in rural areas while others are set
in urban areas. As readers, we can judge the actions of the characters at the point they are

executed because the setting has its own dictates and norms. Readers are supposed to
visualize what is going on, smell the air in the room where the characters are.

Importance of setting

In a novel, setting is important because it establishes the historical and cultural

connection that enables the reader to understand the story more deeply. If not well

handled, the author may fall in the trap of committing an error of placing something
outside its era. This is called anachronism. In fiction, generally, anachronism is a grave
era because we want art to be true to life. For writers such as James Joyce and William

Faukner, setting is essential to the theme and meaning of the novel.

Activity 5

Discuss how setting in Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe contributes to the major theme

of the novel.

Point of view

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This is the standpoint or perspective from which the story is told. There are two such
point of views: the first person point of view and the third person point of view.

First person point of view

The narrator uses I …… or We ….. in telling their stories. In the first person point of view,

the author sounds like the narrator but the truth of the matter is that in that case the
author has just decided to tell the story in the first person. The first person point of view
has limitations because the narrator cannot know what is happening in another place

other than where he or she is. However, readers have the advantage of knowing about
the actions from an inside source. The narrator in this case may have his own attitudes,

biases and limitations in knowledge.

The third person point of view

In the third person narrative technique, the narrator knows everything about all the
characters. He or she can enter in the mind of each character and reveal what they are
thinking or how they are feeling about something. For this reason, we say that the third

person point of view is omniscient (all-knowing). Besides, the narrator’s perception is an

embracing vision as it represents how everybody would see or feel about something.
Some authors may however abuse this privilege by directly commenting on the events or

deliberately highlighting the negative aspect of things with an aim of manipulating the
reader’s perception.

Style

Style or literary technique is a term which describes the way the author chooses words

and arranges them in sentences and longer units of discourse. There is usually something
distinct or unique with every writer regarding the manner in which he says what he or
she says. To such as an extent, that style is the verbal and narrative identity of a writer.
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Since style is reflects the author’s individuality, style conveys his or her unique ways of
seeing the world. Amongst elements which make up style is diction. Diction refers to the

kind of word-choices which the author makes and how he or she uses them. Charles
Dickens, for example, was fond of using complex vocabulary as a marker of his unique
style. The other element is syntax. Syntax is the arrangement of words in a sentence. For

example, some writers are fond of qualifying their sentences using adjectives. Others are
fond of using the subject-verb-object kind of sentences. Apart from those two elements of
style, there is also the absence or presence of figures of speech. In some literary texts, the

reader can hardly finish a paragraph before meeting a figurative expression like a simile,
metaphor, symbolism, personification, hyperbole and others. Style or the manner in

which each author uses language is highly individualistic as no two authors could
possibly write exactly the same way unless one is imitating the other. A good style is the
one in which words have been used effectively so that they carry their meanings to the

reader clearly, logically and purposefully.

Dialogue

Generally speaking, prose fiction without dialogue can be very dry hence boring.
Dialogue is the breath that brings life to the prose fiction. Dialogue refers to the
conversations among characters. Dialogue can reveal the character’s personality in as

much as the author may also present facts through dialogue. What the character says may
propel the story to another level. Sometimes what characters say may fill the gap between
one event (incident) to another. Sometimes the author may use dialogue to reveal what

happened behind the scenes. This might have been suspended at the time of narration.

Irony and symbolism

Irony and symbolism are extremely important when they occur in a novel. Irony and
symbolism are useful though they might not be as persuasive as the other elements
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discussed above such as plot, theme, or character. Usually if a reader does not perceive
the author’s ironic intentions, he or she may misconstrue a particular novel for he or she

may interpret the novel as suggesting the opposite of what it actually intended to mean.
Readers may underestimate the novel’s achievement and oversimplify its significance if
they overlook the story’s symbols.

Irony

Irony is a form of contrast or discrepancy between what happens and what is expected

to happen. In verbal irony, the speaker says the opposite of what he or she means. When
someone says, “that was a brilliant remark” and we know that it was far from brilliant,

we understand the speaker’s ironic intention. Apart from verbal irony, authors also make
use of irony of situation which is sometimes called irony of circumstance. In this kind of
irony, the author creates discrepancies between what seems to be and what is. For
instance, in Emma by Jane Austen the character Emma thinks that Mr Elton takes the

trouble of going to London on horseback to frame Harriet’s portrait and braving the harsh
winter in the process because he is in love with Harriet. However, upon careful reading

of the text, the reader knows that Mr Elton is doing all that because he is after Emma
herself. Irony of situation applies to occasions in which an individual expects one thing
to occur only to discover that the opposite has happened. Another type of irony called

dramatic irony is a discrepancy between what characters know and what readers know,
and usually occurs in plays more than in novels. There could also be an ironic vision in a
novel if its tone suggests that the author’s view of his characters, subject matter or content

is the opposite of what is generally held as true.

Symbolism

A symbol in a novel is an object, action or event whose meaning goes beyond its literal
significance and beyond its more obvious or actual reason for being included in the story.
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We know that something is symbolically used when we begin to suspect its heightened
significance in the novel, when it appears in the novel more than once or occurs at a

climax, is described in detail or when symbolic rather literal interpretation makes sense.

Activity 6

Read Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe and identify instances of irony and symbolism.

Discuss these by justifying why you consider them to be ironic or symbolic

representations

Different ways of ending the novel

There are various techniques which authors use to end their stories. An author may put
his main character in a difficult situation at the end of his novel whereby it is very difficult
for the character to make a decision because both options available to him or her are

equally bad. In this case we say that the author has used dilemmas to end the story. In
other circumstances, authors use what we call surprise ending. In this technique, the story
ends abruptly when the reader expects something to happen. Surprise ending goes hand

in hand with foreshadowing in the sense that the author may have thrown some light
into possibility of something about to happen but terminates the story before it happens.
The third technique is the one called suspense. After climax, readers naturally expect

resolution as the final outcome but it might happen that although the story has attained
a climax, readers may be left without really being told the final outcome of that climax.
When the story ends without resolution, we say that there is suspense in its ending.

Finally, some authors are even more cryptic in the way they end their stories. Instead of
coming up with a resolution, events in their novels are made to take another twist thereby

leaving the reader with a lot of questions.

Activity 7
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How does the technique of ending Emma by Jane Austen compare or contrast with that
of Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe?

Reading the African novel

In reading the African novel one needs to bear in mind its cultural and historical contexts.

Some of the historical factors that bear upon the content and style of the African novel
include:

Colonialism: The African novel is a product of the colonial experience. When Europeans

colonized African territories, they introduced formal education where African learnt how

to read and write. They were also exposed to European literature and later they wrote
their own literary texts. Since Europeans considered themselves as superior to Africans
in all aspects of life, this led to self-awareness whereby African demanded self-rule and
asserted their traditional values, beliefs and practices as witnessed in Things Fall Apart,
The River Between, Why are we so blest and Scarlet Song just to mention a few novels that

depict self-awareness and an expression of African people’s pride in their own cultures.

Independence: Independence of African countries around the mid-1960s posed fresh

problems to which African writers were compelled to respond to. The general problem

was disillusionment with independence as people’s hopes and aspirations were betrayed
by post-independence. African leaders who were mostly corrupt, greedy, tribalistic,
incompetent, extravagant, power hungry (not wanting to relinquish power) and
oppressive as depicted in novels such as The Last of the Empire, The Beautyful Ones are not
yet born, A man of the People, Matigari, A grain of Wheat and The Stone Country. The major

cultural factor that bears upon the African novel is orality. Most African writers infuse
their novels with elements of the oral tradition such as myths, proverbs, cultural symbols,
popular sayings, legends and riddles which affect the meaning and significance of the
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novels. When reading the African novel, elements of the oral tradition mentioned above
have a big sway over meaning and aesthetic beauty of the novels.

Characteristics of the African Novel

The African novel shows confrontation with the values, perceptions, belief and

aspirations of the colonial centre. These are the novels in which African are asserting their
Africanness. Much as they sometimes criticize certain elements of the African culture,
overall orientation is that they are positive about African culture and tend to be critical

of western culture and values. In some way, African novels show that colonization is the
root cause of the problems African societies are facing.

The other characteristic is that the African novel is subversive in its orientation. The
African novel answers back to the metropolis and sometimes undermines Eurocentric

views in subtle ways. For instance, African writers may deliberately violate the English
language in order to undermine its official status thereby opposing its superiority. Some
African novels have opposed the whole manner in which Christianity was introduced

preached in Africa. Undermining European versions, constructions, forms etc is the

hallmark of subversion as a characteristic of the African novel.
The other characteristic is topicality and upholding the writers’ commitment. African

novels confront burning issues of the day and its writers advocate social transformation
(social change or improvements). According to Chinweizu et al (1980: 254), tackling the
burning issues of the day is what is called commitment or political engagement in

literature. These critics emphasize that African writers do not write for mere
entertainment. Suffice to say that there is no art for art’s sake when it comes to the African

novel. African writers have committed themselves to correcting what has been going
wrong in African society. Achebe once said, “It is clear to me that a creative writer who
tries to avoid the big social and political issues of contemporary Africa will end up being
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completely irrelevant that that absurd man in the proverb who leaves his burning house
to pursue a rat fleeing from the burning flames (“The African writer and the biafran
cause”, The Launch vol. 1 Issue No. 1, 1969, p.8).

Analysis of the novel (sample analysis)

Analysis of Things Fall Apart authored by a male writer, Chinua Achebe

There is a tendency amongst students not to read the actual text because of the availability
of summaries on the internet and other sources. This is very dangerous. It is a must that

students read the actual text because summaries contain a certain view of the text and
may be incomplete. Once the whole novel has been read, you would be in a better
position to discuss all the elements of the novel and answer whatever question one may

ask on the particular novel.

Things Fall Apart (1958) focuses on colonialism in Nigeria in the late 1800s, from the first

days of contact to widespread British administration. Chinua Achebe captures the Igbo
society in a period of transition, when traditional values were in conflict with and being
torn apart by the alien and more powerful culture. Achebe paints a vivid picture of Igbo

society before and after its contact with the colonizing culture without idealizing either.

Important issues in Things Fall Apart

 The title “Things Fall Apart” is taken from a line in a poem titled “The second

coming” by William Butler Yeats, an Irish poet famous during Achebe’s school
days

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  Achebe’s use of language which intergrades oral tradition, indigenous Igbo words
and terminologies, proverbs and English

 The novel’s biographical information which shows Achebe’s intricate relationship

with history and Igbo culture.
 As you read the text, you will realise that Igbo culture is portrayed with dignity to

impress the reader that although it has weaknesses just like any other culture, it is
a good culture
 The traditional Igbo society was well organised, with established hierarchies or

ranks and established means of resolving conflicts until the coming in of white
colonialists who disrupted that social order

Setting of Things Fall Apart

In terms of time, the novel is set towards the end of the 19 th century when colonizers were

coming into Africa to establish Christianity and colonial administration.

Plot of Things Fall Apart

 Okonkwo rises to be one of the elders of Umuofia as a result of achievements

resulting from hard work. As a man who has gained a lot of respect as a fearless
warrior Okonkwo is sent to a neighbouring village, Mbaino to negotiate for
compensation for Udo’s wife, a woman of Umuofia whom Mbaino had killed, and

to avoid war. He comes back with a young virgin to replace Udo’s wife and a boy
named Ikemefuna who is to stay with Okonwo until a decision is made.
 Okonkwo grows in ranks and is one of the Egwugwu that administer justice in his

society
 Later the oracle rules that Ikemefuna should be killed as sacrifice. An elderly man
Ezeudu, who happens to be the priest to the earth goddess warns Okonkwo not to

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 take part in the killing of Ikemefuna because Ikemefuna is like a son to him.
Okonkwo disobeys Ezeudu’s advice, fearing that he would be regarded as a

coward and he cuts Ikemefuna to death with his machete. Others tell him that this
act was a very bad omen for him to strike the killing blow and indeed bad luck
begins to follow him.

 When Ezeudu dies, Okonkwo commits yet another crime against the gods of the
land. In a final salute to Ezeudu, all the men fire their guns and Okonkwo
accidentally kills Ezeudu’s son with his gun. As punishment, Okonkwo is sent into

exile for seven years during which the white man gains ground in Umuofia, where
he has established a school, trading post and administrative offices.

 While in exile in Mbanta, Okonkwo learns that his son Nwoye has secretly joined
Christianity to which he becomes very furious.
 Later Okonkwo returns to Umuofia and wants a war with the white people but

times have changed and Umuofia is not keen to drive the white man out.
 After the first missionary, Mr Brown has left Umuofia, the successor by the name
of Reverend Smith is confrontational in his approach. He incites his new converts

such as Enoch to commit a sacrilegious act against traditional region by

unmasking the egwugwu
 Led by dancing masked-spirits, the villagers destroy Enoch’s compound and the

church building. As a result, the District Commissioner arrests the leaders of the
village including Okonkwo who are thrown in jail where they are shaved and
beaten.

 Upon their release they meet to discuss the way forward. A group of court
messengers are sent to stop the meeting. Okonkwo confronts them and ends up

chopping off the head of the head messenger but realizes that there is nobody to
support him. He walks away and hangs himself.

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  The story opens in media res and is marked by flashbacks, foreshadowing and
ellipsis among other elements of plot. Going into exile could be regarded as the

climax of the story.

Themes in Things Fall Apart

One of the first pronounced theme in Things Fall Apart is the destructive nature of

colonialism: The novel seems to be issuing a statement that colonialism is such a bad
thing for it destroys the culture and aspirations of the colonized subjects. Before the
coming in of colonialism, Umuofia is described as a tranquil society. The coming in

colonialism led people to undermine local traditions. Besides, Christianity clashed with
traditional religious beliefs and practices. Unity in Umuofia has been greatly disrupted
since the coming in of colonialism.

Another theme is that change is hard to come by as usually there is conflict between

tradition and modernity leading to certain casualties. The story is about culture on the
verge of change and how this change affects various characters. Okonkwo’s tragedy is as
a result of his resistance of social change while people whose rights were all along

trampled upon such as outcasts find this social change beneficial. With this change
characters must find ways of adapting to the new reality. European influence threatens
to extinguish traditional methods of farming, traditional hierarchies. Achebe

demonstrates how abandonment of the Igbo language led to eradication of most cultural
traditions. The underlying theme is that it is almost impossible to understand a certain
culture in a foreign language and that anybody doing so will greatly misfire. White

colonialists in the novel greatly misunderstand Igbo culture because they look at it
through the framework of English. They try to translate Igbo culture into English. This

leads to great misunderstanding and failure. Yet another theme is to do with personal
ambition. People need to tame their ambition and to read the environment carefully

41
before acting. Okonkwo seems to be the manufacturer of his own death. So the theme
highlighted in this novel is that people who fail to control their actions and read the

environment appropriately, usually end up in trouble or tragic death like Okonkwo has
done. There are other themes in the novel which one can come up with. The themes
highlighted are produced by the recurring motifs such as locusts and fire which represent

destruction; chi and egwugwu which represent tradition, the act of killing and eating the
sacred python and well as Oknonkwo’s death symbolize the death of traditional culture
at the hands of an aggressive foreign culture or the painful transition to a new form of

social order. The locusts symbolize the destruction which colonialism inflicts over
indigenous traditions and values. Burning fire is associated with Okonkwo throughout

the novel. For example, chapters 17, 24 point to the intense and dangerous anger the
African society has as they watch their societies destroyed.

An example of character analysis

Here, we want to show you how you ought to analyse characters in the novel using some
of the characters in Things Fall Apart in the hope that you will adopt similar approaches
whenever you are confronted with such a task.

Analysing the character of Okonkwo

The character of Okonkwo has been revealed using both direct revelation (telling) and
indirect revelation (showing). The narrator tells the reader what the personality of this

character is such as his stammering and violent nature. Much of his personality is
however revealed indirectly by looking at what he does. From these two forms of
characterization, we gather that Okonkwo is a hard worker. He goes to the farm before

cockcrow and works the whole until darkness falls. Okonkwo hates laziness lest he is
branded as resembling his father, Unoka, who was the laughingstock of the society and

with who Okonkwo himself suffered a great deal of embarrassment. Secondly, Okonkwo

42
is a brave man. It is his bravery which earned him a position of high status in society.
Thirdly, Okonkwo has a hot temper and is naturally harsh in dealing with others. He

treats his wives and children harshly. Perhaps at the bottom of his heart, Okonkwo is a
loving character. He loves his family members, but he does not show it for he thinks to
do so would make him look soft in the eyes of the public. From his actions, we can also

conclude that Okonkwo was adamant. He never listened to other people’s advice. For
example, he never listened to the advice offered by the old man, Ezeudu never to
participate in the killing of Ikemefuna. He is also passionate about upholding his culture
and does things without thinking through their implications.

Analysis of the character of Uchendu

Uchendu is the younger brother of Okonkwo’s mother. He is warm hearted as he receives

Okonkwo and his entire family cheerfully and advises Okonkwo to be grateful for the
comfort which his motherland has offered him. Besides he is peace loving and does things

after carefully. He thinks through his actions, unlike Okonkwo who acts harshly and
without thinking.

Analysis of the character of Obierika

Obierika is Okonkwo’s close friend with a liberal character. He is unlike Okonkwo

conservative character. Although Obierika respects his culture, he is not as egocentric as

Okonkwo is. For instance, he questions some of the tribe’s traditional structures and
practices such as the custom of banishing a man who accidentally kills a fellow tribesman.

Obierika is trustworthy. For example, he sells Okonkwo’s yams and takes the money to

43
the owner in exile in Mbanta. He is also a sympathetic character who comforts Okonkwo
when he is depressed.

Analysis of the character of Ekwefi

Ekwefi is Okonkwo’s second wife and was once the village’s beauty. She is provocative
as one day Okonkwo almost shoots her due to her for mocking him for keeping a gun

which has never killed a rat. She is a pitiful woman who has lost eight babies in infancy
to the extent of having only one surviving child, Ezinma.

Analysis of So Long a Letter authored by a female w riter, Mariama Ba

In this section, we set out to analyse a novel by a female author so that we give you a taste
of both worlds (literary texts by male as well as female African writers).

Information about the author and the text

Mariama Ba hailed from Senegal. She was of Muslim faith who from an early age saw
what she perceived as inequalities in her society rooted in African and Islamic traditions.

She was raised by her traditional grandparents who did not believe in the education of a
girl child. As a result, she struggled to get her education. She later married an MP with
whom she had nine children but later divorced him. She wrote two novels: So Long a
Letter and Scarlet Song before her death in 1981.
So Long a Letter as a novel

So Long a Letter was awarded the first Noma Prize for publishing in Africa in 1980. Both

her novels deal with the negative of traditional African culture on women especially the
custom of polygamy whereby a woman faces a lot of hardships when her husband

abandons her for a younger wife. Her novels then explore ways of reducing the harmful
impact of traditional culture on women such as education and financial independence.

44
The Plot of So Long a Letter

So Long a Letter is a sequence of some wistful as well as bitter reminiscences recounted by

a Senegalese teacher, Ramatoulaye, who has recently been widowed. In a letter to a

friend, Aissatou, Ramatoulaye writes of her emotional struggle to regain her life after

Amadou’s (her husband’s) abrupt decision to take a second wife. Although sanctioned
by the laws of Islam, Madou’s action is a calculated betrayal of her trust. You can see that
polygamy and its aftermath is the main focus of this short novel. At this point

Ramatoulaye is aged fifty and she has twelve children.

The recipient of the letter, Aissatou, also experienced a similar ordeal when her husband
decided to marry a second wife but unlike Ramatoulaye, she had to defy all the odds by
quitting marriage, against the Islamic culture. She left the man’s village and all her

property behind. When this ordeal was happening to Aissatou, Ramatoulaye never
thought the same would happen to her. Her and her husband, Madou have been married
for twenty-two years before he decides to marry a second wife. This act devastates her

emotionally and psychologically. It is customary in the society where the story is set that
after some years in marriage, men want to have something new and younger but what
pains Ramatoulaye more is that the girl her husband has fallen for is her eldest daughter’s

classmate. This is another stab in the heart. The man has neglected his wife’s feelings as
well as those of his children, some of who are in the same age group with his new bride.
But Ramatoulaye has nowhere to go. The Islamic culture has a much stronger hold on her

and also considering where to go with her twelve children. Ramatoulsye also pities her
co-wife (Bintou, aged nineteen) who will suffer more in the long run. Binetou grew up in

abject poverty and has settled for a man more than twice her age for social security.
Ramatoulaye also writes of how her husband abandons her as he spends most of his time
with his young bride and about the loss of respect amongst family members. She observes
45
that it is difficult for the children to respect their father and his new wife whom they used
to play with as they were growing up. Ramatoulaye’s most disheartening moment is

when she receives the news that her husband, Modou has passed away from a heart
attack. Ramatoulaye then writes her co-wife a long letter highlighting a number of things
especially that Modou was the problem and the trap which the younger wife is now in,

the loss of social security and urging her to go away and start all over in life.

Characterization in So Long a Letter

Activity 8

In the same manner we analysed a few selected characters from Things Fall Apart, attempt

to analyse the characters oc Ramatoulaye, Modou and Aissatou

Major themes in So long a Letter

1. The tyranny of culture and religious traditions

The text is issuing a statement that culture and traditions are so tyrannical that a lot of

innocent people suffer as a result of them. In the novel, the wife, the co-wife and the
children end up suffering as a result of the traditional culture which allows men to marry
more than one wife. The same culture puts a lot of emphasis on a man having many

children even when such a large number of children piles responsibilities of parents. As
a result of marrying another woman, the first woman and her children are abandoned.

The effect of male chauvinism

The novel highlights the fact that women suffer as a result of male chauvinism. Almost

all the three major female characters in the novel suffer from the treatment they get from
their husbands who think they are superior to them, they manipulate them and possess
them, treating them like their personal property. The ladies’ feelings in this text are never
46
considered by the menfolk. Interestingly, a female figure is used as a weapon for inflicting
pain on a fellow woman as is the case between Binetou and Ramatoulaye.

Activity 9
Answer the following questions based on So Long a Letter

1. What prompts Ramatoulaye to write Aissatou a letter?

2. Describe how any two institutions encourage Modou Fall to marry another wife.
3. Why does Binetou accept to get married to someone quite older than her?
4. Critically analyse the character of Ramatoulaye in comparison with that of

Binetou.
5. Apart from the themes highlighted in this module, what other theme would you
derive from your reading of So long a Letter

Further reading

Abdonrin, Femi (2008). Blackness: Culture, Ideology and Discourse. Ibadan: Dakun
Publishing House

Chinweizu et al (1980). Towards the decolonization of African literature. Enugu: Fourth

Dimensions Publishers

Darthone, O.R (1976). African literature in the twentieth Century. London: Heinemann

Educational Books Ltd

Heywood, Christopher (ed) (1968). Perspectives on African literature. London:

Heinemann Educational Books Ltd

Palmer, Eustace (1976). An Introduction to the African novel. London: Heinemann

47
48
Unit 5 Poetry

This unit gives you a detailed analysis of the literary genre called Poetry. As a field of

study, poetry deals with the recitation, analysis and writing of poems as a way of
appreciating the writer’s feelings or expressing one’s own. Robert Frost once defined
poetry as rhythmic composition of words expressing an attitude designed to surprise,

delight and arouse an emotional response. This chapter discusses the nature of poetic
expression by exploring the structure, form and content of poetry. It explains various
poetic devices and features which are characteristic of poetic expression and which

distinguish poetry from other literary genres such as the novel, the short story and drama.

Key words

Imagery, persona, personification, metonymy, alliteration, assonance, stanza, rhyme,

rhythm, tone, mood, simile addressee

Pre-requisite knowledge

You have all been exposed to poetry in your primary and secondary school education

through some of the textbooks you have been reading. In addition, the M alawi
Broadcasting Corporation (MBC) radios 1 and 2 as well as Television Malawi (TVM) run
poetry recital programmes in Chichewa. Some poetry is published in newspapers and

magazines.

Learning outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 explain what poetry is

 describe the main types of poems

 identify various poetic devices in given poems and explain their usage

49
  analyse some poems in terms of theme, tone, mood and language use
 describe how poetry differs from other literary genres such as drama and the novel

Resources needed

In studying this unit, you will need the following textbooks:

Chirambo et al (eds) (2001). The Unsung Song: an anthology of short stories and poems.

Zomba: Chancellor College.

Rubadiri, D. (ed) (1989). Growing up with Poetry. Gaborone: Heinemann.

Rubadiri, D. (19710. Poems from East Africa. London: Heinemann.

Thorne, S. (1997). Mastering English Literature. London: Macmillan.

Prescribed poems

“An African thunderstorm” by David Rubadiri

“A taxi driver on his death bed” by Timothy Wangusa

“The road not taken” by Robert Frost
“During wind and rain” by Thomas Hardy

“The last act” by Anthony Nazombe

“Song of Nyavitima” by Zondiwe Mbano
“The beauty of dawn” by Felix Munthali

“Two big whirlwinds” by Macdonald Bamusi

“Tramp” by R.S. Thomas
“Crossing the bar” by Tennyson

“Four ways of dying” by Steve Chimombo

The nature of poetry

50
Poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful emotions or feeling. Richard Gill (1997)
calls poetry the emotional colouring of language. The words in a poem are arranged in

such a way that their choice and placement draws the reader’s attention to those features
that are usually ignored in everyday speech. A poem is organized in a fixed pattern in
form of short rhythmical lines grouped into stanzas. The words in a poem may carry

special or metaphorical meanings based on what they connote. For example, “clay” could
be used to mean the grave, sleep may mean to die and flower may mean beautiful girl.
Besides, a good poem contains images since a true poet speaks in images. Alexander Pope

insists that poetry is ‘thinking in images’ since a poet is naturally very economical with
words and he wants to deliver his message fast. Therefore, the poet chooses words very

carefully in such a way that the beauty of sound should reflect the beauty of meaning.
That is why we usually say that in poetry, part of the meaning of a poem is revealed by
its sound effects. It is therefore imperative that one reads a poem aloud several times

before attempting to analyse it. In addition, poets have a habit of contracting words.
Contraction is an act of using shortened phrases instead of whole sentences. This is so
because a poet wants to convey his or her message fast. Poets may also give new

meanings to ordinary words because of how they have used them. This is as a result of
poetic license. This means that poets demand freedom to use words the way they see fit.
Again, in poetry the natural order of words can be changed or reversed, something we

call inversion such as “come he did”. Also note that poems may appear in various shapes
and lengths. Most importantly, poets use various devices to communicate meaning such
as similes, metaphors, symbolism, imagery and many others. Readers of poetry also

ought to be more discerning about details of syntax and punctuation. Poetry is an art of
condensation or compression of linguistic details and it usually conveys its message by

implication.

51
The structure of a poem at face value needs to be examined. Stanzas represent the
structure of thought processes at work. The structure of a poem m ay have a direct

relationship with the message conveyed by the poem as is the case with Steve
Chimombo’s poem titled ‘Four ways of dying’. In terms of content, a poem can be about
anything to do with human life or human experience in society such as death, love,

beauty, a memorable experience, oppression, injustice and many more. The first thing a
reader must do before analyzing the poem is to find out what the poem is all about.

Activity 1

From the explanation given above, how does a poem differ from a novel and a short

story?

Types of poetry

As we proceed with our discussion of poetry, we would like you to take a look at some
types of poetry. Basically, poems are categorized into two broad types: lyric and narrative
poetry.

Lyric poetry

A lyric poem is a poem made for singing and is typically characterized by brevity, melody

and emotional intensity. Lyric poems can be classified into elegies, epigraphs and
sonnets. An elegy is a mourning song while an epigram is a brief poem that is often
satirical. Sonnets are strictly fourteen lines long and could be romantic.

Narrative poetry

The main purpose of a narrative poetry is to tell a story. An Epic is a king of narrative
poem. It is a long narrative poem which records the adventures of a hero or mythic god
whose exploits are important to the history of a nation or tribe. Usually Epics document
52
the origins of civilization and embody its central beliefs and values. An Epic can be quite
long, sometimes taking the whole book. The Epic style is serious and full of grandeur and

an Epic always deals with serious subject matters. Examples of Epics include: Homer’s
Illiad which is about the Greek – Trojan wars; Milton’s Paradise Lost, Dantes’ Devine
Comedy just to mention a few.

Apart from Epics, other types of narrative poems are Ballads and Romances.

Ballads

Ballads are basically storytelling poems circulating widely in society. Sometimes these
narratives are performed or recited. Folk ballads or popular ballads as they are sometimes

called were passed on orally from one generation to another. Those ballads whose
authors are known are referred to as literary ballads in that they exist in written form.
Literary ballads imitate folk ballads by adhering to its basic conventions such as repeated

lines, swift action with surprise endings, extraordinary events expressed in direct and
simple language and scanty characterization. Very often, literary ballads are more
polished stylistically and more self-conscious in their use of poetic devices and

techniques.
Romances

Romances have adventure as a central feature. The plot of a romance tends to be complex,

with surprising and even magical or mysterious actions. The chief feature in romances
are human beings confronting monsters, dragons and disguised animals in a world that
does not adhere coherently to the laws of nature as we know it. Romances were popular

in the Middle Ages and Renaissance periods. Today, although the romance as a poetry
genre has fallen out of favour, some of its chief characteristics are found in popular fiction

such as the western adventure story and the Romantic love story.
Elements of poetry

53
We can learn to interpret and understand a poem by understanding its basic elements.
Here below are some of the most common elements of poetry:

Imagery

Imagery is one of the most striking characteristics of poetic expression. Poems are

grounded in the concrete and the specific. In most cases a poem triggers our memories,
stimulate our feelings and command our responses forcing the reader to construct
pictures in his or her mind. When such specific details appear in poems, they are called

images. Basically, an image is a concrete representation of a sense impression, feeling or

idea. Images trigger our imaginative re-enactments of sensory experience by rendering

feeling and thought in concrete details related directly to our physical perception of the
world. Images may be visual or aural etc. Sometimes we use the term ‘imagery’ to refer
to a pattern of related details in a poem and also talk about the imagery of a poem to refer

to all its images taken together. When images form patterns of related details that convey
an idea or feeling beyond what the images literally describe, we call them metaphors or
symbols such as when images of light are indicative of knowledge or life and darkness

as suggestive of ignorance or death. From imagery, the reader can derive both meaning
and feelings.

Similes and metaphors

Both similes and metaphors involve comparison. A simile establishes comparison

between two things explicitly using the word ‘like’ or ‘as’. Sometimes the words such as

‘than’ or the phrase ‘as resembles’ may also be used in a simile. Look at the examples
below:

 Your fingers are like sausages

 I am as busy as a bee

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  He is desolate as resembles a man who has just lost his wife
A metaphor, on the other hand, is a statement in which one thing is something else which

in literal sense is not. Unlike in a simile, the comparison in a metaphor is implied (implicit
or indirect) since the expression employs no such direct verbal clues such as ‘like’ or ‘as’.
Consider the following examples of metaphors that people use in everyday

conversations:

 My daughter is an angel

 We saw a blanket of fog

A metaphor may represent something in the work and reveal the state of mind of the

speaker viewing the world. It may also confirm, revise or challenge the conventional
ways in which we think.
Personification

Poets sometimes go to the extent of endowing inanimate objects or abstract concepts with
human characteristics. This element is what we call personification. Read the followin g
sentences in which a thing, animal or abstract entity or phenomenon has been

represented as if it were a human being:

 Can honour’s voice provoke the silent dust?

 Truth shall speak for itself

 The lettuce was lonely without tomatoes and cucumbers for company

 The cloud was pregnant with rain

What do you think would be the meaning of each of the above sentences? What would
be their effects if they were to occur in a spoken or written text?

Symbolism

A symbol can be defined as a word, object or action that stands for, or points to a reality
beyond itself. It is a special kind of image which exceeds the usual image in richness and

55
connotation. Symbols often share in the reality for which they stand. Firstly, a commonly
used symbol, the sunrise or rising sun not only stands for a new beginning; it is the new

beginning of a day. Because it is actually a new beginning, it can stand for many other
new beginnings such as the birth of a new nation and others but how do you recognize a
symbol? Symbols do not carry words such as ‘like’ or ‘as’. Secondly, most symbols are

traditional such as ‘sleep’, ‘sunset’, ‘night’ and ‘the river reaching the sea’ which are
traditionally used as symbols for death. Thirdly, note that a symbol is not an abstract
thing such as death, truth, love, justice and others unless they have been personified. Also

note that a symbol is not another term for metaphor. The meaning of any symbol whether
an object, a gesture or action is determined and controlled by the context.

Hyperbole

In poetry, just like in ordinary speech, people sometimes use statements that are quite an

exaggeration of the state of affairs. Such statements are referred to as hyperbole.

Hyperboles are overstatements. We have often heard soccer fanatics saying, “ I will die if
I miss this game.” Overstatements are very common in poetry. In his poem, Marvel

declares that “their love would grow vaster than empires.” Note that hyperboles can also
be used for humorous effects. The opposite of hyperbole is litote. A litote is an
understatement where the statement implies more than what is said. A person might say,

“In that situation, being fried alive would be somewhat painful.” In one of his poems,
Robert Frost says that, “One could do worse than being a swinger of birches,” which
suggests that to swing on a birch tree is one of the most satisfying activities in the world.

Another example is in form of a warning: “Those of you who think you can disrupt our
rally go there. You will meet our boys there.”

Metonymy and Synecdoche

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Metonymy is a scenario that occurs when the speaker or writer substitutes an attribute of
a thing for the thing itself. In real life, people often talk about the crown to refer to the

queen or king just like clay can sometimes be used to mean the grave in the local
Malawian setting.
Synecdoche is when the speaker uses a part to signify the whole or container for what it

contains. We have heard people say, “Lend me a hand” to mean the other person’s entire
being or presence and participation. In his poem, titled “Lycidas”, John Milton refers to
greedy clergymen as ‘blind mouths’. All these are examples of synecdoche.

Paradox and Irony

Paradox occurs in statements which at first glance strike us as self-contradictory but then

upon reflection make sense. Some paradoxical statements sound more like plays on
words whose chief effect is to create humour so that readers enjoy the words. For

instance, one writer once stated that a peasant lives in a larger world than a global trotter.
In this paradox, two different meanings are contrasted: greater in spiritual sense versus
greater in terms of distance. In a poem titled “And when you balance on your head”,

Okot p’Bitek writes:

And the wild white lilies
Are shouting silently

To the bees and butterflies [stanza 2]

The expression “shouting silently” in the excerpt above sounds self-contradictory
(paradoxical) and yet it is effectively used to communicate the poet’s view.

Irony: Note that poets sometimes use words to mean the opposite of what they really

mean. In that case, we say that they are being ironical. Irony is often used as a joke and
with a certain tone of voice that reveals the ironic intention of the speaker. In his poem,
“Once upon a time” Gabriel Okara writes:
57
 I have learned to wear many faces
Like dresses – home face, street face, host face, cocktail face

With all their comforting smiles (stanza 4)

The last like particularly contains irony because the spirit of the persona throughout the
poem is negative about these many faces described in the stanza. Actually, he later calls

such things “muting things” which he or she would like to get rid of. For sure the persona
does not mean it when saying, “With all their comforting smiles.”

Allegory

This could be a poem, dialogue, story, scene or action in which two meanings run parallel

to each other, one literal and the other implied.

Activity 1

Read “An African thunderstorm” by David Rubadiri below and answer the questions
that follow:
An African thunderstorm

From the west

Clouds come hurrying with the wind
Turning

Sharply
Here and there
Like a plague of locusts

Whirling
Tossing up things on its tail

Like a mad man chasing nothing.

Pregnant clouds
Ride stately on its back
58
 Gathering to perch on hills
Like dark sinister wings;

The Wind whistles by

And trees blend to let it pass

In the village
Screams of delighted children
Toss and turn

In the din of the whirling wind.

Women –

Babies clinging on their backs

Dart about
In and out

Madly
The wind whirls by
Whilst trees bend to let it pass

Clothes wave like tattered flags

Flying off
To expose dangling breasts

As jiggered blinding flashes

Rumble, tremble and crack
Amidst the smell of fired smoke

And the pelting march of the storm

(David Rubadiri)
Questions

1. Identify the element of poetic expression used in each of the following lines:

59
 (a). Like a plague of locusts (line 6)
(b). Pregnant clouds gather (line 10)

(c). In the din of whirling wind (line 19)

(d). Rumble, tremble and crack (line 31)
(e). The pelting march of the storm (line 33)

2. What is the storm that is referred to in the poem? Identify three words or phrases
that reveal this storm.
3. Using the words of the poem, what other interpretation do you derive from the

poem? What words suggest the alternative interpretation that you have come up
with? Explain your answer.

4.Why has the poet focused on women and children in his depiction of the storm?
5. What do the following metaphors in the poem mean?
(a). clouds gathering to perch on the hills (line 12)

(b). trees bending to let the wind pass (line 15)

6. Briefly explain David Rubadiri’s view of Africa in the wake of the storm as reflected
in the poem.

7. Identify images in the poem by listing down all words that deal with movement or
sound. What contribution do they make towards communicating the poet’s
message?

Activity 2

Read Christina Rossetti’s “Uphill” below and figure out the journey being referred to in

the poem by drawing evidence from the poem. What other interpretation could you
derive from the poem?

Uphill

Does the road wind up-hill all the way?

60
 Yes, to the very end.
Will the day’s journey take the whole long day?

From morn to night my friend.

But is there for the night a resting place?

A room for when the slow dark hours begin.

May not the darkness hide it from my face?
You cannot miss that inn.

Shall I meet other travelers at night?

Those who have gone before

Then must I knock, or call when just in sight?
They will not keep you standing at the door.

Shall I find comfort, travel-sore and weak?

Of labour you shall find the sum.
Will there be bed for me and all who seek

Yea, beds for all who come.

(Christina Rossetti)

(b). Apart from the allegorical interpretations demanded of you above, identify instances
of the following in the poem:
(i) Contraction

(ii) Symbolism
(iii) Poetic license

(iv) Metaphor

Sound Effects in Poetry: rhyme, rhythm, assonance alliteration

61
Every word in a poem has a sound pattern as well as a meaning. Sounds are very
important in poetry for they are sometimes made to play a part in the meaning and

impact of the poem. The reader of a poem should therefore ask himself, “What effects are
being produced by the sounds of the words of the poem?”

Rhyme can be described as the matching of final vowel and consonant sounds in two or
more words. When the corresponding sounds occur at the ends of lines, we term it as end
rhymes while when they occur within the lines, that is internal rhymes. Rhymes add to

the sense of aesthetic beauty and pleasure to the reader but are a big challenge to the poet
to construct them.

In Robert Frost’s poem titled “Stopping by woods on a snowy evening” the persona is
caught between his desire to remain still, peacefully held by the serene beauty of the

woods and his contrasting need to leave, to return to his responsibilities. In a similar
fashion, the poem’s rhyme scheme is caught between a surge forward towards a new
sound and a return to a sound repeated earlier. Such is the scenario where the rhyme

pattern supports the meaning of the poem.

Alliteration is, by definition, the repetition of a certain consonant sound especially at the

beginning of words while Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds. In the poem titled

“Stopping by woods on a snowy evening” already referenced above, both alliteration and
assonance are clearly audible. Read the poem in question and state the contribution these

sound effects make to the idea, feelings and meaning conveyed in the poem. Note that
poets often use alliteration, assonance and onomatopoeia to emphasize the main idea

expressed in the poem. What do you understand by onomatopoeia and how does it differ
from alliteration and assonance?

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Rhythm is the regular recurrence of the accent or stress in a poem. It is the pulse or beat

we feel in the lines of poetry. Note that poets rely heavily on rhythm to express meaning
and convey feelings. Meter is associated with rhythm in that it is a count of stresses we
feel in the poem’s rhythm. The unit of poetic meter in English is the foot which is a unit

of measure consisting of stressed and unstressed syllables.

Activity 3

Read the poem titled “Silence returned” by Zondiwe Mbano below and answer the

questions that follow:

Unit summary

This unit has discussed the nature of poetry. It has explored various elements that
distinguish poetry from other forms of literary expression. It has been noted that a poem

may contain a number of elements which work in harmony to generate meaning and
feelings in the reader’s mind. It must be stated that the nature of poetry provided in this
module or elsewhere else eludes simple definition and characterization of poetic

expression. We strongly advise you to study various poems and let them grow in your
mind, in order to understand and appreciate how the various elements of poetry work in
practice. Some people argue that poetry ought not to be studied at all insisting that an

experience with poetry is so holy that to analyse it in a classroom is cruel and mechanical.
We can increase our ability to comprehend a poem by looking for imagery in its various
manifestations; examining the structure of the poem and listening to the poems sound

effects.

Further Reading

Boyd, C.D. et al (1997). Spotlight on Literature. New York: McGraw-Hill.

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Furniss, T. & Bath, M. (1996). Reading Poetry: An Introduction. London: Longman.

Hogins, J.B. (1974). Literature: Poetry. Chicago: Science Research Associates Inc.

Thorne, S. (1997). Mastering English Literature. London: Macmillan.

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Unit 6: The Play

While prose fiction and poetry are largely consumed through reading, drama cannot be

fully appreciated through reading alone for the natural home of drama is the theatre
where action are performed.
Key terms

Theatre, drama, dramatis personae, act, scene, playwright, tragedy, comedy, auditioning,
props, spectacle, stagehands, costume, set, rehearsal
Learning outcomes

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 State the relationship between theatre and drama

 Apply relevant terminologies and vocabulary commonly used in theatre and

drama
Resources needed

In studying this unit, you will need the following resources:

Macbeth by William Shakespeare

Beyond the Barricades by Dunduzu Chisiza Jr

The Lion and the jewel by Wole Soyinka

What is drama and what is theatre?

Drama is a field of study. Drama can also refer to the play-script. Theatre is often a

building where theatrical performances take place, but when an actor says he is engaged
in theatre, he is talking about the things he does in the course of preparing for
performances on the stage. A person who writes plays is called a playwright. The duty

of a playwright is simply to write a play. Usually the playwright is to there when his play
is performed. It is the duty of the producer or director to interpret the play-script and get
actors rehearse on it until it is ready for the audience to watch it on the stage.

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Activity 1

Visit a hall in a school, college, university or community centre when it is free and answer

the following questions:

1. Does the stage have curtains that open and close?

2. What activities take place in this hall?

3. What facilities are there at the back of the stage and the auditoriums in terms of

size, position and function?

4.
Layout of a play-script

We will use William Shakespeare’s Macbeth to explore what every play-script must

contain. Where possible find a copy of Macbeth because we will be making reference to
it throughout this section.
Title
The play has a title, Macbeth. For every play-script you deal with look at the title and think

about it especially if it is telling you anything about the play.

Dramatis Personae

The term, ‘Dramatis Personae‘ refers to the list of characters in a play-script. In some
editions of Macbeth, the list of characters is actually called dramatis personae. In others it

is headed by the word “Characters” or “List of Characters”. The list contains the names

of all characters in the play or sometimes all the most important ones. In this case,
Macbeth, the witches, King Duncan, Donalbain, Lady Macbeth, Malcolm, Macduff and
others are mentioned. You should always take your time to look at the list of characters

and note the relationships among them. That knowledge will help you understand the
text when you come to read the play-script.

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Characters

The term “characters” refers to people who appear in the play. In Macbeth, the most

important characters are mentioned first, the less important ones are mentioned last.

Acts and scenes

A play is divided into bigger unit called Acts and smaller units called Scenes. Macbeth is

divided into bigger sections called Acts. There are five Acts making up the play of
Macbeth. In turn, each Act is divided into scenes. The number of scenes varies from Act

to Act. Act 1 in Macbeth introduces all the important characters so that by the end of it,

you should have a clear idea of who the characters are and their relationships. Acts and
scenes build the theme of the play. One of the themes in Macbeth is hinted by the paradox

“Fair is foul and foul is fair”. When you hear the witches making this declaration, your
mind should begin to tickle. During the days of William Shakespeare, plays almost had

five Acts but the number of scenes in each Act varied considerably.

Stage Directions

These are instructions which a playwright or an editor of a play-script writes at the top
of each scene or within the text. These indicate the places where the scenes take place,
describe the sets of given scenes, indicates various activities of the characters such as

entrances, exits and others. The word “Exit indicates that one character is leaving the
stage. The plural form “Exeunt” indicates that several characters are leaving the stage.

Dialogue

Play-scripts are written in form of dialogue, that is to say the words spoken by characters

are shown against their names or designations. For example, in Act 1 Scene 1 of Macbeth,
the words spoken by each of the three witches are written against their designations in
the order they have spoken as follows:
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1 Witch When shall we three meet again?
In thunder, lightning or in rain?

2 Witch When the hurlyburly’s done,

When the battle is lost and won

3 Witch That will be ere the set of sun.

Activity 2
Find yourself a copy of Macbeth and carefully study Act 1 Scenes 1 to 3. Answer the

following questions:

1. What do you learn from stage directions on top of the scenes and within the text?

2. Describe the major action in each of the three scenes?

3. How are the characters known or distinguished from one another?
4. Write brief summaries of each scene by pointing out any interesting things you

have noticed.
5. Repeat the above process as you go through the entire play of Macbeth.

Play Reading strategy

Form a play-reading group and arrange reading sessions of an hour or two at a time. In
your groups, readers should act out the parts they are reading with their voices raised,

that is to say, the emotions revealed by the play should be registered accordingly as they
read and act out their respective parts.
Elements of the play

The elements of a play highlighted in this section were developed by Aristotle, an ancient
Greek Philosopher and theorist who identified six major elements of a play as explained
below:

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Plot

Plot is the arrangement of events in a play that are related to each other in a cause-and-

effect relationship. A playwright tells his story through a careful selection of essential
events most of which are shown on the stage, while a few are merely reported. Events
shown on the stage are usually depicted as happening in the present time although they

may also be depicted as having happened in the past or are happening in the future time
using relevant narrative devices and techniques such as flashback or foreshadowing.
Understanding the plot of a play is key to understanding the play itself. According to

Aristotle, plot has eleven elements that constitute it namely: Exposition, Complication,
Crisis, Climax, point of attack, foreshadowing, Denoument, Discovery, Unity of time,

Unity of place and Unity of action. Aristotle considered plot as the most important
element of a play, more important than characters to which some critics disagree.
Characters

The term “character” is used in drama to mean each person in a play since the playwright
tells his or her story through the actions and utterances of characters. Every play has
major and minor characters or actors.
Thought

Thought is the intellectual capacity of characters revealed through what they say or do.
In addition to thought, the personality of each character is important. Thought also

includes the themes that manifest in the play. In the absence of thought, a play would not
be meaningful.
Diction

Diction consists of words used by actors in their conversations with others. The words
which characters use define and identify the characters. Very often, what the character

says (substance) and how he or she says them (style of expressing oneself) is easily
noticed by the audience as a mark of his or her personality. Diction also adds value to the
play as good diction renders itself to the stage since it is natural and credible.
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Music

Under music, Aristotle included all auditory sounds in a play production such as voice

manipulations, sound effects, speech cadences, singing, volume, rhythm and other.
Aristotle insists that if music is properly blended in a play production, it should be part
and parcel of meaning and significance of the actions since it adds to the environment

and understanding of the play.

Spectacle

By Spectacle, Aristotle referred to the appearance in general under which he included all

the visual elements of a production such as costume, make-up, scenery, lighting as well
as movements and dancing
Classification of Drama

Drama is usually divided into two: tragedy and comedy. It is also generally accepted that
there is a third type which is neither complete tragedy nor comedy. This third type is in-

between the two and is referred to as Tragicomedy.

Tragedy

Tragedy is regarded as serious drama dealing with important issues in human life, often

ending in death, injury or damage and loss of property.

Comedy

Comedy is a type of play which deals with lighter side of life, usually ending in joy and

celebration, reconciliation, success or re-connection. The range of comedy is wide as some

comic plays aim purely at laughter and amusement. Some are a bit serious ending in
happy marriages and other good endings.
Aspects of play production

Every playwright looks forward to his or her play getting produced on the stage. Play

production is the process of integrating the play-script and the theatre so that the drama
can become a stage action for the audience to watch. Various personnel take part in

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translating the play-script into drama performance on the stage and it takes several stages
for the drama performance to be realized.
The stage

A stage can be found in a simple school hall. It needs to have curtains at the front. These
can be drawn open so that they can be closed to hide whatever is happening behind

scenes from audience’s view at an appropriate time. There should also be dressing or
changing rooms Behind the stage that are not visible from the audience. The floor plan of
a stage is divided into nine parts namely: stage centre, up stage, down stage, up stage

left, down stage left, left stage centre, up stage right, down stage right and up stage right.
This floor plan needs to be understood by the Director of the play, actors and all those

assisting in the production so that they can communicate effectively.

Various personnel in play production

The Director

The Director is the chief officer (over-all in-charge) in play production. The Director’s first
job is to select a play-script that he or she wishes to produce. To arrive at that choice, the

Director reads several/different play-scripts. Sometimes the playwright acts as the

Director of his or her own play but such occurrences are rare. When that happens, the
playwright might write a play that answers the needs of that theatre at that given time.

Apart from choosing a play for production, the Director auditions the actors and
rehearses the play. He explains the vision of the play to the crew and the cast. The Director
works with other officers of the production team such as the stage manager, the lighting

designer, the costume designer, the wardrobe mistress and the sound designer. It takes
great commitment and discipline for a play-script to be transformed into a performance.

The Stage Manager

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The Stage Manager is second in command to the Director and attends all rehearsals and
performances. The Stage Manager also deals with all problems at the back of the stage.

Stagehands assist the Stage Manager to set up and strike sets. A set is an arrangement of
each scene: the way the place looks like and the arrangement of furniture, if any.

The Costume Designer and Wardrobe mister/mistress

A Costume Designer is an artist who reads the play-script carefully and designs
appropriate costumes for all members of the cast in terms of style and colours. On the

other hand, the Wardrobe Mister/Mistress is an administrator who takes responsibility

of all aspects of costumes in terms of safe keeping, cleaning, ironing, repair, availability

etc. He or she must know when actors change costumes so that the right costumes are
put on.

Sound Manager

This officer is responsible for special effects and music to accompany the performance.
The Sound Manager plots a sound chart indicating all sounds to be used from the

beginning of the play to the end. The Sound Manager may assist the Director in selecting
appropriate music and sound effects for the various parts of the play after careful reading
of the play.

The Lighting Manager

The Lighting Manager takes charge of the lighting panel. He or she plots a lighting chart

indicating the type of lights to be used from the beginning of the play to the end. He too
reads the play carefully before making the chart.

The Props Manager

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The Props Manager ensures that all stage properties are available in the right place and
at the right time. He or she reads the play carefully and writes down all the props needed.

He or she procures all the props (stage properties) which may include items like guns,
sticks, hats, umbrellas - anything that that the script requires an actor to use. The Props
Manager secures all the props at the end of each performance.

The Front-of-the- house Manager

The Front-of-the- house Manager looks after the welfare of the audience. He or she has a

team of ushers that assists in seating the audience. The Front-of-the- house Manager
arranges for the availability of the tickets and the safety of the cash.

Activity 3: Play analysis

Read the play, “Beyond the Barricades” from a collection titled Democracy Boulevard by

Dunduzu Chisiza Junior and answer the questions that follow:

1. What is the play all about?

2. Of what significance is the title “Beyond the Barricades” to the theme of the play?
3. Describe three other elements of a play besides theme in this play
Stages or processes in play production

After the Director has selected a play for production the following processes take place:

Auditioning

A notice is sent out announcing a date for auditioning the play. Auditioning is the process
of choosing actors and actresses who can best suit the various characters or parts in a play

by virtue of their physical appearance, voice or other natural characteristic they possess.
During an audition, actors and actresses are asked to read selected parts of a play-script
while the Director watches them. Those who have understood the script will interpret it

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with their voices, movements, and body language. The process of allocating parts to
specific actors is called casting. Once casting is done, the play is ready for rehearsals.

Reading Rehearsal

The reading rehearsal is the first of the many rehearsals that will follow. Normally all

members of the cast, including the Director and Stage Manager attend. During reading
rehearsal, the whole play may be read or selected scenes only may be read. The reading
rehearsal gives the cast an opportunity to understand the play better and get a feel of it.

As the actors and actresses enact the play through their voices and gestures, the various
passions come to the surface leading to a desire to get on the stage and get on with it.

Block Rehearsal

This is usually a long rehearsal as directors like to block the whole play on one occasion.

The Director explains to the cast entrances and exits as well as movements for every scene
in great detail. In addition, details for every set are explained so that the Stage Manager
and his or her hands may know when to set up and strike, that is, when to arrange the

set for a scene and when to remove it. In a complex play, there could be several sets that
are arranged and struck a number of times. At the end of the block rehearsal, every
member ought to know what to do.

Line Rehearsal

It is most advisable that memorization of lines should only start after the block rehearsal

for this will enable actors to memorize lines with corresponding sets and movements in
mind. Every actor should spare some time each day memorizing lines aloud in a secluded

place and match them with the movements. For line rehearsal purposes, the play is
divided into manageable parts which are rehearsed upon separately.

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Run-through Rehearsal

When the various parts are running satisfactorily, run-throughs are arranged. Every

member of the cast and crew attends these sessions. The Director usually orders that the
rehearsal should not be stopped even if there are errors. This gives him or her an idea of
how long the play is likely to take on the stage. Usually three or even four run-through

rehearsals are held for the play to hang together and be ready for public viewing on the
stage.

Dress Rehearsal

A dress rehearsal is conducted like a run-through rehearsal except that in this, one every

member of the cast must appear in his or her costume and must use the props which will
be used in the final performance. During the dress rehearsal, a small select audience of
friends and family members of the cast may be allowed to watch the performance. All the

other rehearsals are strictly for the Director, the crew and the cast. This secrecy is
important to allow important corrections to get done uninterrupted.

The opening night

This is the first public performance of the play in which the general public and members
of the press attend. If the play is successful, the audience claps hands very warmly. If not,

they will hiss and boo. No wonder everyone is anxious. By the following morning, the
press will have summarized and evaluated the production.
Activity 4

Find a colleague or course-mate with whom you discuss a range of topics on regular basis
and do the following:

1. Explain to him or her the process of paly production.

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 2. Explain the responsibilities of the Director, Stage Manager and Props Manager in
play production

3. Discuss four elements that you would look into when analysing a play.

Unit Summary

The unit has explained the relationship between theatre and drama and also how a play-
script looks like. It has also explained elements of drama based on Aristotle’s analysis. In
addition, it has gone in great detail explaining the process of play production from the

beginning to the end. Various activities have been suggested which are intended to clarify
a number of issues. You are encouraged to work on those exercises or activities

individually or in groups. It is hoped that you will get involved in stage plays as actors
or actresses, directors, stage managers and others. This active participation will enable
you to understand theatre and drama more clearly. It is important to emphasize that the

language of drama matches words with body movements, actions and feelings to such
an extent that meaning in drama is fully realized if words and actions communicate a
message to the audience.

Further Reading
Brockett, O.G. (1969). Theatre: An Introduction. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Cassady, M. (1979). Theatre: An Introduction. Chicago: NTC Contemporary Publishing

Group
Chisiza, D. (1998). Democracy Boulevard and other plays. Blantyre: Wakhumbata

Ensemble Theatre.
Gill, R. (ed) (2003). Macbeth. Channai: O.U.P.

Green, F. et al (ed) (1993). Julius Caesar. Blantyre: Heinemann.

Hatlem, T.W. (1962). Orientation to the Theatre. New York: Meredith Publishing
Company.
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Mackey, S. & Cooper, S. (2000). Drama and Theatre Studies. Cheltenham: Stanley
Thornes.

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