MAT1001 - Calculus and Laplace Transformation

Dr.A.Benevatho Jaison

School of Advanced Sciences and Languages,

VIT Bhopal,
Kotri Kalan, Ashta,
Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh - 466114

October 5, 2020
Example 1.1.1
Consider the equation y = x2 . By giving input x, we can generate output y.

Figure 1: Function

Definition 1.1.2 (Function)

A function is a relation between a set of inputs and a set of permissible outputs
with the property that each input is related to exactly one output. Let A and B
be any two non-empty sets, mapping from A to B will be a function only when
every element in set A has one end only one image in set B.
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Note:
1 A letter such as f , g or h is often used to stand for a function. For example,
y = x2 can be written as f (x) = y = x2 . Here, y is depending on x value,
so y can be written as f (x) or it is a function of x.
2 Set of elements of x and y are denoted by A, B, · · · or X, Y, · · ·
3 Every x must have one y value.
4 Each x should represent only one y, not mote than one. So f (x) = p or q
is not a function.
5 Set A and Set B should be non-empty.

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 Figure 2: Not a Function

Explanation
1 At first set, in set X, an element 3 has no image. So, first is not a function.
2 At second set, in set X, an element 3 has two image. So, second set also
not a function.

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Some Function Terminology
If f : A → B, and f (a) = b (where a ∈ A and b ∈ B), then:
1 A is the domain of f .
2 B is the codomain of f .
3 b is the image of a under f .
4 a is a preimage of b under f .
5 b may have more than one pre-image. Example, for a function f (x) = x2 ,
image 4 will have preimages −2, 2

Dr.A.Benevatho Jaison
Figure 3: Domain
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Definition 1.1.3
The range of a function is the set of all possible values it can produce. For
example, consider the function f (x) = x2 . No matter what value we give to x,
the function is always positive:
1 If x is 2, then the function returns x squared or 4.
2 If x is negative 2, then it still produces 4 since −2 times −2 is positive 4.
3 For an example, consider x ∈ Z − {0} and y ∈ Z − {0}, then the range is
Z+ .

Figure 4: Range
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FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

The area of an ellipse is πab. It depends on two variables a and b; The total
surface area of a rectangular parallelepiped is 2(xy + yz + zx) and it depends on
3 variables x, y, z; The velocity u of a fluid particle moving in space depends
on 4 variables x, y, z, t.
In transportation problem in operations research the cost function to be mini-
mized is a function of several (m.n : running into hundreds) variables (where
m is the number of origins and n is the number of destinations). Thus functions
of several variables plays a vital role in advanced Mathematics.
If u = f (x, y, z, t) then x, y, z, t are known as the independent variables or ar-
guments and u is known as the ‘dependent variable’ or ‘value’ of the function.
In this section, we restrict to functions of two and three variables, although the
analysis can easily be extended to several variables.

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Function of Two Variables

If for every x and y a unique value f (x, y) is associated, then f is said to be a

function of the two independent variables x and y and is denoted by

z = f (x, y) (1)

Geometrically, in three dimensional xyz-coordinate space (1) represents a sur-

face. The values of x and y for which the function is defined is known as the
domain of definition of the function:
Example 1.1.4
p
1 Consider the function z = a2 − x2 − y2 , then domain is x2 + y2 ≤ a2 .
Since function is not defined when x2 + y2 > a2 (imaginary number).
2 Consider the function z = xy + yx , then domain is x > 0 and y > 0.

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Definition 1.1.5
δ- neighbourhood δ- neighbourhood of a point (a, b) in the xy-plane is a square
with centre at (a, b) bounded by the four lines x = a − δ, x = a + δ, y = b − δ,
y = b + δ i.e.,

Note
Neighbourhood of a point (a, b) may also be defined as a circular disk with
centre at (a, b) and of radius δ given by

(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 < δ 2

concept of limit is paramount in defining continuity and differentiability of a

function. Note that all the three concepts of limit, continuity and differentia-
bility are point concepts i.e., defined at a point.

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Definition 1.1.6
Limit A function f (x, y) is said to have a limit L as the point (x, y) approaches
(a, b) and is denoted as
lim f (x, y) = L
(x,y)→(a,b)

if the value of f (x, y) can be made as close (as we please) to the given finite
number L for all those (x, y) in an appropriately chosen δ-neighbourhood of
(a, b), i.e., for a given  > 0 we can find a δ such that

|f (x, y) − L| < 

for all (x, y) in the δ-neighbourhood

|x − a| < δ and |y − b| < δ

(or alternatively when (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 < δ 2 ).

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Important Note:
The limit of a function f (x, y) of two variables is said to exist only when the
same value is obtained for the limit along any path in the xy-plane from (x, y)
to (a, b) say along x → a and y → b or along y → b and x → a, etc.
Limit may or may not exist. If it exists limit must be unique.

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Method of Obtaining Limit

Step I: Evaluate lim f (x, y) along path I : x → a and x → b

Step II: Evaluate lim f (x, y) along path II: y → b and x → a. If the limit
values along path I and II are same, the limit exist. Otherwise
not.
Step III: If a = 0, b = 0, evaluate limit along say path y = mx or y = mxn
also.

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Results:
If lim(x,y)→(a,b) f (x, y) = L and lim(x,y)→(a,b) g(x, y) = M. Then
1 lim(x,y)→(a,b) (f ± g) = L ± M
2 lim(x,y)→(a,b) (f .g) = L.M
3 lim(x,y)→(a,b) (f /g) = L/M, provided M 6= 0.

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Definition 1.1.7
Continuity A function f (x, y) is said to be continuous at a point (a, b) if

lim f (x, y) = f (a, b) (2)

(x,y)→(a,b)

i.e., the limit of f as (x, y) tends to (a, b) = the value of f at (a, b).
A function is said to be continuous in a domain if it is continuous at every point
of the domain.
2 can also be written as

lim f (a + h, b + k) = f (a, b) (3)

(h,k)→(0,0)

If f is not continuous at (a, b), it is said to be discontinuous at (a, b).

Result:
If f (x, y) and g(x, y) are continuous at (a, b) then f ± g, f .g and f /g are contin-
uous at (a, b).

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Definition 1.1.8
Test for Continuity at a Point (a, b)
Step I: f (a, b) should be well defined
Step II: limf (x,y) as (x, y) → (a, b) should exists (must be unique and
same along any path).
Step III: The limit of f = value of f at (a, b).

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