Electro

Magnetic Theory
integral of the vector along the contour
Interview Guidance bounding the surface.
 Null Identity:   ( V) = 0
1. Vector Analysis In words, the curl of the gradient of any
 The gradient of a scalar, V is defined as a scalar field is identically zero.
vector that represents both the magnitude  If a vector field is curl-free, then it can be
and the direction of the maximum space rate expressed as the gradient of a scalar field.
of increase of scalar.  Null Identity: .(  A ) = 0
dV The divergence of the curl of any vector
Grad V = V= an field is identically zero.
dn
 The divergence of a vector field A at a  A vector field F is
1. Solenoidal and irrotational if
point, abbreviated div A , as the net
. F = 0 and   F = 0
outward flux of A per unit volume as the
Example: A static electric field in a charge
volume about the point tends to zero:
___
free region
 A  ds 2. Solenoidal but not irrotational if
Div A = Lim s . F = 0 and   F  0.
v
 v0 Example: A steady magnetic field in a
 The volume integral of the divergence of a current-carrying conductor.
vector field equals the total outward flux of 3. Irrotational but not solenoidal if
the vector through the surface that bounds   F = 0 and  . F  0.
the volume; that is, Example: A static electric field in a
___ charged region
 .A dv   A  ds …(Divergence Theorem)
v s
4. Neither solenoidal nor irrotational if
 . F  0 and   F  0.
 The curl of a vector field A , denoted by Example: An electric field in a charged
curl A or   A , is a vector whose medium with a time-varying magnetic field.
magnitude is the maximum net circulation
of A per unit area as the area tends to zero 2. Static Electric Fields
and whose direction is the normal direction
of the area when the area is oriented to  A field is a spatial distribution of a scalar or
make the net circulation maximum. vector quantity, which may or may not be a
1  ___  function of time.
Curl A =   A = Lim a n  A  dl   Electric field intensity is defined as the
s  0 s
 C  max force per unit charge that a very small
stationary test charge experiences when it is
 Stokes’s theorem: placed in a region where an electric field
 (  A).ds   A.dl states that the surface exists.
s c  The two fundamental postulates of
integral of the curl of a vector field over an electrostatics in free space specify the
open surface is equal to the closed line divergence and curl of E. They are
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 2 Electro Magnetic Theory

 
. E = and  E=0 En =
0 0
 The scalar line integral of the static electric Gauss’s law states that the total outward
field intensity around any closed path flux of the electric displacement (or, simply,
___ the total outward electric flux) over any
vanishes.  E  dl  0 closed surface is equal to the total free
c
charge enclosed in the surface.
Postulates of Electrostatics in Free Space 
Differential Form Integral Form  If r = is independent of position, the
 ___
Q 0
. E =
0 
s
E  ds 
0 medium is said to be homogeneous. A
linear homogenous and isotropic medium is
 E=0 ___
called a simple medium. The relative
 E  dl = 0
c permittivity of a simple medium is a
constant.
 An electric dipole consists of a pair of equal  The tangential component of an electric
and opposite charges +q and  q, separated field is continuous across an interface.
by a small distance, d.  The normal component of electric flux
 The product of the charge q and the vector density is discontinuous across an interface
d (going from q to +q) is defined as the where surface charge exists – the amount of
discontinuity being equal to the surface
electric dipole moment, p : p = qd . charge density.
 Relation between E & V; E =  V  Electrostatic energy density wc :
1 1
Inside a Conductor we = D  E (J/m3 ; we =  E2 (J/m3)
(Under Static Conditions) 2 2
2
=0 D
; we = (J/m3)
___ 2
E = 0. 
Poisson’s equation: 2 V = 

 Under static conditions the electric field on  Uniqueness Theorem: A solution of
a conductor surface is everywhere normal to Poisson’s equation (of which Laplace’s
the surface. In other words, the surface of a equation is a special case) that satisfies the
conductor is an equipotential surface under given boundary conditions is a unique
static conditions. solution.
 The tangential component of the electric  J = v (A/m2)
field on a conductor surface is zero. is the relation between the convection
 The normal component of the electric field current density and the velocity of the
at a conductor / free space boundary is charge carrier. Also J =  E
equal to the surface charge density on the 
 J =  (A/m3)
conductor divided by the permittivity of t
free space. This point relationship derived from the
Boundary conditions principle of conservation of charge is called
At a conductor/Free Space Interface the equation of continuity.
E1 = 0
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For steady currents, J = 0 or of the electrons in any particular atom is

___ zero in the absence of an externally applied
 J  ds  0 (or) KCL : I j 0 (A) magnetic field. Lenz’s law of
j
electromagnetic induction states that the
induced magnetic moment always opposes
3. Static Magnetic Fields the applied field, thus reducing the magnetic
flux density.
 F = q( E + u  B ) (b) Diamagnetism arises mainly from the
Which is called Lorentz’s force equation. orbital motion of the electrons within an
 The two fundamental postulates of atom and is present in all materials.
magnetostatics that specify the divergence (c) Paramagnetism arises mainly the magnetic
dipole moments of the spinning electrons.
and the curl of B in free space are
 Energy density in magnetostatic field
. B = 0
1 ___
  B = 0J. wm = H  B (J/m3)
2
Postulates of Magnetostatics B2
wm = (J/m3)
in Free Space 2
Differential Integral 1
Form Form wm = H2 (J/m3)
2
 B = 0 ___
Q
  B = 0J s  B  ds 
0
___

 B  dl = 0I 4. Time Varying Fields and

c Maxwell’s Equations
___

 H  dl = I (A)
c
Fundamental Relations for Electrostatic and
Magnetostatic Models
Magnetic Circuits Electric Circuits
mmf, m (=NI) emf, V Fundamental Electrostatic Magnetostatic
Magnetic flux,  electric current, I Relations Model Model
Reluctance R resistance, R Governing  E =0 . B = 0
Permeability,  conductivity,  equations  .D =   H = J
Constitutive
 Diamagnetic, if r  1 (m is a very small relations 1
H = B
negative number) (linear and D = E 
Paramagnetic, if r  1 (m is a very small isotropic media)
positive number)
Ferromagnetic, if r >> 1 (m is a large  The electric field intensity in a region of
positive number) time- varying magnetic flux density is
Where m is the magnetic susceptibility) therefore nonconservative and cannot be
expressed as the gradient of a scalar
(a) In diamagnetic material the net magnetic potential.
moment to the orbital and spinning motions
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 4 Electro Magnetic Theory

 A medium is said to be a good conductor if

Differential
   and a good insulator if    .
(Point) Integral Form Principle
Form
  
Conservativenes
E  0  E.d   0
L s of electrostatic
5. Plane Waves
fields  In free space the source-free wave equation
     
H J  H.d    J.d s Ampere’s law for E is

L
 
S
1 2 E
2 E  2 2  0
.D  v  D . d s    v dv
s v
Gauss’s law
c t
   Where,
Non existence
.B  0  B.d s  0
of magnetic c
1
 3  108 m / s   300 Mm / s 
s
monopole  0 0
 The polarization of a uniform plane wave
(i) The tangential component of an electric describes the time-varying behavior of the
field is continuous across an interface. electric field intensity vector at a given
(ii) The tangential component of an magnetic point in space.
field is discontinuous across an interface  When the fingers of the right hand follow
where a surface current exists, the amount the direction of the rotation of E, the thumb
of discontinuity being determined by points to the direction of propagation of the
Equation a n 2  H1  H 2   J s A / m  wave. This is right-hand or positive
(iii) The normal component of a electric flux circularly polarized wave.
density is discontinuous across an interface  The distance  through which the amplitude
where a surface charge exists the amount of of a traveling plane wave decreases by a
discontinuity being determined by Equation factor of e 1 or 0.368 is called the skin
a n 2 . D1  D 2  s C / m 2  depth or the depth of penetration of a
(iv) The normal component of a magnetic flux conductor.
density is continuous across an interface. 1 1
  m 
 Time-Harmonic Fields/Maxwell’s equation  f
in phasor form Since    for a good conductor,  can
  E   j H , also be written as
1 
  H  J  j   E,   m 
 2
  E   /
 The phase velocity, vp, of a single-
H  0 frequency plane wave as the velocity of
 2 E  k 2 E  0 propagation of an equiphase wavefront. The
 relation between vp and the phase constant,
 And wave number k     
u  , is v p  m / s 
1 
 2 H  k 2 H  0 u
  The quantity ( E x H ) is a vector
Which are homogeneous vector representing the power flow per unit area.
Helmholtz’s equations. P  E  H W / m2 
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
1

Pav  Re E  H*
2

W / m2   Z 0  R 0  jX 0 
L
C
Which is a general formula for computing
L
the average power density in a propagating R0  cons tan t 
wave. C
 The angle of reflection equals the angle of X0  0
incidence, is referred to as Snell’s law of  Distortion less Line (R/L = G/C). If the
reflection. condition
R G

6. Transmission Lines L C
Is satisfied, the expressions for both  and
 Parallel-plate transmission line. This type Z0 simplified as
of transmission line consists of two parallel (a) Propagation Constants:
conducting plates separated by a dielectric
slab of a uniform thickness.     j  R  jL  RC  jC 
 Two wire transmission line : This  L 
transmission line consists of a pair of C
parallel conducting wires separated by a  R  jL 
uniform distance. L
 Coaxial transmission line: This consists of C
R
an inner conductor and a coaxial outer L
conducting sheath separated by a dielectric    LC (a linear function of  ).
medium.
(b). Phase velocity:
     j  R  jL G  jC  m 1  is  1
the propagation constant whose real and vp   (constant)
 LC
imaginary parts,  and  , are the attenuation
(c). Characteristic impedance:
constant(Np/m) and phase constant (rad/m)
R  jL L
of the line, respectively. Z 0  R 0  jX 0  
 Characteristic impedance of the line. RC / L   jC C
R  j L  R  jL L
Z0      R0 
C
(constant)
 G  jC G  jC
 Lossless Line (R=0, G = 0) X0  0
(a) Propagation constant:  The velocity of wave propagation on a
    j  j LC lossless transmission line, vp = 1 / LC ,
0 therefore, is equal to the velocity of
   LC (a linear function of  ) propagation, 1 /   , of unguided plane
(b) Phase velocity: wave in the dielectric of the line.
 1
vp   cons tan t   A line is matched when the load impedance
 LC is equal to the characteristic impedance (not
the complex conjugate of the characteristic
(c) Characteristic impedance: impedance) of the line.
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 6 Electro Magnetic Theory

 When a finite transmission line is When ZL = 0 (Short circuit);

terminated with its own characteristic    1, S 
impedance (when a finite transmission line When ZL   (Open circuit).
is matched), the voltage and current  A Smith chart is a graphical plot of
distributions on the line are exactly the normalized resistance and reactance
same as though the line has been extended functions in the reflection-coefficient plane.
to infinity.  Several properties of the r-circles:
R 02 (a) The centers of all r-circles lie on the r -
 Zi  (Quarter-wave line)
ZL axis.
A quarter-wave lossless line transforms the (b) The r = 0 circle, having a unity radius
load impedance to the input terminals as its and centered at the origin, is the largest.
inverse multiplied by the square of the (c) The r = circles become progressively
characteristic resistance. It acts as an smaller as r increases from 0 toward  ,
impedance inverter and is often referred to ending at the ( r =1, i = 0) point.
as a quarter-wave transformer.
 Zi = ZL (Half-wave line) 7. Wave Guides
A half-wave lossless line transfers the load
impedance to the input terminals without
change. Assume the wave is traveling along Z -
direction
Open circuited line, ZL   : Z io  Z o coth  
Short-circuited line, ZL  0: Zis= Zo tanh   (a) Transverse electromagnetic (TEM)
waves. These are waves that contain neither
Z  Z0 Ez nor Hz. (if we assume wave is travelling
  L   e j (Dimensionless)
ZL  Z0 along â z direction)
It is the ratio of the complex amplitudes of (b) Transverse magnetic (TM) waves. These
the reflected and incident voltage waves at are waves that contain a nonzero Ez but
the load (z’=0) and is called the voltage Hz = 0.
reflection coefficient of the load impedance (c) Transverse electric (TE) waves. These are
ZL. waves that contain a nonzero Hz but Ez=0.
 The ratio of the maximum to the minimum  The phase velocity and the wave impedance
voltages along a finite, terminated line is for TEM waves are independent of the
known as the standing-wave ratio(SWR), frequency of the waves.
S: 
Vmax 1   Z TEM    ()
S  (Dimensionless) 
Vmin 1    TEM waves cannot exist in a single-
The inverse relation of the above is conductor hollow (or dielectric-filled)
S 1 waveguide of any shape
 (Dimensionless)
S 1  The wave impedance of propagating TM
On a lossless transmission line modes in a waveguide with a lossless
 0, S 1 dielectric is purely resistive and is always
When ZL = Z0 (matched load); less than the intrinsic impedance of the
  1, S  dielectric medium.
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 A waveguide exhibits the property of a

high-pass filter. 8. Antennas
 The wave impedance of propagating TE
 Antennas are structures designed for
modes in a waveguide with a lossless radiating electromagnetic energy effectively
dielectric is purely resistive and is always in a prescribed manner.
larger than the intrinsic impedance of the
 An interface between free-space and
dielectric medium.
transmission line that converts V/I waves to
 Wave impedances and Guide Wavelengths E/H waves and vice-versa is called an
for f > fc Antenna.
Mode Wave Guide  The process of converting V/I waves into
Impedance, Z Wavelength, g E/H waves is called as Radiation. The
TEM 1 process of converting E/H waves into V/I
 
 waves is called as Induction.
 f   Radiation of an Idl - time varying current
TM 2  element:
f 
 1  c 
1  f c / f 
2
f  I dl sinθ   ω sin ωt cos ωt 
Hφ   
TE   4π  cr r 2 
1  f c / f  1  f c / f  I dl sin θ   ω sin ωt cos ωt sin ωt 
 2
Eθ    2  
Where  is the intrinsic impedance of the 4π   c 2 r r c ωr 3 
guide medium? 2 I dl sin θ  cos ωt sin ωt 
Er    
 The mode having the lowest cutoff 4π   cr 2 r 3 
frequency is called dominant mode of the
waveguide. For parallel-plate wave guides  The 1/r2 and 1/r3 terms are predominantly
the dominant mode is the TEM mode. strong when r is small i.e., at closer
 The cutoff frequency in rectangular Wave- distances. These fields are called as
guides Induction Fields.
m n
1
2 2  The 1/r terms are strong even at
f c mn       (Hz) considerably larger distances i.e., when r is
2   a   b  large. These fields are called as Radiation
2 fields.
 c mn  (m)
2
m n
2  At r =  / 6, both the radiation and induction
    fields become equal. Hence at r > /6
 a  b
Radiation fields dominate and at r < /6
Where c is the cutoff wavelength. Induction fields dominate.
 For TM modes in rectangular waveguides,  Radiated Power of a Hertzian Dipole:
neither m nor n can be zero. Power Radiated = ( E H) = Wr = 80 2
 The first number of the mode index for 2
 dl  2
circular waveguides always represents the   I rms
number of half-wave field variations in the 
-direction, and the second number  dl 
2
2

represents the number of half-wave field Rr = 80   


variations in the r-direction.
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 8 Electro Magnetic Theory

 dl 
2 – Loop antennas
(Short dipole) Rr = 20 2   – Helical antennas
 – Rhombic / V antennas
2
 dl  2 – Corner Reflector antennas.
(Short monopole) Rr = 10   
  Microwave Antennas – Parabolic Reflectors
 Radiation resistance of ‘n’ dipoles in – Lens antennas
– Horn antennas
parallel = (n2  73) 
– Microstrip or Patch antennas
 Isotropic Radiator: An hypothetical point
source antenna that radiates in all directions  Broad Band Antennas
equally and uniformly, 1. Log – Periodic antennas
r 2. Spiral antennas
W 3. Long wire antennas
Power Density = r 2
4π r Wr  Special Purpose Antennas
1. Yagi-Uda antenna – High gain – super
directive antenna.
 Radiation Power Density: Power per unit  Study of Various Antennas
dWr 1 E 2 (r, , )
area V(r, , )   i) Yagi-Uda antenna:
ds 2   Active element is a folded dipole
It is a function of distance and direction  Reflectors (5% greater in length than folded
from the antenna. dipole) and Directors (5% lesser in length
Wr   V(r, , ). r 2 sin  d d than folded dipole) are the parasitic
Sphere elements
Where, ds = r2 sin  d d (incremental  Single reflector exists but multiple directors
surface of the sphere) are possible
 An unidirectional or single beam radiation
 Radiation Intensity: Power per solid angle. pattern is formed.
 Directivity Gain GD:
Radiation intensity in a direction from antenna ii) Helical antenna:
GD   A simplest antenna to produce circularly
Radiation Intensity on an average
polarized waves.
 Radiation Resistance: A measure of the  Has two modes of operation
radiating ability of an antenna for a given (a) Normal mode (b) Axial mode
current and the obtained radiated power.  When L <<  it is normal mode as radiation
 A graph which shows the distribution of is normal to the axis of the helix.
field strength or power strength of EM wave  Narrow bandwidth and loss radiation
at all points which are at equal distance efficiency limit the usage of this mode.
from the antenna.  When C is comparable to  it is axial mode
 It is defined as the ratio of power received with a spacing of /4 between the
at the antenna load terminals to the turns of the helix.
Poynting vector of the incident wave.
Ae Effective Area iii) Slot Antenna:
Aperture efficiency  
AD Physical Area  A sheet of metal with length /2 and width
 UHF/VHF Antennas d when removed from it is called a slot
– Yagi – uda antennas antenna.
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iv) Log – Periodic Antenna:

 An array of dipoles whose lengths & Previous Interview Questions with Solutions
spacings are varied with a periodicity that
changes or repeats logarithmically
01. Give us physical meaning of gradient of
v) Long-Wire Antenna: scalar function
 Any long wire of more than /2 length is Ans: The physical meaning of the gradient of a
called as harmonic or long-wire antenna scalar function is that it’s the steepness of
the slope. Imagine height being a scalar,
vi) Parabolic Reflector:
then the gradient of the height would be a
 Used for microwave frequencies where the
vector pointing “uphill”, the length of the
wavelength () is very small and hence used vector is proportional to the steepness of the
to increase the capture area. slope.
 For a circular aperture
2
4π D
G d  2 (A)  10   02. What do you understand by divergence of
λ λ quantity?
140 λ Ans: Divergence of a vector field is associated
BWFN 
D with conversed quantities, if the divergence
D is zero there are no “sources” or “sinks”.
Where = aperture ratio
λ Curl of a vector field is associated with it’s
rotation if the curl is irrational.
vii) Horn Antenna:
 Used for microwave frequencies and more 03. Explain Divergence theorem
an extended or flared out waveguide
Ans: In vector calculus the divergence theorem,
7.5 A p
Gd  also as Gauss’s theorem or Ostrogradsky’s
λ2 theorem, is a result that relates the flow
Where Ap = aE. aH (that is , flux) of a vector field through a
surface to the behavior of the vector field
viii) Loop Antennas: inside the surface.
 Work on the principle of induced voltage More precisely, the divergence theorem
due to EM waves states that the outward flux of a vector field
(Following Faraday’s law) through a closed surface is equal to the
 Used for direction and sense finding volume integral of the divergence over the
 Directivity D = 3/2  small loop [C < <  ] region inside the surface. Intuitively, it
0.68 C states that the sum of all sources minus the
=  large loop [ C > >  ] sum of all sinks gives the net flow out of a
λ
 Radiation Resistance region.
2
 NA
Rr = 31200  2   small loop 04. What is an isotropic material?
 λ 
Ans: A material is isotropic if its mechanical and
C elastic properties are same in all the
= 6000    large loop
λ directions. When this is not true, the
material is an isotropoic.
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 10
05. What do you understand by displacement
vector? Tell it’s units also.
Ans: Displacement vector (D) is electric vector
that represents the component of an electric
field associated solely with the presence of
separated free electric charges, purposely
excluding the contribution of any bound
electric charges in neutral atoms or
molecules.
If a slab of insulating material is inserted
between the charged plates, the shift of
charge, or polarization, reduces the value of
the applied electric field E that was present
prior to inserting the insulation. The actual
average value of the electric field E,
therefore, has a component P that depends
on the bound polarization charges and a
component D, electric displacement, that
depends on free charges without reference
to the dielectric properties of the
surrounding medium.
The electric displacement field is a vector
field defined as
D = 0 E  P
06. Explain Displacement current? Does
actually electric charges move to contribute
this current?
Ans: In electromagnetism, displacement current
is a quantity appearing in Maxwell’s
equations that is defined in terms of the rate
of change of electric displacement field.
Displacement current has the units of
electric current density, and it has an
associated magnetic field just as actual
currents do. However it is not an electric
current of moving charges, but a time-
varying electric field. In materials, there is
also a contribution from the slight motion of
charges bound in atoms, dielectric
polarization.
07. What is wave number?
Ans: The wave number is the spatial frequency of
a wave, either in cycles per unit distance or
radians per unit distance. It can be
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envisaged as the number of waves that exist
over a specified distance.
08. How do you define a plane wave?
Ans: A plane wave is constant-frequency wave
whose wavefronts (surfaces of constant
phase) are infinite parallel planes of
constant peak-to-peak amplitude normal to
the phase velocity vector. These waves are
solutions for a scalar wave equation in a
homogenous medium.
09. What do you understand by phase velocity?
Ans: The phase velocity of wave is the rate at
which the phase of the wave propagates in
space. This is the velocity at which the
phase of any one frequency component of
the wave travels. For such a component, any
given phase of the wave (for example, the
crest) will appear to travel at the phase
velocity.
10. Explain group velocity with an example?
Ans: The group velocity of a wave is the velocity
with which the overall shape of the waves
amplitudes known as the modulation or
envelopes of the wave- propagates through
space.
For example, imagine what happens if a
stone is thrown into the middle of a very
still pond. When the stone hits the surface
of the water, a circular pattern of waves
appears. It soon turns into ring of waves
with a quiescent center. The ever expanding
ring of waves is the wave group, within
which one can discern individual wavelets
of differing wavelengths traveling at
different speeds. The longer waves travel
faster than the group as a whole, but they
die out as they approach the leading edge.
the shorter waves travel more slowly and
they die out as they emerge form the trailing
boundary of the group.
11. Have you heard this term ‘slow light’?
What is it?

Ans: Slow light is the propagation of an optical
pulse or other modulation of an optical
carrier at a very low group velocity. Slow
light occurs when a propagating pulse is
substantially slowed down by the
interaction with the medium in which the
propagation takes place.
12. What is a standing wave? Explain it with an
example.
Ans: A standing wave also known as stationary
wave is a wave that remains in a constant
position. Two opposing waves combine to
form a standing wave.
This phenomenon can occur because the
medium is moving in the opposite direction
to the wave, or it can rise in a stationary
medium as a result of interference between
two waves traveling in opposite direction.
In the second case, for waves of equal
amplitude traveling in opposing directions,
there is on average no net propagation of
energy.
Example: One easy to understand example
of standing waves is two people shaking
either end of a jump rope. If they shake in
sync the rope can form a regular pattern of
waves oscillating up and down, with
stationary points along the rope where the
rope is almost still (nodes) and points where
the arc of the rope is maximum (antinodes).
13. What is TEM?
Ans: A transverse mode of a beam of
electromagnetic radiation is a particular
electromagnetic field pattern of radiation
measured in a plane perpendicular (i.e,.
transverse) to the propagation direction of
the beam. Transverse modes occur in radio
waves and microwaves confined to a
waveguide, and also in light waves in a
optical fiber and in a laser’s optical
resonator.
14. Explain the meaning of
propagation constant?
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Ans: The propagation constant of an
electromagnetic wave is a measure of the
change undergone by the amplitude of the
wave as it propagates in a given direction.
The quantity being measured can be the
voltage or current in a circuit or a field
vector such as electric field strength or flux
density. The propagation constant itself
measures change per metre but is otherwise
dimensionless. In the context of two-port
networks and their cascades, propagation
constant measures the change undergone by
the source quantity as it propagates from
one port to the next.
15. Explain the Smith chart significance,
calculation?
Ans: The Smith Chart is a fantastic tool for
visualizing the impedance of a transmission
line and antenna system as a function of
frequency. Smith Charts can be used to
increase understanding of transmission lines
and how they behave from an impedance
viewpoint. Smith Charts are also extremely
helpful for impedance matching. The Smith
Chart is used to display an actual (physical)
antenna's impedance when measured on a
Vector Network Analyzer (VNA).
Smith Charts were originally developed
around 1940 by Phillip Smith as a useful
tool for making the equations involved in
transmission lines easier to manipulate. See,
for instance, the input impedance equation
for a load attached to a transmission line of
length L and characteristic impedance Z0.
With modern computers, the Smith Chart is
no longer used to simplify the calculation
of transmission line equations; however,
their value in visualizing the impedance of
an antenna or a transmission line has not
decreased.
16. What is Radar?
the term Ans: Radar is an object-detection system that
uses radio waves to determine the range,
 12 Electro Magnetic Theory

angle, or velocity of objects. It can be used by vm = mf where v is the blind speed in
to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided knots, m is the multiple of the radar pulse
missiles, motor vehicles, weather repetition rate and the number of the blind
formations, and terrain. A radar transmits speed, namely a positive integer, 1, 2, 3, 4, .
radio waves or microwaves that reflect from . ., for the first, second, third, fourth, and so
any object in their path. A receive radar, on, blind speed, is the wavelength of the
which is typically the same system as the illuminating radar in centimeters; f is the
transmit radar, receives and processes these transmitter pulse repetition rate in pps
reflected waves to determine properties of (pulses per second).
the objects. 18. What are the Different types of Antenna?
Radar was secretly developed by several Ans: Wire Antennas:
nations in the period before and during Short Dipole Antenna
World War II. The term RADAR was Dipole Antenna
coined in 1940 by the United States Navy as Half-Wave Dipole
an acronym for Radio Detection And Broadband Dipoles
Ranging. Monopole Antenna
Folded Dipole Antenna
17. Explain about Radar Blind Velocity? Loop Antenna
Ans: Radar Blind Speed: The magnitude of the
Travelling Wave Antennas:
radial component of velocity of an object,
Helical Antennas
i.e., a target, relative to a radar site, that
Yagi-Uda Antennas
cannot be measured by the radar unit.
Spiral Antennas
Note: Radar blind speeds occur because of
Reflector Antennas:
the relationship between the transmitted
Corner Reflector
pulse repetition rate (PRR) and the received
Parabolic Reflector (Dish Antenna)
pulse-repetition rate.
The Doppler pulse repetition rate is the Microstrip Antennas:
difference between the transmitted and Rectangular Microstrip (Patch) Antennas
received pulse repetition rates. For example, Planar Inverted-F Antennas (PIFA)
when the object is stationary with respect to Log-Periodic Antennas:
the radar site, the reflected PRR is the same Bow Tie Antennas
as the transmitted PRR and therefore a net Log-Periodic Antennas
zero signal is indicated for the radial Log-Periodic Dipole Array
component of velocity. Aperture Antennas:
If it happens that the Doppler PRR is the Slot Antenna
same as the transmitted PRR, Cavity-Backed Slot Antenna
i.e., the illuminating PRR, or it is a multiple Inverted-F Antenna
of the transmitted PRR, a zero signal is also Slotted Waveguide Antenna
obtained and hence the radar is blind to Horn Antenna
these speeds, one for each multiple of the Vivaldi Antenna
transmitted pulse repetition rate. It is not the Telescopes
absolute magnitude of the speed of the Other Antennas:
object that is measured, but only the radial NFC Antennas
component of the speed. The radial Fractal Antennas
components of blind speeds, vm, are given Wearable Antennas
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19. Explain about Spiral Antenna? 22. One example of such RADAR application
Ans: Spiral antennas belong to the class of is the mapping of airport area.
frequency independent antennas which Ans:
operate over a wide range of frequencies.
CW RADAR:
Polarization, radiation pattern and
impedance of such antennas remain 1. This system uses modulated or un
unchanged over large bandwidth. Such modulated continuous signals for
antennas are inherently circularly polarized transmission.
with low gain. Array of spiral antennas can 2. Circulator is used or separate antennas are
be used to increase the gain. Spiral antennas used for transmission & reception.
are reduced size antennas with its windings 3. Simple CW RADAR can not indicate the
making it an extremely small structure range.
4. The doppler frequency shift of echo signal
20. Explain about Omni directional antenna? is useful for indication device.
Ans: In radio communication, an Omni 5. It uses lower transmitting power.
directional antenna is a class of antenna 6. The circuits are simpler.
which radiates radio wave power uniformly 7. The performance is unaffected by stationary
in all directions in one plane, with the targets.
radiated power decreasing with elevation 8. Because the receiver is ON all times, it can
angle above or below the plane, dropping to operate down to zero range.
zero on the antenna's axis. This radiation 9. The possible maximum range is lower.
pattern is often described as "doughnut 10. The system gets confused by presence of
shaped" large number of targets.
11. CW RADAR are used in some application
21. What are the CW Radar and pulse radar? only, so comparatively have less
Ans: Pulsed RADAR : application.
1. In this system the pulse modulated signal 12. Application is in aircraft navigation for
are used for transmission. speed measurement.
2. Duplexer is used to use common antenna 23. What are the Mono and bi static radar?
for transmission & reception. Ans: Bistatic radar is the name given to a radar
3. It can indicate the range of target. system which comprises a transmitter and
4. The echo power received is useful for the receiver which are separated by a distance
indicating device. that is comparable to the expected target
5. It requires comparatively higher distance. Conversely, a radar in which the
transmitting power. transmitter and receiver are collocated is
6. The circuits used in this system are called a monostatic radar.
comparatively complicated.
7. The performance is sometimes affected by 24. What are sources in optical systems?
the stationary targets. Ans: Wideband continuous spectra sources
8. It can not operate down to zero range. ex: incandescent lamp
9. The possible maximum range is higher. Monochromatic incoherent source
10. The performance is not affected by presence ex: LED (light emitting diode)
of number of targets. Monochromatic coherent source
11. Practically pulsed RADAR system are used ex: LASER (light amplification by
more. stimulated emission of radiation)
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 14
25. What is Snell's law? Explain each term in
it?
Ans: Like with reflection, refraction also involves
the angles that the incident ray and the
refracted ray make with the normal to the
surface at the point of refraction. Unlike
reflection, refraction also depends on the
media through which the light rays are
travelling. This dependence is made explicit
in Snell's Law via refractive indices,
numbers which are constant for given
media1.Snell's Law is given in the
following diagram.
n2 Snell’s Law:
2 n1 sin1 = n2 sin2
1
n1
26. How light travels in optical fibre?
Ans: Optical fibers work on the principle of total
internal reflection. They are made of a
material that has a high refractive index
compared to air. When a light signal is fired
down the length of a fiber and strikes the
sides, it gets reflected back inside the fiber
instead of being refracted and scattered out
of it. Therefore, a beam of light can be
curved along with the fiber and directed
anywhere you want it to go
27. What are the ideal values of VSWR?
1 
Ans:  =
1 
 = 1 [when   0 ]
=  [when   1 ]
28. How does antenna work?
Ans: The time rate of change of electric current
or the acceleration of charge produces the
radio waves. The radio waves travel through
the air at the speed of light. When the waves
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Electro Magnetic Theory
arrive at the receiver antenna, they make
electrons vibrate inside it. This produces an
electric current that recreates the original
signal. Transmitter and receiver antennas
are often very similar in design
29. What is the Reflection Co-Efficient?
Ans: It’s the measure of reflections on
transmission line due to mismatch of load
impedance with characteristic impedance.
30. Explain about Significance of /8
wavelength?
Ans: The magnitude of input impedance same as
characteristic impedance
31. What is the MTI Radar?
Ans: Moving target indication (MTI) is a mode
of operation of a radar to discriminate a
target against clutter. In contrast to another
mode, stationary target indication, it takes
advantage of the fact that the target moves
with respect to stationary clutter. The most
common approach takes advantage of the
Doppler effect.
32. What are the Antenna characteristics/
parameters?
Ans: Antenna parameters
1. Radiation pattern
2. Efficiency
3. Bandwidth
4. Directivity
5. Gain
Antenna characteristics
1. beam width
2. major and side lobe
3. front to back ratio
4. effective aperture area of antenna
33. What is the physical significance of
electric field?
Ans: A field in physics means a physical object
that has a finite value everywhere in a
given region of the space.
Electric field is a space around a charged
object where the influence of the charge can
 15
be felt. Now as a charge can experience
force due to another charge, thus the
influence here becomes the force, so electric
field is called a force too. Electric field
intensity which is force experienced by a
test charge placed at that point of the field,
gives the estimate of the strength of the
field at that point calculation of electric
field intensity are of tremendous importance
due to the technological applications of
electric forces.
(1) It helps in finding the electric force
experienced by a unit positive charge
when placed at a point in the system of
multiple charges. Electric field is thus
independent of the test charge and is
property of system of charges i.e. source
charges.
(2) It gives the magnitude and direction of the
electric force.
34. What is the physical significance of  0 ?
Ans: The physical constant  0 , commonly called
the vacuum permittivity, permittivity of free
space or electric constant, is an ideal,
physical constant, which is the value of the
absolute dielectric permittivity of classical
vacuum.
Its value is 0  8.854187817......1012 F.m1
It is the capability of the vacuum to permit
electric field lines.
 0 appears in maxwell’s equation, which
describes the properties of electric fields and
electromagnetic radiation, and relate them to
their sources.
35. What is polarization and what is its
different types?
Sol: Polarization is one of the design parameter
of an antenna and it is the property of the
wave. It is defined as the orientation of the
electric field. It is the locus of resultant
electric field as a function of time.
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Depending on how electric field is oriented,
we classify polarized light into three types
(1) Linear polarization
(2) circular polarization
(i) left hand circular polarization
(ii) right hand circular polarization.
(3) Elliptical polarization
(i) left hand elliptical polarization
(ii) right hand elliptical polarization
36. In satellite communication which type of
polarization is used?
Sol: In satellite linear polarization is used,
however it is preferable to have circular
polarization. Circular polarization is used
because the plane of a linearly polarized
signal is subject to faraday rotation in
traversing the ionosphere in the presence of
earth magnetic field.
37. What is Helmholtz wave equation?
Sol: It is corresponds to linear partial differential
equation.
 
2H   2H  0
 
2E   2E  0
Where  2 is the Laplacian operator.
 is the propagation constant.
38. Explain curl and its physical significance.
Sol: Curl of a vector is an axial vector whose
magnitude is the maximum circulation of
the vector per unit area as the area tends to
zero and whose direction is the normal
direction of the area where the area is
oriented to make circulation maximum.
Physically the tendency of the vector to
swirl around a particular point is curl.
The curl of the vector field at a point may
be regarded as measure of the circulation or
how much the field curl around that point.
39. Explain magnetic vector potential and its
physical significance.
 16 Electro Magnetic Theory


Sol: Magnetic vector potential A , is the vector V1
quantity defined so that its curl is equal to S12  ;
V2 V1 0
magnetic field.
  Transmission coefficient from port 2 to 1
B  A
The curl of the magnetic vector potential is
V2
equal to the magnetic field (flux density to S21  ;
be specific).This means that if the magnetic V1 V2  0
field vector is along straight line, (for Transmission coefficient from port 1 to 2
example inside a solenoid), then magnetic
vector potential will loop around this V2
straight line. S22  ;
V2 V1  0

40. What is s-parameter and why s-parameter Reflection coefficient at port 2

are used.
S11: The reflection coefficient seen at port 1
Ans: At microwave frequencies, we can’t
when port 2 is terminated in a matched
measure voltage and current directly. At
load.
these frequencies, measurements usually
involve the magnitude (inferred from
power) and phase of a wave traveling in a
given direction, or of a standing wave.
A representation of these measurements
(Magnitude and phase of traveling wave) Review Questions
with the ideas of incident, reflected and
transmitted waves is given by scattering 01. What is the difference between a scalar
matrix. quantity and a scalar field? Between a
vector quantity and a vector field?
41. In order to calculate S11, what to do with
port 2 02. What is the physical definition of the
Sol: For a Two port network: gradient of a scalar field?
   
03. What is the physical definition of the
V1 , I1 V2 , I 2 divergence of a vector field?
Two port 04. State the divergence theorem in words.
network
05. What is the physical definition of the curl of
    a vector field?
V1 ,  I1 V2 ,  I 2
06. State Stokes’s theorem in words
The above network can be characterized as
07. What is the difference between an
V1  S11 S12  V1 
       irrotational field and a solenoidal field?
V2  S21 S22  V2 
08. Write the differential form of the
The S-parameters can be defined as fundamental postulates of electronics in free
space
V
S11  1 ; 09. Under what conditions will the electric field
V1 V  0
2 intensity be both solenoidal and
Reflection coefficient at port 1 irrotational?
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10. Write the integral form of the fundamental 27. Define diamagnetic, paramagnetic, and
postulates of electrostatics in free space, and ferromagnetic materials
state their meaning in words. 28. Give an expression of magnetic energy in
11. State Coulomb’s law terms of B and or H

12. State Gauss’s law. Under what conditions 29. Write the fundamental postulate for
is Gauss’s law especially useful in electromagnetic induction, and explain how
determining the electric field intensity of a it leads to Faraday’s law.
charge distribution? 30. State Lenz’s law
13. What do we mean by simple medium?
31. Write the differential form of Maxwell’s
14. What properties do anisotropic materials equation.
have? 32. Are all four Maxwell’s equations
15. Define electric displacement vector. What independent? Explain.
is its unit?
33. Explain the significance of displacement
16. What are the boundary conditions for current.
electrostatic fields at an interface between a
conductor and a dielectric with 34. State the boundary conditions for the
permittivity ? tangential component of E and for the
17. What is the boundary condition for normal component of B .
electrostatic potential at an interface 35. Write the boundary conditions for the
between two different dielectric media?
tangential component of H and for the
18. Define capacitance and capacitor. normal component of D .

19. What is the expression for the electrostatic 36. Why is the E field immediately outside of
energy of a continuous distribution of a perfect conductor perpendicular to the
charge in a volume? on a surface ? Along a conductor surface?
line?
20. Provide a mathematical expression for 37. Can a static magnetic field exist in the
electrostatic energy in terms of E and or D interior of a perfect conductor? Explain.
Can a time-varying magnetic field? Explain.
21. Write Lorentz’s force equation
38. Write the source-free wave equations for E
22. State the law of conservation of magnetic and H in free space.
flux
39. What is a Phasor? Is a phasor a function
23. State Ampere’s circuital law of t? A function of  ?
24. What is the relation between vector 40. Discuss the advantages of using phasors in
magnetic potential A and the magnetic flux electromagnetics.
through a given area?
41. Write in terms of phasors the time-harmonic
25. State Biot-Savart law Maxwell’s equations for a simple medium.
26. Define scalar magnetic potential Vm. What
42. Define Wave number.
is its SI unit?
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 18 Electro Magnetic Theory

43. What is meant by the loss tangent of a 61. What is meant by “distortion less line”?
medium?
62. Is a distortion less line lossless? Is a lossy
44. In a time-varying situation how do we transmission line dispersive? Explain.
define a good conductor? A lossy
dielectric? 63. What does “matched transmission line”
mean?
45. Define uniform plane wave
64. On what factors does the input impedance
46. Write the homogeneous vector of a transmission line depend?
Helmoholtz’s equation for E in free space.
65. What is the input impedance of an open-
47. Define phase velocity. circuited lossless transmission line if the
48. Define intrinsic impedance of a medium. length of the line is (a)  /4, (b)  /2, and
What is the value of the intrinsic impedance (c) 3/4?
of free space?
49. What is a TEM wave? 66. What is the input impedance of a short-
circuited lossless transmission line if the
50. Define length of the line is (a)  /4, (b)  /2, and
(a) propagation constant,
(c) 3/4?
(b) attenuation constant, and
(c) phase constant. 67. Is the input reactance of a transmission line
51. Define poynting vector. What is the SI unit  /8 long inductive or capacitive if it is
for this vector? (a) open-circuited, and (b) short-circuited?
52. What is a standing wave? 68. What is a “quarter-wave transformer”? Why
53. Define reflection coefficient and is it not useful for matching a complex load
transmission coefficient. What is the impedance to a low-loss line?
relationship between them?
69. What is the input impedance of a lossless
54. State Snell’s law of reflection. transmission line of length l that is
terminated in a load impedance ZL if
55. State Snell’s law of refraction. (a) l =  /2, and (b) l =  ?
56. Define Brewster angle, When does it exist
at an interface of two nonmagnetic media? 70. Define voltage reflection coefficient. Is it
the same as “current reflection coefficient”?
57. Why is a Brewster angle also called a Explain.
polarizing angle?
58. Define surface impedance. How is surface 71. Define standing - wave ratio. How is it
impedance related to the power dissipated related to voltage and current reflection
in a plate conductor? coefficients?
59. Define propagation constant and 72. What are  and S for a line with an open-
characteristic impedance of a transmission circuit termination? A short-circuit
line. termination?
60. What is the phase relationship between the
voltage and current waves on an infinitely 73. What is a Smith chart and why is it useful in
long transmission line? making transmission-line calculations?
ACE Engineering Publications Hyderabad  Delhi Pune  Bhubaneswar  Lucknow  Bengaluru  Chennai  Vijayawada  Vizag  Tirupati  Kolkata Ahmedabad
 19 ISRO - Interview Guidance Programme

74. Why does a change of half a wavelength in 76. How to reduce the number of antenna on a
line length correspond to a complete fighter jet?
revolution on a Smith chart?
77. What is the unit of magnetic field
75. Where is the point representing a short- intensity H?
circuit on a Smith admittance chart?

ACE Engineering Publications Hyderabad  Delhi Pune  Bhubaneswar  Lucknow  Bengaluru  Chennai  Vijayawada  Vizag  Tirupati  Kolkata Ahmedabad