Integrated Circuits

An integrated circuit contains transistors,

capacitors, resistors and other parts packed
in high density on one chip.
Although the function is similar to a circuit
made with separate components, the
internal structure of the components are
different in an integrated circuit.
The transistors, resistors, and capacitors
are formed very small, and in high density
on a foundation of silicon. They are
formed by a variation of printing
technology.
There are many kind of ICs, including
special use ICs.

The top left device in the photograph is an

SN7400. It contains 4 separate "2 input
NAND" circuits. There are 7 pins on each side, 14 pins total.
ICs in this form are called Dual In line Package (DIP).
When an IC has only one row of pins, it os called a Single In line Package (SIP).
The number of pins changes depending on the function of IC.

At the bottom left is an IC socket for use with 14 pin DIP ICs.
ICs can be attached directly to the printed circuit board with solder, but it's better to use an IC socket, because
you can easily exchange it should the IC fail.

On the top right is an LM386N audio amplifier. It can be used for amplification of low frequency, low power
signals. IT has 8 pins and the maximum output is 660mW.

On the bottom right is a TA7368P, which also is for amplification of low frequency electric power. It has a
maximum output of 1.1 watts.
It is a 9 pin SIP IC.

Common ICs
Below, the most common ICs are shown. (Those parts that I use most.)
For extensive details on each part, see the corresponding data sheet.
The part numbers of the SN74 series ICs are written with a 74, often followed by LS or HC.
LS (Low power Shottky) indicates low power consumption. HC indicates the device is High speed C-MOS
(Complementary-Metal Oxide Semiconductor), and is also a low power consumption IC.
The average current consumption for each type of chip is listed below.
The current shown is for when the device is in a LOW state output. In the case of the LOW state output, current
consumption is much greater than in the HIGH state output.
 --
SN7400 -- 22mA
-
--
SN74LS00 -- 4.4mA
-
--
SN74HC00 -- 0.02mA
-

Several kinds of ICs are not available in the LS or HC type. For example, SN7445 is not available in LS or HC.
It is available only as SN7445, the normal type.

Name Function Vcc Pin Assign(Top View) Remarks

SN74HC00 Quad 2 Input +5V 2 input NAND circuits entered 4 pieces
NAND

SN74HC04 Hex Inverters +5V Inverter circuit entered 6 pieces

Details

SN74LS42 BCD to +5V One of output takes LOW state serected by the
DECIMAL binary input.
Decoder

SN7445 O.C. BDC to +5V Open collector type of 7442

DECIMAL
Decoder/Driver Max current of output is 80mA.
SN74LS47 BCD to Segment +5V
Decoder/Driver

Front View
Driving IC of ‚Vsegments LED.
Open collector type
Max resistance voltage:15V

6 and 9 disply type:

Related 74247
SN74HC73 Dual JK-FFs +5V 2 pieces of JK-FF
With Clear

SN74LS90 Decade Counter +5V Asynchronous 2 + 5 counter.

Async preset : 9
Async clear
Related
74290
74390

SN74HC93 4-Bit Binary +5V Asynchronous 2 + 8 counter.

Counter

SN74HC123 Dual +5V Single shot resister holds the output in the
Retriggaerable required time from the input states goes to ON.
Single Shot The output holding time corresponds to
C(capacitor) and R(resistor) connected to the
Cext(External capacitor) and Rext(External
resistor) respectivly.
SN74LS247 BCD to Segment +5V
Decoder/Driver

Front View

6 and 9 disply type:

Related 7447

SN74LS290 Decade Counter +5V This type is the same as the SN7490, with a
different layout of pins.
Related
7490
74390

SN74HC390 Dual Decade +5V Type that inserted 2 SN7490.

Counters Presetting 9 is omitted .
Related
7490
74290

4040B 12Bit Binary +5V 12-stage Binary counter.

Counter It has a clear function.
(CMOS) Counts downward with an external clock pulse.

4541B Progarammable +5V Programmable 16 stage binary counter.

Oscillator/Timer Used in RC oscillation circuits, power reset,
(CMOS) output control circuits.
Tap outputs of 8, 10, 13, 16 bits are possible by
the control terminal.

NE555 Timer +4.5 Max frequency: 500kHz

to Temperature drift: 0.005%/°C.
+16 Max output current: 200mA.
V Delay time setting
:several micro sec to several hours
LM386N-1 Low frequency +4 to Max output: 660mW
electric power 12V Load: 8 to 32-ohm
amplifier Waiting current: 4mA

LM386N-4 Low frequency +5 to Max output: 1.25W

electric power 18V Load: 8 to 32-ohm
amplifier Waiting current: 4mA

TA7368P Low frequency +2 to Max output: 1.1W

electric power +10 Load: 4 to 16-ohm
amplifier V

uPC319 Voltage 5 to Standard general use comparator with single

comparator 18V power supply/dual power supply operation

±5 Other compatible ICs

to LM319
±18 NJM319
V AN1319

7975 Multi-melody IC +1.5 Melody IC that includes 8 pre-programmed

(CMOS) to melodies.
+3V It has 2 sound resources and a settable envelope.

Title
Green-Sleeves
Fur Elise
Heavenly Creatures
Ich bin ein musikante
Valse Favorite
Holderia
 Amaryllis
Home On The Range

Three Terminal Voltage Regulator

It is very easy to get stabilized voltage for ICs by using a three terminal voltage regulator.
The power supply voltage for a car is +12V - +14V. At this voltage, some ICs can not operate directly except for
the car component ICs. In this case, a three terminal voltage regulator is necessary to get the required voltage.
The three terminal voltage regulator outputs stabilized voltage at a lower level than the higher input voltage. A
voltage regulator cannot put out higher voltage than the input voltage. They are similar in appearance to a
transistor.

On the left in the photograph is a 78L05. The size and form is similar to a 2SC1815 transistor.
The output voltage is +5V, and the maximum output current is about 100mA.
The maximum input voltage is +35V. (Differs by manufacturer.)

On the right is a 7805. The output voltage is +5V, and maximum output current is 500mA to 1A. (It depends on
the heat sink used)
The maximum input voltage is also +35V.

There are many types with different output voltages.

5V, 6V, 7V, 8V, 9V, 10V, 12V, 15V, 18V
 Component Lead of Three Terminal Voltage Regulator
Because the component leads differ between kinds of regulators,
you need to confirm the leads
with a datasheet, etc.

Example of 78L05
Part number is printed on the flat
face of the regulator, and
indicates the front.

Right side : Input

Center : Ground
Left side : Output

Example of 7805
Part number is printed on the flat face of the regulator, and indicates the front.

Right side : Output

Center : Ground
Left side : Input

Opposite from 78L05.

Types of capacitor
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Practical capacitors are often classified according to the material used as the dielectric, with the
dielectrics divided into two broad categories: bulk insulators and metal-oxide films (so-called
electrolytic capacitors).

Contents
[hide]
• 1 Capacitor construction
• 2 Types of dielectric
• 3 Fixed capacitor comparisons
• 4 Variable capacitors
 • 5 Non-ideal properties of practical capacitors
○ 5.1 Breakdown voltage
○ 5.2 Q factor, dissipation and tan-delta
○ 5.3 Equivalent series resistance (ESR)
○ 5.4 Equivalent series inductance (ESL)
○ 5.5 Maximum voltage and current
○ 5.6 Temperature dependence
○ 5.7 Aging
○ 5.8 Dielectric absorption (soakage)
○ 5.9 Voltage non-linearities
○ 5.10 Leakage
• 6 Component values and identification
○ 6.1 Standard values
○ 6.2 Capacitor markings
 6.2.1 Numerical markings
 6.2.2 Colour coding
• 7 See also
• 8 Notes
• 9 References
• 10 External links

[edit] Capacitor construction

Structure of a surface mount (SMT) film capacitor.

Capacitors have thin conducting plates (usually made of metal), separated by a layer of
dielectric, then stacked or rolled to form a compact device.
Many types of capacitors are available commercially, with capacitance ranging from the
picofarad, microfarad range to more than a farad, and voltage ratings up to hundreds of kilovolts.
In general, the higher the capacitance and voltage rating, the larger the physical size of the
capacitor and the higher the cost. Tolerances in capacitance value for discrete capacitors are
usually specified as a percentage of the nominal value. Tolerances ranging from 50%
(electrolytic types) to less than 1% are commonly available.
Another figure of merit for capacitors is stability with respect to time and temperature,
sometimes called drift. Variable capacitors are generally less stable than fixed types.
The electrodes need round edges to avoid field electron emission. Air has a low breakdown
voltage, so any air inside a capacitor - especially at plate edges - will reduce the voltage rating.
Even closed air bubbles in the insulator or between the insulator and the electrode lead to gas
discharge, particularly in AC or high frequency applications. Groups of identically constructed
capacitor elements are often connected in series for operation at higher voltage. High voltage
capacitors need large, smooth, and round terminals to prevent corona discharge.
[edit] Types of dielectric

Polariz Variabl
Capacit ed e
or Capacit Capacit
or or

Capacitor symbols
• Air-gap: air-gap capacitors have a low dielectric loss. Large-valued, tunable
capacitors that can be used for resonating HF antennas can be made this
way.
• Ceramic: the main differences between ceramic dielectric types are the
temperature coefficient of capacitance, and the dielectric loss. C0G and NP0
(negative-positive-zero, i.e. ±0) dielectrics have the lowest losses, and are
used in filters, as timing elements, and for balancing crystal oscillators.
Ceramic capacitors tend to have low inductance because of their small size.
NP0 refers to the shape of the capacitor's temperature coefficient graph (how
much the capacitance changes with temperature). NP0 means that the graph
is flat and the device is not affected by temperature changes.
○ C0G or NP0: typically 1 pF to 0.1 µF, 5%. High tolerance and good
temperature performance. Larger and more expensive.
○ X7R: typically 100 pF to 22 µF, 10%. Good for non-critical coupling,
timing applications. Subject to microphonics. Temperature up to 125°C
○ X8R: typically 100 pF to 10 µF, 25-100v, 5-10%. Good for high
temperature up to 150°C
○ Z5U or 2E6: typically 1 nF to 10 µF, 20%. Good for bypass, coupling
applications. Low price and small size. Subject to microphonics.
○ Ceramic chip: 1% accurate, values up to about 1 µF, typically made
from Lead zirconate titanate (PZT) ferroelectric ceramic
• Gimmick: these capacitors are made by twisting together 2 pieces of
insulated wire. Values usually range from 3 pF to 15 pF. Usually used in
homemade VHF circuits for oscillation feedback.
• Trimmer: these capacitors have a rotating plate (which can be rotated to
change the capacitance) separated from a fixed plate by a dielectric medium.
Typically values range from 5 pF to 60 pF.
• Glass: used to form extremely stable, reliable capacitors.
• Paper: common in antique radio equipment, paper dielectric and aluminum
foil layers rolled into a cylinder and sealed with wax. Low values up to a few
μF, working voltage up to several hundred volts, oil-impregnated bathtub
types to 5 kV used for motor starting and high-voltage power supplies, and
up to 25 kV for large oil-impregnated energy discharge types.
• Polycarbonate: good for filters, low temperature coefficient, good aging,
expensive.
• Polyester, (PET film): (from about 1 nF to 10 μF) signal capacitors,
integrators.
• Polystyrene: (usually in the picofarad range) stable signal capacitors.
• Polypropylene: low-loss, high voltage, resistant to breakdown, signal
capacitors.
• PTFE or Teflon: higher performing and more expensive than other plastic
dielectrics.
• Silver mica: These are fast and stable for HF and low VHF RF circuits, but
expensive.
• Electrolytic capacitors have a larger capacitance per unit volume than
other types, making them valuable in relatively high-current and low-
frequency electrical circuits, e.g. in power-supply filters or as coupling
 capacitors in audio amplifiers. High-capacity electrolytics, also known as
supercapacitors or ultracapacitors, have applications similar to those of
rechargeable batteries, e.g. in electrically powered vehicles.
• Printed circuit board: metal conductive areas in different layers of a multi-
layer printed circuit board can act as a highly stable capacitor. It is common
industry practice to fill unused areas of one PCB layer with the ground
conductor and another layer with the power conductor, forming a large
distributed capacitor between the layers, or to make power traces broader
than signal traces.
• In integrated circuits, small capacitors can be formed through appropriate
patterns of metallization on an isolating substrate.
• Vacuum: vacuum variable capacitors are generally expensive, housed in a
glass or ceramic body, typically rated for 5-30 kV. Typically used in high
power RF transmitters because the dielectric has virtually no loss and is self-
healing. May be fixed or adjustable.

[edit] Fixed capacitor comparisons

Capacitor
Dielectric used Features/applications Disadvantages
type

Large size. Also,

paper is highly
hygroscopic,
Impregnated paper was absorbing moisture
extensively used for older from the atmosphere
capacitors, using wax, oil, or despite plastic
Paper or oil- epoxy as an impregnant. Oil- enclosures and
Paper
impregnated Kraft paper capacitors are still impregnates.
Capacitors
paper used in certain high voltage Absorbed moisture
applications. Has mostly been degrades
replaced by plastic film performance by
capacitors. increasing dielectric
losses (power factor)
and decreasing
insulation resistance.

Suitable only for

lower current
Metalized applications. Has
Comparatively smaller in size
Paper Paper been largely
than paper-foil capacitors
Capacitors superseded by
metalized film
capacitors

PET film Polyester film Smaller in size when Temperature stability

Capacitor compared to paper or is poorer than paper
 polypropylene capacitors of
comparable specifications.
May use plates of foil,
metalized film, or a capacitors. Usable at
combination. PET film low (AC power)
capacitors have almost frequencies, but
completely replaced paper inappropriate for RF
capacitors for most DC applications due to
electronic applications. excessive dielectric
Operating voltages up to heating.
60,000 V DC and operating
temperatures up to 125 °C.
Low moisture absorption.

Higher cost than PET.

Temperature stability
is poorer than paper
capacitors. Usable at
Similar to PET film, but
Kapton Kapton low (AC power)
significantly higher operating
Capacitor polyimide film frequencies, but
temperature (up to 250 °C).
inappropriate for RF
applications due to
excessive dielectric
heating.

Excellent general purpose

plastic film capacitor.
Excellent stability, low
moisture pick-up and a Maximum operating
slightly negative temperature temperature is
Polystyrene
Polystyrene coefficient that can be used limited to about +85
Capacitor
to match the positive °C. Comparatively
temperature co-efficient of bigger in size.
other components. Ideal for
low power RF and precision
analog applications

Polycarbonat Polycarbonate Superior insulation resistance, Maximum operating

e Plastic Film dissipation factor, and temperature limited
Capacitor dielectric absorption versus to about 125 °C.
polystyrene capacitors.
Moisture pick-up is less, with
about ±80 ppm temperature
coefficient. Can use full
operating voltage across
 entire temperature range
(−55 °C to 125 °C)

Extremely low dissipation

factor, higher dielectric
strength than polycarbonate
and polyester films, low
moisture absorption, and high
insulation resistance. May use
plates of foil, metalized film, More susceptible to
or a combination. Film is damage from
compatible with self-healing transient over-
technology to improve voltages or voltage
Polypropylen
reliability. Usable in high reversals than oil-
e Plastic Film Polypropylene
frequency applications and impregnated Kraft
Capacitors
high frequency high power paper for pulsed
applications such as induction power energy
heating (often combined with discharge
water-cooling) due to very applications.
low dielectric losses. Larger
value and higher voltage
types from 1 to 100 μF at up
to 440 V AC are used as run
capacitors in some types of
single phase electric motors.

Similar to polycarbonate. Can

withstand full voltage at
Polysulphone Very limited
comparatively higher
Plastic Film Polysulfone availability and
temperatures. Moisture pick-
Capacitors higher cost
up is typically 0.2%, limiting
its stability.

Lowest loss solid dielectric.

PTFE Operating temperatures up to Large size (due to
Fluorocarbon 250 °C, extremely high low dielectric
Polytetra- fluoro
(TEFLON) insulation resistance, and constant), and higher
ethylene
Film good stability. Used in cost than other film
Capacitors stringent, mission-critical capacitors.
applications

Polyamide Polyamide Operating temperatures of up Large size and high

Plastic Film to 200 °C. High insulation cost.
Capacitors resistance, good stability and
 low dissipation factor.

Reliable and significantly

Metalized smaller in size. Thin Thin plates limit
Polyester or
Plastic Film metalization can be used to maximum current
Polycarbonate
Capacitors advantage by making carrying capability.
capacitors "self healing".

Unless properly
sealed, susceptible to
Advantages of mica
moisture pick-up
capacitors arise from the fact
which will increase
that the dielectric material
the power factor and
Stacked (mica) is inert. It does not
decrease insulation
Plate Mica Mica change physically or
resistance. Higher
Capacitors chemically with age and it
cost due to scarcity
has good temperature
of high grade
stability. Very resistant to
dielectric material
corona damage
and manually-
intensive assembly.

Silver mica capacitors have

Metalized
the above mentioned
Mica or
Mica advantages. In addition, they Higher cost
Silver Mica
have much reduced moisture
Capacitors
infiltration.

Similar to Mica Capacitors.

Stability and frequency
characteristics are better
Glass
Glass than silver mica capacitors. High cost.
Capacitors
Ultra-reliable, ultra-stable,
and resistant to nuclear
radiation.

Low cost and small size,

Class-I excellent high frequency
Capacitance changes
Temperature Mixture of characteristics and good
with change in
Compensatin complex reliability. Predictable linear
applied voltage, with
g Type Titanate capacitance change with
frequency and with
Ceramic compounds operating temperature.
aging effects.
Capacitors Available in voltages up to
15,000 volts

Class-II High Barium titanate Smaller than Class-I type due Not as stable as
dielectric to higher dielectric strength Class-I type with
 respect to
strength temperature, and
of ceramics used. Available in
Type Ceramic based dielectrics capacitance changes
voltages up to 50,000 volts.
Capacitors significantly with
applied voltage.

Very large capacitance to
volume ratio, inexpensive,
Aluminum
polarized. Primary
Electrolytic Aluminum oxide
applications are as smoothing
Capacitors
and reservoir capacitors in
power supplies.
Dielectric leakage is
high, large internal
resistance and
inductance limits
high frequency
performance, poor
low temperature
stability and loose
tolerances. May vent
or burst open when
overloaded and/or
overheated. Limited
to about 500 volts.

The lithium ion capacitors

have a higher power density
as compared to batteries and
LIC’s are safer in use than
LIB’s in which thermal
runaway reactions may occur.
Lithium Ion
Lithium ion Compared to electric double New technology.
Capacitors
layer capacitor (EDLC), the
LIC has a higher output
voltage. They both have
similar power densities, but
energy density of an LIC is
much higher.

Tantalum Tantalum oxide Large capacitance to volume Higher cost than

Electrolytic ratio, smaller size, good
Capacitors stability, wide operating
temperature range, long
reliable operating life.
Extensively used in
miniaturized equipment and
computers. Available in both
polarized and unpolarized
varieties. Solid tantalum
capacitors have much better
aluminum electrolytic
capacitors. Voltage
limited to about 50
volts. Explodes quite
violently when
voltage rating,
current rating, or
slew rates are
exceeded, or when a
polarized version is
 characteristics than their wet subjected to reverse
counterparts. voltage.

Extremely large capacitance

to volume ratio, small size,
low ESR. Available in
hundreds, or thousands, of
farads. A relatively new
capacitor technology. Often
used to temporarily provide
Electrolytic
power to equipment during
double-layer Thin Electrolyte
battery replacement. Can
capacitors layer and
rapidly absorb and deliver Relatively high cost.
(EDLC) Activated
larger currents than batteries
Supercapacit Carbon
during charging and
ors
discharging, making them
valuable for hybrid vehicles.
Polarized, low operating
voltage (volts per capacitor
cell). Groups of cells are
stacked to provide higher
overall operating voltage.

Usually PET or polypropylene

film dielectric. Primarily
designed to provide very
large capacitance for
Limited to low
industrial AC applications to
Alternating frequency
withstand large currents and
current oil- Oil-impregnated applications due to
high peak voltages at power
filled paper high dielectric losses
line frequencies. The
Capacitors at higher
applications include AC motor
frequencies.
starting and running, phase
splitting, power factor
correction, voltage regulation,
control equipment, etc..

Direct Paper or Paper- Primarily designed for DC Operating voltage

current oil- polyester film applications such as filtering, rating must be
filled combination bypassing, coupling, arc derated as per the
capacitors suppression, voltage curve supplied by the
doubling, etc... manufacturer if the
DC contains ripple.
Physically larger than
polymer dielectric
 counterparts.

Designed specifically for

Kraft capacitor Physically large and
intermittent duty, high
paper heavy. Significantly
current discharge
impregnated lower energy density
applications. More tolerant of
with electrical than polymer
Energy voltage reversal than many
grade castor oil dielectric systems.
Storage polymer dielectrics. Typical
or similar high Not self-healing.
Capacitors applications include pulsed
dielectric Device may fail
power, electromagnetic
constant fluid, catastrophically due
forming, pulsed lasers, Marx
with extended to high stored
generators, and pulsed
foil plates energy.
welders.

Vacuum Extremely low loss. Used for

capacitors use high voltage high power RF
highly applications, such as
Very high cost,
evacuated glass transmitters and induction
Vacuum fragile, physically
or ceramic heating where even a small
Capacitors large, and relatively
chamber with amount of dielectric loss
low capacitance.
concentric would cause excessive
cylindrical heating. Can be self-healing if
electrodes. arc-over current is limited.

A 12 pF, 20 kV fixed vacuum capacitor

Two 8 μF, 525 V paper electrolytic capacitors in a 1930s radio.[1]

• Images of different types of capacitors

[edit] Variable capacitors

Main article: Variable capacitor

Variable capacitors may have their capacitance intentionally and repeatedly changed over the life
of the device. They include capacitors that use a mechanical construction to change the distance
between the plates, or the amount of plate surface area which overlaps, and variable capacitance
diodes that change their capacitance as a function of the applied reverse bias voltage.
Variable capacitance is also used in sensors for physical quantities, including microphones,
pressure and hygro sensors.
[edit] Non-ideal properties of practical capacitors
[edit] Breakdown voltage
Main article: Breakdown voltage

The breakdown voltage of the dielectric limits the power density of capacitors. For a particular
dielectric, the breakdown voltage is proportional to the thickness of the dielectric.
If a manufacturer makes a new capacitor with the same dielectric as some old capacitor, but with
half the thickness of the dielectric, the new capacitor has half the breakdown voltage of the old
capacitor.
Because the plates are closer together, the manufacturer can put twice the parallel-plate area
inside the new capacitor and still fit it in the same volume (capacitor size) as the old capacitor.
Since the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is given by:

this new capacitor has 4 times the capacitance as the old capacitor.
Since the energy stored in a capacitor is given by:
this new capacitor has the same maximum energy density as the old capacitor.
The energy density depends only on the dielectric. Making a few thick layers of dielectric (which
can support a high voltage, but results in a low capacitance), or making many very thin layers of
dielectric (which results in a low breakdown voltage, but a higher capacitance) has no effect on
the energy density.
[edit] Q factor, dissipation and tan-delta
Capacitors have Q (quality) factor (and the inverse, dissipation factor, D or tan-delta) which
relates capacitance at a certain frequency to the combined losses due to dielectric leakage and
series internal resistance (also known as ESR) dissipation factor (dielectric loss). The lower the
Q, the lossier the capacitor. Aluminum electrolytic types have typically low Q factors. High Q
capacitors tend to exhibit low DC leakage currents. Tan-delta is the tangent of the phase angle
between voltage and current in the capacitor. This angle is sometimes called the loss angle. It is
related to the power factor which is zero for an ideal capacitor.
[edit] Equivalent series resistance (ESR)
This is an effective resistance that is used to describe the resistive parts of the impedance of
certain electronic components. The theoretical treatment of devices such as capacitors and
inductors tends to assume they are ideal or "perfect" devices, contributing only capacitance or
inductance to the circuit. However, all (non-superconducting) physical devices are constructed of
materials with finite electrical resistance, which means that all real-world components contain
some resistance in addition to their other properties. A low ESR capacitor typically has an ESR
of 0.01 Ω. Low values are preferred for high-current, pulse applications. Low ESR capacitors
have the capability to deliver huge currents into short circuits, which can be dangerous.
For capacitors, ESR takes into account the internal lead and plate resistances and other factors.
An easy way to deal with these inherent resistances in circuit analysis is to express each real
capacitor as a combination of an ideal component and a small resistor in series, the resistor
having a value equal to the resistance of the physical device.
[edit] Equivalent series inductance (ESL)
ESL in signal capacitors is mainly caused by the leads used to connect the plates to the outside
world and the series interconnects used to join sets of plates together internally. For any real-
world capacitor, there is a frequency above DC at which it ceases to behave as a pure
capacitance. This is called the (first) resonant frequency. This is critically important with
decoupling high-speed logic circuits from the power supply. The decoupling capacitor supplies
transient current to the chip. Without decouplers, the IC demands current faster than the
connection to the power supply can supply it, as parts of the circuit rapidly switch on and off.
Large capacitors tend to have much higher ESL than small ones. As a result, electronics will
frequently use multiple bypass capacitors—a small 0.1 µF rated for high frequencies and a large
electrolytic rated for lower frequencies, and occasionally, an intermediate value capacitor.
[edit] Maximum voltage and current
Important properties of capacitors are the maximum working voltage (potential, measured in
volts) and the amount of energy lost in the dielectric. For high-power or high-speed capacitors,
the maximum ripple current, peak current, fault current, and percent voltage reversal are further
considerations. Typically the voltage is 66% of the rated voltage. A voltage higher than that,
usually reduces the life expectancy depending on manufacturer. The time for a voltage to
discharge is 6 time constants.
[edit] Temperature dependence
Another major non-ideality is temperature coefficient (change in capacitance with temperature)
which is usually quoted in parts per million (ppm) per degree Celsius.
[edit] Aging
When refurbishing old (especially audio) equipment, it is a good idea to replace all of the
electrolyte-based capacitors. After long storage, the electrolyte and dielectric layer within
electrolytic capacitors may deteriorate; before powering up equipment with old electrolytics, it
may be useful to apply low voltage to allow the capacitors to reform before applying full voltage.
Deteriorating capacitors are a frequent cause of hum in aging audio equipment.
Non-polarised capacitors also suffer from aging, changing their values slightly over long periods
of time.
In high voltage DC applications, accumulated capacitor stress due to in-rush currents at circuit
power-up can be minimized with a pre-charge circuit.
[edit] Dielectric absorption (soakage)
Some types of dielectrics, when they have been holding a voltage for a long time, maintain a
"memory" of that voltage: after they have been quickly fully discharged and left without an
applied voltage, a voltage will gradually be established which is some fraction of the original
voltage. For some dielectrics 10% or more of the original voltage may reappear. This
phenomenon of unwanted charge storage is called dielectric absorption or soakage, and it
effectively creates a hysteresis or memory effect in capacitors.
The percentage of the original voltage restored depends upon the dielectric and is a non-linear
function of original voltage.[2]
In many applications of capacitors dielectric absorption is not a problem but in some
applications, such as long-time-constant integrators, sample-and-hold circuits, switched-
capacitor analog-to-digital converters, and very low-distortion filters, it is important that the
capacitor does not recover a residual charge after full discharge, and capacitors with low
absorption are specified[3]. For safety, high-voltage capacitors are often stored with their
terminals short circuited.
Some dielectrics have very low dielectric absorption, e.g., polystyrene, polypropylene, NPO
ceramic, and Teflon. Others, in particular those used in electrolytic and supercapacitors, tend to
have high absorption.
[edit] Voltage non-linearities
Capacitors may also change capacitance with applied voltage. This effect is more prevalent in
high k ceramic and some high voltage capacitors. This is a small source of non-linearity in low-
distortion filters and other analog applications.
[edit] Leakage
The resistance between the terminals of a capacitor is never truly infinite, leading to some level
of d.c. 'leakage'; this ultimately limits how long capacitors can store charge. Before modern low-
leakage dielectrics were developed this was a major source of problems in some applications
(long time-constant timers, sample-and-holds, etc.).
[edit] Component values and identification
[edit] Standard values
Before 1960 electronic components values were not standardised. The more common, but not the
only, values for capacitors were 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 3.0, 5.0, 6.0, and 8.0 as base numbers multiplied by
some negative or positive power of ten. Values of 0.001 µF and above were stated in microfarads
(µF, or often mF); lower values were stated in micro-microfarads (µµF, now called picofarads,
pF).
In the late 1960s a standardized set of geometrically increasing preferred values was introduced.
According to the number of values per decade, these were called the E3, E6, E12, etc. series
Seri
Values
es

1. 2. 4.
E3
0 2 7

1. 1. 2. 3. 4. 6.
E6
0 5 2 3 7 8

1. 1. 1. 1. 2. 2. 3. 3. 4. 5. 6. 8.
E12
0 2 5 8 2 7 3 9 7 6 8 2

In many applications capacitors need not be specified to tight tolerance (they often need only to
exceed a certain value); this is particularly true for electrolytic capacitors, which are often used
for filtering and bypassing. Consequently capacitors, particularly electrolytics, often have a
tolerance range of ±20% and need to be available only within E6 (or E3) series values.
Other types of capacitors, e.g. ceramic, can be manufactured to tighter tolerances and are
available in E12 or closer-spaced values (e.g. 47 pF, 56 pF, 68 pF).
With the introduction of S.I. submultiples of micro, nano, and pico, it became customary to
specify capacitors with a number between 1 and 999 followed by farad, microfarad, nanofarad,
or picofarad. While supercapacitors of up to 5,000 farads are produced, it is not usual to use
kilofarad or millifarad.
[edit] Capacitor markings
Capacitors, like most other electronic components, have markings in their bodies to indicate their
electrical characteristics, in particular capacitance, tolerance, working voltage and polarity (if
relevant). For most types of capacitor, numerical markings are used, whereas some capacitors,
especially older types, use colour coding.
[edit] Numerical markings
On capacitors that are large enough (e.g. electrolytic capacitors) the capacity and working
voltage are printed on the body without encoding. Sometimes the markings also include the
maximum working temperature, manufacturer's name and other information.
Smaller capacitors use a shorthand notation, to display all the relevant information in the limited
space. The most commonly used format is: XYZ J/K/M VOLTS V, where XYZ represents the
capacitance (calculated as XY×10Z pF), the letters J, K or M indicate the tolerance (±5%, ±10%
and ±20% respectively) and VOLTS V represents the working voltage.
Polarised capacitors, for which one electrode must always be positive relative to the other, have
clear polarity markings, usually a stripe or a "-" sign on the side of the negative electrode. Also,
the negative lead is usually shorter.
Examples:
An electrolytic capacitor might be marked with the following information: 47µF 160V 105°C
A capacitor with the following text on its body: 105K 330V has a capacitance of 10×105 pF = 1
µF (±10%) with a working voltage of 330 V.
A capacitor with the following text: 473M 100V has a capacitance of 47×103 pF = 47 nF (±20%)
with a working voltage of 100 V.
[edit] Colour coding
Main article: Electronic color code

Capacitors may be marked with 3 or more coloured bands or dots. 3-colour coding encodes most
significant digit, second most significant digit, and multiplier. Additional bands have meanings
which may vary from one type to another. Low-tolerance capacitors may begin with the first 3
(rather than 2) digits of the value. It is usually, but not always, possible to work out what scheme
is used by the particular colours used. Cylindrical capacitors marked with bands may look like
resistors.
Capacitan DC Operating
Significa Multipli Character EIA/vibrat
Colour ce working temperatur
nt digits er istic ion
tolerance voltage e

−55 °C to 10 to
Black 0 1 ±20% — —
+70 °C 55 Hz

Brow
1 10 ±1% B 100 — —
n

−55 °C to
Red 2 100 ±2% C — —
+85 °C

Oran
3 1,000 — D 300 — —
ge

Yello −55 °C to 10 to
4 10,000 — E —
w +125°C 2000 Hz

Gree
5 — ±5% F 500 — —
n

Blue 6 — — — — −55 °C to —
 +150 °C

Viole
7 — — — — — —
t

Grey 8 — — — — — —

Whit
9 — — — — — EIA
e

Gold — — ±0.5%* — 1000 — —

Silve
— — ±10% — — — —
r

*Or ±0.5 pF, whichever is greater.

[edit] See also
The Wikibook Electronics has a page on
the topic of
Capacitors

• Capacitor plague (premature failure of certain incorrectly formulated

electrolytic capacitors)
• Supercapacitor
• Electronic devices and circuits
• Electronic color code
• Inductor

[edit] Notes
1. ^ The abbreviation "MF" was used to indicate microfarads at the time; "MMF"
was common for micro-microfarad = 10-12 F or picofarads.
2. ^ "Modeling Dielectric Absorption in Capacitors" by Ken Kundert
http://www.designers-guide.org/Modeling/da.pdf
3. ^ "Understand Capacitor Soakage to Optimize Analog Systems" by Bob Pease
1982 http://www.national.com/rap/Application/0,1570,28,00.html

[edit] References
• Tre Clifford Super Charged: A Tiny South Korean Company is Out to Make
Capacitors Powerful enough to Propel the Next Generation of Hybrid-Electric
Cars, IEEE Spectrum, January, 2005 Vol 42, No. 1, North American Edition.
• The ARRL Handbook for Radio Amateurs, 68th ed, The Amateur Radio Relay
League, Newington CT USA, 1991
• Basic Circuit Theory with Digital Computations, Lawrence P. Huelsman,
Prentice-Hall, 1972
 • Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society LXXII, Appendix 8, 1782 (Volta
coins the word condenser)
• A. K. Maini Electronic Projects for Beginners, "Pustak Mahal", 2nd Edition:
March, 1998 (INDIA)

[edit] External links

• Spark Museum (von Kleist and Musschenbroek)
• Biography of von Kleist
• Modeling Dielectric Absorption in Capacitors
• A different view of all this capacitor stuff
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Types_of_capacitor"
Categories: Capacitors

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Products Overview
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Integrated Y: 0.001 ~ Y: 250VAC
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Capacitors 10000pF

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Metal Oxide
SSR 18V ~ 1100V 5D ~ 25D
Varistors
CHAPTER 27
• CAPACITORS AND DIELECTRICS.
○ 27.1. Introduction
○ 27.2. The parallel-plate capacitor
 Example: Problem 27.7
○ 27.3. Capacitors in Combination
 Example: Problem 27.10
○ Example: Problem 27.13
○ 27.4. Dielectrics
 Example: Problem 27.19
○ 27.5. Gauss Law in Dielectrics
 Example: Problem 27.25
○ 27.6 Energy in Capacitors
 Example: Problem 27.40
 Example: Problem 27.39

27. CAPACITORS AND DIELECTRICS.

27.1. Introduction
A capacitor is an arrangement of conductors that is used to store electric charge. A very simple
capacitor is an isolated metallic sphere. The potential of a sphere with radius R and charge Q is
equal to

(27.1)

Equation (27.1) shows that the potential of the sphere is proportional to the charge Q on the
conductor. This is true in general for any configuration of conductors. This relationship can be
written as

(27.2)

where C is called the capacitance of the system of conductors. The unit of capacitance is the
farad (F). The capacitance of the metallic sphere is equal to
(27.3)

27.2. The parallel-plate capacitor

Another example of a capacitor is a system consisting of two parallel metallic plates. In Chapter
26 it was shown that the potential difference between two plates of area A, separation distance d,
and with charges +Q and -Q, is given by

(27.4)

Using the definition of the capacitance (eq.(27.2)), the capacitance of this system can be
calculated:

(27.5)

Equation (27.2) shows that the charge on a capacitor is proportional to the capacitance C and to
the potential V. To increase the amount of charge stored on a capacitor while keeping the
potential (voltage) fixed, the capacitance of the capacitor will need to be increased. Since the
capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor is proportional to the plate area A and inversely
proportional to the distance d between the plates, this can be achieved by increasing the surface
area A and/or decreasing the separation distance d. These large capacitors are usually made of
two parallel sheets of aluminized foil, a few inches wide and several meters long. The sheets are
placed very close together, but kept from touching by a thin sheet of plastic sandwiched between
them. The entire sandwich is covered with another sheet of plastic and rolled up like a roll of
toilet paper.
Example: Problem 27.7
The tube of a Geiger counter consists of a thin straight wire surrounded by a coaxial conducting
shell. The diameter of the wire is 0.0025 cm and that of the shell is 2.5 cm. The length of the
tube is 10 cm. What is the capacitance of a Geiger-counter tube ?
 Figure 27.1. Schematic of a Geiger counter.

The problem will be solved under the assumption that the electric field generated is that of an
infinitely long line of charge. A schematic side view of the tube is shown in Figure 27.1. The
radius of the wire is rw, the radius of the cylinder is rc, the length of the counter is L, and the
charge on the wire is +Q. The electric field in the region between the wire and the cylinder can
be calculated using Gauss' law. The electric field in this region will have a radial direction and its
magnitude will depend only on the radial distance r. Consider the cylinder with length L and
radius r shown in Figure 27.1. The electric flux [Phi] through the surface of this cylinder is equal
to

(27.6)

According to Gauss' law, the flux [Phi] is equal to the enclosed charge divided by [epsilon]0.
Therefore

(27.7)

The electric field E(r) can be obtained using eq.(27.7):

(27.8)

The potential difference between the wire and the cylinder can be obtained by integrating the
electric field E(r):
(27.9)

Using eq.(27.2) the capacitance of the Geiger tube can be calculated:

(27.10)

Substituting the values for rw, rc, and L into eq.(27.10) we obtain

(27.11)

27.3. Capacitors in Combination

The symbol of a capacitor is shown in Figure 27.2. Capacitors can be connected together; they
can be connected in series or in parallel. Figure 27.3 shows two capacitors, with capacitance C1
and C2, connected in parallel. The potential difference across both capacitors must be equal and
therefore

(27.12)

Figure 27.2. Symbol of a Capacitor.

 Figure 27.3. Two capacitors connected in parallel.

Using eq.(27.12) the total charge on both capacitors can be calculated

(27.13)

Equation (27.13) shows that the total charge on the capacitor system shown in Figure 27.3 is
proportional to the potential difference across the system. The two capacitors in Figure 27.3 can
be treated as one capacitor with a capacitance C where C is related to C1 and C2 in the following
manner

(27.14)

Figure 27.4 shows two capacitors, with capacitance C1 and C2, connected in series. Suppose the
potential difference across C1 is [Delta]V1 and the potential difference across C2 is [Delta]V2. A
charge Q on the top plate will induce a charge -Q on the bottom plate of C1. Since electric charge
is conserved, the charge on the top plate of C2 must be equal to Q. Thus the charge on the bottom
plate of C2 is equal to -Q. The voltage difference across C1 is given by

(27.15)

and the voltage difference across C2 is equal to

(27.16)
 Figure 27.4. Two capacitors connected in series.

The total voltage difference across the two capacitors is given by

(27.17)

Equation (27.17) again shows that the voltage across the two capacitors, connected in series, is
proportional to the charge Q. The system acts like a single capacitor C whose capacitance can be
obtained from the following formula

(27.18)

Example: Problem 27.10

A multi-plate capacitor, such as used in radios, consists of four parallel plates arranged one
above the other as shown in Figure 27.5. The area of each plate is A, and the distance between
adjacent plates is d. What is the capacitance of this arrangement ?
 Figure 27.5. A Multi-plate Capacitor.

The multiple capacitor shown in Figure 27.5 is equivalent to three identical capacitors connected
in parallel (see Figure 27.6). The capacitance of each of the three capacitors is equal and given
by

(27.19)

The total capacitance of the multi-plate capacitor can be calculated using eq.(27.14):

(27.20)

Figure 27.6. Schematic of Multi-plate Capacitor shown in Figure 27.5.

Example: Problem 27.13

Three capacitors, of capacitance C1 = 2.0 uF, C2 = 5.0 uF, and C3 = 7.0 uF, are initially charged
to 36 V by connecting each, for a few instants, to a 36-V battery. The battery is then removed
and the charged capacitors are connected in a closed series circuit, with the positive and negative
terminals joined as shown in Figure 27.7. What will be the final charge on each capacitor ? What
will be the voltage across the points PP' ?

Figure 27.7. Problem 27.13.

The initial charges on each of the three capacitors, q1, q2, and q3, are equal to

(27.21)

After the three capacitors are connected, the charge will redistribute itself. The charges on the
three capacitors after the system settles down are equal to Q1, Q2, and Q3. Since charge is a
conserved quantity, there is a relation between q1, q2, and q3, and Q1, Q2, and Q3:

(27.22)

The voltage between P and P' can be expressed in terms of C3 and Q3, or in terms of C1, C2, Q1,
and Q2:

(27.23)

and

(27.24)

Using eq.(27.22) the following expressions for Q1 and Q2 can be obtained:

(27.25)

(27.26)

Substituting eq.(27.25) and eq.(27.26) into eq.(27.24) we obtain

(27.27)

Combining eq.(27.27) and eq.(27.23), Q3 can be expressed in terms of known variables:

(27.28)

Substituting the known values of the capacitance and initial charges we obtain

(27.29)

The voltage across P and P' can be found by combining eq.(27.29) and eq.(27.23):

(27.30)

The charges on capacitor 1 and capacitor 2 are equal to

(27.31)

(27.32)

27.4. Dielectrics
If the space between the plates of a capacitor is filled with an insulator, the capacitance of the
capacitor will chance compared to the situation in which there is vacuum between the plates. The
change in the capacitance is caused by a change in the electric field between the plates. The
electric field between the capacitor plates will induce dipole moments in the material between
the plates. These induced dipole moments will reduce the electric field in the region between the
plates. A material in which the induced dipole moment is linearly proportional to the applied
electric field is called a linear dielectric. In this type of materials the total electric field between
the capacitor plates E is related to the electric field Efree that would exist if no dielectric was
present:
(27.33)

where [kappa] is called the dielectric constant. Since the final electric field E can never exceed
the free electric field Efree, the dielectric constant [kappa] must be larger than 1.
The potential difference across a capacitor is proportional to the electric field between the plates.
Since the presence of a dielectric reduces the strength of the electric field, it will also reduce the
potential difference between the capacitor plates (if the total charge on the plates is kept
constant):

(27.34)

The capacitance C of a system with a dielectric is inversely proportional to the potential

difference between the plates, and is related to the capacitance Cfree of a capacitor with no
dielectric in the following manner

(27.35)

Since [kappa] is larger than 1, the capacitance of a capacitor can be significantly increased by
filling the space between the capacitor plates with a dielectric with a large [kappa].
The electric field between the two capacitor plates is the vector sum of the fields generated by
the charges on the capacitor and the field generated by the surface charges on the surface of the
dielectric. The electric field generated by the charges on the capacitor plates (charge density of
[sigma]free) is given by

(27.36)

Assuming a charge density on the surface of the dielectric equal to [sigma]bound, the field
generated by these bound charges is equal to

(27.37)
The electric field between the plates is equal to Efree/[kappa] and thus

(27.38)

Substituting eq.(27.36) and eq.(27.37) into eq.(27.38) gives

(27.39)

or

(27.40)

Example: Problem 27.19

A parallel plate capacitor of plate area A and separation distance d contains a slab of dielectric of
thickness d/2 (see Figure 27.8) and dielectric constant [kappa]. The potential difference between
the plates is [Delta]V.
a) In terms of the given quantities, find the electric field in the empty region of space between
the plates.
b) Find the electric field inside the dielectric.
c) Find the density of bound charges on the surface of the dielectric.

Figure 27.8. Problem 27.19.

a) Suppose the electric field in the capacitor without the dielectric is equal to E0. The electric
field in the dielectric, Ed, is related to the free electric field via the dielectric constant [kappa]:
(27.41)

The potential difference between the plates can be obtained by integrating the electric field
between the plates:

(27.42)

The electric field in the empty region is thus equal to

(27.43)

b) The electric field in the dielectric can be found by combining eq.(27.41) and (27.43):

(27.44)

c) The free charge density [sigma]free is equal to

(27.45)

The bound charge density is related to the free charge density via the following relation

(27.46)

Combining eq.(27.45) and eq.(27.46) we obtain

(27.47)

27.5. Gauss Law in Dielectrics

The electric field in an "empty" capacitor can be obtained using Gauss' law. Consider an ideal
capacitor (with no fringing fields) and the integration volume shown in Figure 27.9. The area of
each capacitor plate is A and the charges on the plates are +/-Q. The charge enclosed by the
integration volume shown in Figure 27.9 is equal to +Q. Gauss' law states that the electric flux
[Phi] through the surface of the integration volume is related to the enclosed charge:

(27.48)

If a dielectric is inserted between the plates, the electric field between the plates will change
(even though the charge on the plates is kept constant). Obviously, Gauss' law, as stated in eq.
(27.48), does not hold in this case. The electric field E between the capacitor plates is related to
the dielectric-free field Efree:

(27.49)

where [kappa] is the dielectric constant of the material between the plates. Gauss' law can now
be rewritten as

(27.50)

Gauss' law in vacuum is a special case of eq.(27.50) with [kappa] = 1.

 Figure 27.9. Ideal Capacitor.

Example: Problem 27.25

A metallic sphere of radius R is surrounded by a concentric dielectric shell of inner radius R, and
outer radius 3R/2. This is surrounded by a concentric, thin, metallic shell of radius 2R (see
Figure 27.10). The dielectric constant of the shell is [kappa]. What is the capacitance of this
contraption ?
Suppose the charge on the inner sphere is Qfree. The electric field inside the dielectric can be
determined by applying Gauss' law for a dielectric (eq.(27.50)) and using as the integration
volume a sphere of radius r (where R < r < 3R/2)

(27.51)

The electric field in this region is therefore given by

(27.52)
 Figure 27.10. Problem 27.25.

The electric field in the region between 3R/2 and 2R can be obtained in a similar
manner, and is equal to

(27.53)

Using the electric field from eq.(27.52) and eq.(27.53) we can determine the potential difference
[Delta]V between the inner and outer sphere:

(27.54)

The capacitance of the system can be obtained from eq.(27.54) using the definition of the
capacitance in terms of the charge Q and the potential difference [Delta]V:

(27.55)
27.6 Energy in Capacitors
The electric potential energy of a capacitor containing no dielectric and with charge +/-Q on its
plates is given by

(27.56)

where V1 and V2 are the potentials of the two plates. The electric potential energy can also be
expressed in terms of the capacitance C of the capacitor

(27.57)

This formula is also correct for a capacitor with a dielectric; the properties of the dielectric enters
into this formula via the capacitance C.
Example: Problem 27.40
Ten identical 5 uF capacitors are connected in parallel to a 240-V battery. The charged capacitors
are then disconnected from the battery and reconnected in series, the positive terminal of each
capacitor being connected to the negative terminal of the next. What is the potential difference
between the negative terminal of the first capacitor and the positive terminal of the last
capacitor ? If these terminals are connected via an external circuit, how much charge will flow
around this circuit as the series arrangement discharges ? How much energy is released in the
discharge ? Compare this charge and this energy with the charge and energy stored in the
original, parallel arrangement, and explain any discrepancies.
The charge on each capacitor, after being connected to the 240-V battery, is equal to

(27.58)

The potential difference across each capacitor will remain equal to 240 V after the capacitors are
connected in series. The total potential difference across the ten capacitors is thus equal to

(27.59)

If the two end terminals of the capacitor network are connected, a charge of 1.2 mC will flow
from the positive terminal to the negative terminal (see Figure 27.11).
 Figure 27.11. Problem 27.40.

The electric energy stored in the capacitor network before discharge is equal to

(27.60)

The energy stored in each capacitor, after being charged to 240 V, is equal to

(27.61)

Clearly no energy is lost in the process of changing the capacitor configuration from parallel to
serial.
Example: Problem 27.39
Three capacitors are connected as shown in Figure 27.12. Their capacitances are C1 = 2.0 uF, C2
= 6.0 uF, and C3 = 8.0 uF. If a voltage of 200 V is applied to the two free terminals, what will be
the charge on each capacitor ? What will be the electric energy of each ?
 Figure 27.12. problem 27.39.

Suppose the voltage across capacitor C1 is V1, and the voltage across capacitor (C2 + C3) is V2. If
the charge on capacitor C1 is equal to Q1, then the charge on the parallel capacitor is also equal to
Q1. The potential difference across this system is equal to

(27.62)

The charge on capacitor 1 is thus determined by the potential difference [Delta]V

(27.63)

The voltage V23 across the capacitor (C2 + C3) is related to the charge Q1

(27.64)

The charge on capacitor C2 is equal to

(27.65)

The charge on capacitor C3 is equal to

(27.66)

The electric potential energy stored in each capacitor is equal to

(27.67)

For the three capacitors in this problem the electric potential energy is equal to

(27.68)

(27.69)

(27.70)