Efficient Fertilizer Use — Potassium: Dr.

Bob Thompson

SECTION CONTENTS:
• Introduction
• K in Plants
• K Uptake by Plants
• K Removal by Crops
• K Deficiency Symptoms
• K in Nature
• K Interactions
• Placement
• Potassium Fertilizers

Introduction
Potassium (K) is one of sixteen essential nutrients required for plant growth and
reproduction. It is classified as a macronutrient, as are nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P).
The chemical symbol for potassium is "K." It is taken up by plants in its ionic form (K +).
The word potassium translates from the Latin or German word, Kalium. The term
"potash" comes from the colonial practice of burning wood in large pots and using the
ashes as fertilizer and making soap, gunpowder and glass. "Potash" is defined as K 2O
and is used to express the content of various fertilizer materials containing potassium,
such as muriate of potash (KCl), sulfate of potash (K 2SO4), double sulfate of potash and
magnesium (K 2SO4 · 2MgSO4), and nitrate of potash (KNO3 ). Frequently, the
expressions "K" and "K2O" are used interchangeably, although technically incorrectly.

Potassium In Plants
While potassium is not a constituent of any plant structures or compounds, it plays a
part in many important regulatory roles in the plant. It is essential in nearly all processes
needed to sustain plant growth and reproduction. Potassium plays a vital role in:

• Photosynthesis
• Translocation of photosynthates
• Protein synthesis
• Control of ionic balance
• Regulation of plant stomata and water use
• Activation of plant enzymes
• And, many other processes

It is known to activate at least sixty enzymes involved in plant growth. And, this may be
its most important function in the plant. Plants deficient in potassium are less resistant
to drought, excess water, and high and low temperatures. They are also less resistant
to pests, diseases and nematode attacks. Potassium is also known as the quality
nutrient because of its important effects on quality factors such as size, shape, color,
taste, shelf life, fiber quality and other quality measurements.

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Efficient Fertilizer Use — Potassium: Dr. Bob Thompson

Potassium increases crop yields because it:

• increases root growth and improves drought tolerance

• builds cellulose and reduces lodging
• enhances many enzyme actions
• aids in photosynthesis and food formation
• helps translocate sugars and starches
• produces grains rich in starch
• increases protein content of plants
• maintains turgor, reduces water loss and wilting
• helps retard crop diseases and nematodes

Potassium Uptake By Plants

Table 7.1: Potash Uptake by Crops

Crop Yield Uptake (K 2O) Time of potassium

uptake varies with
Alfalfa 10 ton/acre 600 lb/acre different plants.
Banana 31 ton/acre 1286 lb/acre However, plants
Clover-grass Mixture 6 ton/acre 360 lb/acre generally absorb the
majority of their
Coastal 10 ton/acre 480 lb/acre
potassium at an earlier
Bermudagrass
growth stage than they
Coffee 2233 lb/acre 160 lb/acre do nitrogen and
Corn 200 bu/acre 266 lb/acre phosphorus.
Experiments on
Corn Silage 32 ton/acre 266 lb/acre
potassium uptake by
Cotton 1500 lb/acre lint 210 lb/acre corn showed that 70-
Grain Sorghum 8000 lb/acre 240 lb/acre 80 percent was
absorbed by silking
Oil Palm 11 ton/acre 268 lb/acre
time, and 100 percent
Peanuts 4000 lb/acre 185 lb/acre was absorbed three to
Soybeans 60 bu/acre 205 lb/acre four weeks after
silking. Translocation
Wheat 80 bu/acre 162 lb/acre
of potassium from the
Source: PPI
leaves and stems to
Note: Potassium content of fertilizers is expressed as K2O, although there
the grain was much
is no such compound in fertilizers, nor is it absorbed by or found in the less than for
plant in that form. Soil and plant tissue analyses values are usually phosphorus and
expressed in terms of percent potassium (K) but fertilizer recommendations nitrogen. The period
are expressed as K2O. To convert from K to K2O, multiply K2O by 0.83. To during grain formation
convert from K2O to K, multiply K2O by a factor of 1.20.
is apparently not a
critical one for supply of potassium. Cotton takes up about 30 percent of its potassium
during the first twelve to fourteen days of blooming. At this peak period of potassium

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Efficient Fertilizer Use — Potassium: Dr. Bob Thompson

uptake, 3-4 lb/acre are taken up daily. Sixty-six percent of the total potassium is rapidly
translocated from the leaves and stems to the bur of the boll during boll fill. Nitrogen and
phosphorus are translocated to the seed.

Plant requirements for potassium differ widely. Amounts of potassium utilized by several
agronomically important crops are given in Table 7.1. More detailed nutrient utilization
data is presented in the Appendix.

Potassium Removal By Crops

Table 7.2: Potash Removed by Crops

Crop Removal (K 2O)

Nutrient uptake or utilization is an
Alfalfa 60.0 lb/ton
important consideration but crops
Coastal Bermudagrass 50.0 lb/ton take up far more potassium than they
Corn 0.29 lb/ton remove with the harvested portion.
For example, a 200 bu/acre corn
Corn Silage 8.30 lb/ton
crop takes up or utilizes about 266
Cotton 20.0 lb/bale lb/acre of potash (K 2O). But when
Grain Sorghum 0.38 lb/bu the corn is harvested as grain, only
0.29 lb/bu is removed, or 58 lb/ton
Peanuts 17.0 lb/bu
K2O is harvested and removed from
Rice 0.18 lb/bu the field. However, if the crop were
Soybeans 1.4 lb/bu harvested as silage, then 8.3 lb/ton
Sugarcane 3.50 lb/ton K2O are vested and removed from
the field. Therefore, a 32 ton/acre
Tall Fescue 52.0 lb/ton silage crop would remove 266
Tobacco (Burley) 4.70 lb/cwt lb/acre K 2O. Harvest management is
Tobacco (Flue-cured) 5.20 lb/cwt the major consideration in
developing a potash fertilization
Wheat 0.34 lb/cwt program. Crops harvested where the
Source: PPI whole plant is removed from the
field, like alfalfa hay, must have more
potash applied than crops where only grain, lint or fruit are removed. Often with hay and
silage crops, removal is an excellent guide for planning the potash fertilization program.
With other crops, such as grain, soil tests offer the best guide.

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Efficient Fertilizer Use — Potassium: Dr. Bob Thompson

Potassium Deficiency Symptoms

Plants absorb potassium as the potassium ion (K +). Potassium is a highly mobile
element in the plant and is translocated from the older to younger tissue. Consequently,
potassium deficiency symptoms usually occur first on the lower leaves of the plant and
progress toward the top as the severity of the deficiency increases. One of the most
common signs of potassium deficiency is the yellow scorching or firing (chlorosis) along
the leaf margin. In severe cases of potassium deficiency the fired margin of the leaf may
fall out. However, with broadleaf crops, such as soybeans and cotton, the entire leaf
may shed resulting in premature defoliation of the crop.

Potassium deficient crops grow slowly and have poorly developed root systems. Stalks
are weak and lodging of cereal crops such as corn and small grain is common.
Legumes are not strong competitors for soil potassium and are often crowded out by
grasses in a grass-legume pasture. When potassium is not sufficient, winter-killing of
perennial crops such as alfalfa and grasses can occur.

Seeds from potassium deficient plants are small, shriveled, and are more susceptible to
diseases. Fruit is often lacking in normal coloration and is low in sugar content.
Vegetables and fruits deteriorate rapidly when shipped and have a short shelf life in the
market.

Figure 7.1 Potassium deficiency symptoms in corn and soybeans.

Corn: Firing or scorching appears on outer Soybeans: Firing or scorching begins

edge of leaf, while midrib remains green. May
be some yellow striping on lower leaves.
(Sorghum and most grasses also react this
way.) Poor root development, defective nodal
tissues, unfilled, chaffy ears, and stalk
lodging are other symptoms in corn.
on outer edge of leaf. When leaf tissue
dies, leaf edges become broken and
ragged…delayed maturity and slow
defoliation…shriveled and less uniform
beans, many worthless.

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Efficient Fertilizer Use — Potassium: Dr. Bob Thompson

Figure 7.2 Potassium deficiency symptoms in alfalfa.

Alfalfa: With classical symptoms (shown at top right), first signs of K deficiency are small
white or yellowish dots around outer edges of leaves…then edges turn yellow and tissue dies
and becomes brown and dry. However, for alfalfa grown on soils high in sodium (Na), the K
deficiency symptoms has a different appearance, as indicated in the photo at left above.

Figure 7.3 Potassium deficiency symptoms in cotton.

Cotton: Cotton “rust” …first a

yellowish or bronze mottling
in the leaf. leaf turns
yellowish green, brown
specks at tip around margin
and between veins. As
breakdown progresses,
whole leaf becomes reddish
brown, dies, sheds
prematurely. Short plants
with fewer, smaller bolls or
short, weak fibers. In the
past, K deficiency symptoms
have been described as
occurring on older, mature
leaves at the bottom of the
plant. In recent years,
symptoms have been
observed at the top on young
leaves of some heavily
fruited cotton varieties.

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Efficient Fertilizer Use — Potassium: Dr. Bob Thompson

Figure 7.4 Potassium deficiency symptoms in wheat.

Wheat: Frequently, no outstanding hunger

signs on leaf itself (no discoloration,
scorching, or mottling), but sharp
difference in plant size and number,
length, and condition of roots. Lodging
tendency. Smaller kernels. In advanced
stages, withering or burn of leaf tips and
margins, beginning with older leaves.

Figure 7.5 Potassium deficiency symptoms in potatoes, apples, rice and sugarcane

Potatoes: Upper leaves, usually smaller,
crinkled and darker green than normal with
small necrotic patches…middle to lower
leaves show marginal scorch and
yellowing. Early indicator: dark green,
crinkled leaves, though varieties differ in
normal leaf color and texture.
Apples: Yellowish green leaves curl
upward along entire leaf…scorched areas
develop along edges that become ragged.
Undersized and poorly colored fruit may
drop prematurely. Poor storage, shipping
and canning qualities in fruit.

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Efficient Fertilizer Use — Potassium: Dr. Bob Thompson
Rice: Rice deficient in K may show
symptoms as stunted plants, a slight
reduction in tillering, and short, droopy,
dark green upper leaves. Yellowing may
appear in interveinal areas of lower leaves,
starting from the top and eventually drying
to a light brown. Long thin panicles and
black, deteriorated roots may be related to
K deficiency.
Figure 7.6 Potassium deficiency symptoms in canola, peanuts, coastal bermudgrass
and grapes.
Canola: Potassium deficiency reduces
growth, resulting in smaller leaves and
thinner stems. Plants are more easily
lodged and may wilt. Under severe
deficiency, the edges of older leaves
become yellow, or scorched and may die
completely, but remain attached to the
stem.
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Sugarbeets: The first sign of K deficiency
appears as tanning and leathering of the
edges of recently matured leaves. When
the soil solution is very low in Na, a severe
interveinal leaf scorch and crinkling
proceeds to the midrib. Under high Na
conditions, tanning and leaf scorch lead to
a smooth leaf surface.
Peanuts: Because K is easily redistributed
from mature to younger organs, deficiency
symptoms are first observable in the older,
lower leaves. Deficiency is expressed by
chlorosis of the leaves, beginning at the
leaf margin. Potassium deficiency occurs
frequently in acidic soils, and symptoms
usually appear within five weeks of
planting.
Efficient Fertilizer Use — Potassium: Dr. Bob Thompson

Coastal Bermudagrass: Potassium Grapes: Potassium deficiency

plays an important role in heat, drought
and cold tolerance of forage grasses.
Leafspot diseases may be the first
symptom of K deficiency recognized in
Coastal and other hybrid
bermudagrasses. Yellowing of older
leaves, followed by leaf tip and leaf
margin chlorosis, can occur with severe
deficiency. Reddish-brown to purple
spots, caused by fungal infection, may
also be scattered over younger leaf
blades. Thinning stands and reduced
growth, followed by death of older
leaves, are frequent symptoms.
symptoms typically appear in early
summer on leaves on the middle
portion on the shoots. The leaves fade,
becoming chlorotic beginning at the
leaf margin, while the center portion of
the leaf and veins remain green. The
leaves tend to cup downward. In white
wine varieties (such as Chardonnay,
shown in photo) the leaves become
mostly yellow or yellow bronze.

Occurrence Of Potassium In Nature

Potassium is abundant in nature, comprising about 2.4 percent of the earth’s crust. The
potassium content of soils varies widely, ranging from only a few hundred pounds per
acre (furrow-slice 6" depth) to over 50,000 pounds per acre or more in fine-textured
soils formed from rocks that are high in potassium-bearing minerals. All naturally
occurring potassium contained in the soil originated from the disintegration and
decomposition of potash-feldspars (orthoclase and microcline) and micas (muscovite
and biotite). Much of the natural potassium occurring in soils is not available to plants
and crops; therefore, soils containing relatively large amounts of total potassium usually
respond to potassium fertilization.

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Efficient Fertilizer Use — Potassium: Dr. Bob Thompson

Relatively Unavailable Potassium

From 90-98 percent of the total potassium present in soils is found in insoluble primary
minerals such as feldspars and micas. These minerals consist of potassium-aluminum
silicates which are resistant to chemical breakdown. They release potassium slowly, but
in small quantities compared to total needs of growing crops.

Slowly Available Potassium

This form comprises 1-10 percent of the total potassium supply and may originate from
dissolved primary minerals or from potassium fertilizers. This potassium is attracted to
the surface of clay minerals where it may be firmly bound or fixed between the clay
layers in a form slowly available to plants. The actual amount available depends on the
type and amount of clay present.

Readily Available Potassium

Readily available forms of

potassium comprise only
0.1 to 2 percent of the total
potassium in the soil and
consist of potassium
dissolved in the soil
solution and held on the
exchange positions of the
clay and organic matter.
This potassium is referred
to as "exchangeable"
because it can be
replaced by other
Figure 7.7 The Potassium Cycle positively-charged ions
(cations) such as
hydrogen, calcium, and magnesium. This exchange happens rapidly and frequently.
The potassium in the soil solution may be taken up by the plant or lost from the soil by
leaching, especially on sandy coarse-textured soils in regions of high rainfall.

Potassium Interactions With Other Nutrients

Adequate supplies of other plant nutrients are required to obtain maximum responses to
potassium fertilization; however, there are several unique relations between potassium
and other nutrients, due to the complementary ion effect (other cations held on the
cation exchange positions of the clay) that are important in plant nutrition.

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Efficient Fertilizer Use — Potassium: Dr. Bob Thompson

High potassium fertilization can decrease the availability of magnesium to the plant and
may result in magnesium deficiency of crops grown on soils that are already low in
magnesium. This problem is often encountered with crops grown on sandy soils,
particularly in the Coastal Plain soils of the southern United States. Conversely, crops
grown on soils high in magnesium can suffer potassium deficiency, especially if the soils
are high in phosphorus and low in potassium. This problem is especially severe in the
soils of the Mississippi River flood plain.

Correct these deficiency problems by adding the deficient nutrient through a well-
planned soil fertility program. High levels of potassium fertilization along with
ammoniacal nitrogen (NH4+) also depress the magnesium content of forage grasses
and may result in grass tetany (hypomagnesemia) of cattle consuming the forage.

Sodium is an element similar to potassium in its chemical properties. Sodium has been
shown to substitute partially for potassium in some crops.

Leaching of potassium on acid, sandy soils may be reduced by liming the soil to a pH of
6.2 to 6.5; however, applications of high rates of limestone to a soil low in potassium
may induce potassium deficiency of crops growing on those soils. This problem occurs
more on soils with predominantly 2:1 type clays (such as montmorillonite clays) rather
than the 1:1 type (such as kaolinitic clays).

Placement of Potassium Fertilizers

The common potassium fertilizers are completely water-soluble and, in some cases,
have a high salt index. Consequently, when placed too close to seed or transplants,
they can decrease seed germination and plant survival. This fertilizer injury is most
severe on sandy soils, under dry conditions, and with high rates of fertilization—
especially nitrogen and potassium. Some crops such as soybeans, cotton, and peanuts
are much more sensitive to fertilizer injury than corn. Placement of the fertilizer in a
band approximately three inches to the side and two inches below the seed is an
effective method of preventing fertilizer injury. Row placement of potassium fertilizer is
generally more efficient than broadcast application when the rate of application is low or
soil levels of potassium are low.

Broadcasting and mixing with the soil before planting is usually a convenient and
effective method of applying potassium fertilizers. Fertilizer injury is minimized by this
method but on deep sandy soils some potassium may be lost by leaching, especially if
considerable time elapses between application and planting and heavy rainfall occurs.
In some soils that contain clay minerals (2:1 type) that fix potassium, some fertilizer may
become unavailable.

Split application of potassium fertilizers on long season crops such as alfalfa or grass
crops that are harvested several times during the growing season is often
recommended. This practice prevents the crop from absorbing more potassium than is

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Efficient Fertilizer Use — Potassium: Dr. Bob Thompson

needed for maximum growth during the early growing season (luxury consumption) and
provides adequate available potassium during the latter part of the growing season.

Broadcast application of potassium under minimum tillage results in much of the applied
potassium remaining in the top 1 to 2 inches of the soil; whereas with conventional
tillage it is distributed throughout the plow layer. Corn usually absorbs sufficient
potassium under no-till due to its extensive root system in the surface layer of the soil.
Leaf analysis of corn shows a lower potassium content under minimum tillage than with
conventional tillage due to either the location of the applied potassium or to poorer
aeration. Sufficient potassium can be supplied by using a higher rate of potassium
fertilization with no-till systems.

Potassium Fertilizers
Elemental potassium (K) is not found in pure state in nature because of its high
reactivity. It can be purified, but must be kept in oil to retain its purity and prevent violent
reactivity. Potash deposits occur as beds of solid salts beneath the earth’s surface and
brines in dying lakes and seas.

Potassium is mined from a number of minerals. Sylvinite, sylvite, and langbeinite are the
most important mineral sources.

Sylvinite

Sylvinite is composed primarily of potassium chloride (KCl) and sodium chloride (NaCl)
and the unrefined ore contains 20-30% K 2O.

Sylvite

The mineral sylvite is composed mainly of muriate of potash (KCl) and the refined ore
contains about 60-62% K 2O.

Langbeinite

The langbeinite mineral is composed largely of potassium sulfate (K 2SO4) and

magnesium sulfate (MgSO4). The chemical formula is K 2SO4 · 2MgSO4. It contains about
22% K 2O, 11% Mg and 22% S. In addition to the mineral name, it is called potassium
magnesium sulfate, double sulfate of potassium and magnesium, and either K-Mag® or
Sul-Po-Mag®. K-Mag is marketed within the United States, whereas K-Mag or Sul-Po-
Mag may be used internationally. The product is 100% water-soluble and essentially
chloride-free.

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Efficient Fertilizer Use — Potassium: Dr. Bob Thompson

Mining Potash

Potash is mined three major ways:

1. Conventional shaft mining method similar to coal mining. This technique

undercuts the face, drills, and blasts.
2. Continuous mining method. This shaft mining technique uses specially
developed machines that take the ore directly from the vein.
3. Solution mining. This process pumps hot water down to the potash ore bed,
dissolves the salts and returns the potash brine to the surface for refining.

Potassium Chloride

Muriate of potash, potassium chloride, or KCl accounts for more than 90 percent of the
potassium used in the United States. It is water-soluble and contains 60-62% K 2O.

Most muriate of potash is produced from sylvinite, but some comes from brines. The
raw impure ore is refined to fertilizer by crystallization or flotation processes. Most
agricultural KCl is produced by the flotation processes.

Fertilizer grade KCl is available in five particle sizes: white soluble, special standard,
standard, coarse, and granular. Granular is very well suited to bulk blending. The white
soluble grade is ideal for the manufacturing of clear liquid fertilizers.

Potassium Sulfate

Potassium sulfate, sulfate of potash or K 2SO4 contains about 50% K 2O and 18% sulfur
(S). Because the chloride content is below 2.5%, it is used for chloride-sensitive crops
(such as tobacco, fruits, and some vegetables) to supply sulfur as a crop nutrient. It
accounts for about four to six percent of total agricultural potassium sales. Potassium
sulfate can be used where chloride buildup becomes a problem.

Double Sulfate of Potash and Magnesium

Double sulfate of potash and magnesium, potassium magnesium sulfate, (Sul-Po-Mag®,

K-Mag®) K2SO4· 2MgSO4 are names used to describe the mined and processed mineral
langbeinite. It contains about 22% K 2O, 11% magnesium (Mg), and 22% sulfur (S). The
typical chloride content is 2.5%.

K-Mag/Sul-Po-Mag is a naturally occurring mineral that is a good source of water-

soluble magnesium, potassium, and sulfur...all in the sulfate form.

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Efficient Fertilizer Use — Potassium: Dr. Bob Thompson

Potassium Nitrate

Potassium nitrate or KNO3 contains little or no chloride or sulfur. It can supply both
nitrogen and potassium nutrients to chloride sensitive crops. It contains about 44% K 2O
and 13% nitrogen (N).

Table 7.3: Various Potassium Fertilizer Materials and Their Percent Nutrient
Content

Chemical
Material Formula N P2O5 K2O S Mg
Potassium chloride KCl 60-
62
Potassium sulfate K2SO4 50- 18
52
Potassium K2SO4 22 22 11
magnesium sulfate · 2MgSO4
Potassium nitrate KNO3 13 44
Potassium sodium KNa(N0 3)2 15 14
nitrate
Potassium hydroxide KOH 83
Potassium carbonate K2CO3, <68
KHCO3
Potassium KH2PO4, 30- 30-
orthophosphates K2HPO4 60 50
Potassium K4P2O7 40- 22-
polyphosphates 60 48
Potassium KPO3 55- 38
metaphosphate 57

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