MATHEMATICS

ALGEBRA

Basic Algebra Formulas There are special rules or formulas that can be
used when multiplying polynomials or factoring
Here you'll find links to all algebra formulas on polynomials. Let's take a look:
this page.

 Laws of Exponents

Multiplying Polynomials Using FOIL

 Multiplying Polynomial Formulas

 Special Factoring Formulas

 Quadratic Equation Formulas To multiply two polynomials, multiply each

term in the first polynomial by each term in the
second polynomial. This is also known as using
 Pythagorean Theorem FOIL.

Laws of Exponents

There are several different "laws" or properties

when working with exponents:

For
detailed

For detailed examples on using the FOIL

Method, please click here.

Square of a Binomial

o square a binomial, you add: the square of the

first term, twice the product of the two terms,
and the square of the last term. Take a look:

examples on how to use the laws of

exponents, click here.

Next we'll look at a few formulas that can be

used when working with polynomials.

Polynomial Formulas
Click here for step by step examples on
squaring a binomial.

Difference of Two Squares

When two binomials differ only by the sign

between their terms (one a plus, the other a
minus), we call this a Difference of Two
Squares.

The rule is very easy to remember: Subtract the

square of the second term from the square of the
first term. Take a look:
Quadratic Formula
ou can use the quadratic formula to solve ANY
quadratic equation. It is used most when the
quadratic equation is non-factorable.
Step by step examples of problems involving
a difference of two squares can be found here.

Polynomials - Special Factoring

The following formulas will actually take our

special products from above and work
backwards to factor. Same rules, we are just
working backwards to find the factors.
Click here to see step-by-step examples using
Perfect Square Trinomial the quadratic formula.
Vertex Formula
A perfect square trinomial results in binomial
squares. The vertex formula is used when you must find
the vertex (minimum or maximum point) of the
If you notice that the first and last terms are
parabola.
perfect squares, then check to see if the trinomial
factors as a binomial square.

Click here for detailed examples on using the

vertex formula.

Pythagorean Theorem
Difference of Two Squares The Pythagorean Theorem is used to identify the
length of the sides of any right triangle.

The Sum and Difference of Two Cubes

The following are the formulas for factoring the

sum and difference of two cubes:
 VOCABULARY

ENGLISH their neighbor’s house.

Lately, there’s been
Diversificatio
n. the act of becoming diverse noticeable diversification of
n
students at higher institutions.
n. a principle, theory, or Devoutly religious people often live
Doctrine position, usu. advocated by a their lives according to
religion or gov’t their doctrines.
n. power and authority (usu. The country claimed to
Dominion over a territory) have dominion over parts of Russia.
n. a legal territory Puerto Rico is a dominion of the US.
The gray clouds in the sky made the
Dreary adj. sad, gloomy, dull
day feel dreary.
The man’s claims to the throne
Dubious adj. doubtful, questionable were dubious since nobody knew
where he’d come from.
adj. peculiar or odd; deviating She’s a little eccentric but still fun to
Eccentric
from the norm be around.
money to
influence the
economy.
After one year, the tiny plants
v. to prosper, grow, or make
Flourish had flourished into a breathtaking
fast progress
garden.
Stocks can fluctuate on a daily
v. to be unstable; to rise and
Fluctuate basis, making it difficult to determine
fall
when to buy or sell one.
The civilians accused their leader
Foment v. to stir up
of fomenting political unrest.
adj. capable of being I can't imagine aliens visiting us in
Foreseeable
predicted or anticipated the foreseeable future.
I frankly don’t see the point in
Frankly adv. directly, clearly
learning to drive.

the project.

Body-language experts even

n. a subtle difference in
Nuance understand the nuances of facial
meaning
expressions.
The government declared their
Null adj. legally void and ineffective
marriage null.

n.  the act of gaining a skill or
Acquisition
possession of something
n.  the state of being uncertain or
Ambivalence
stuck between two or more options
Analogous adj.  similar but not identical
v.  to destroy or cause devastating
Annihilate
destruction
Anomaly n.  something different from the norm
Language acquisition is easier for kids than it
is for adults.
His ambivalence prevented him from
immediately signing the contract.
Green onions are considered analogous to
spring onions.
The dictator sent orders to annihilate the
group of rebels.
This result is an anomaly and very rarely
happens.

GRAMMAR operator, while the acted upon is

1. There is nothing intrinsically right or
wrong with passive voice. ‘Voice’ shows
whether the subject acts or is acted upon.
What is passive voice? It’s when the actor
of a sentence is switched with the acted
upon. Example:
Active voice: Jill bit Jack.
Here, the actor is Jill (the biter) and the
acted upon is Jack (the bitten). The actor
is sometimes called the subject or
sometimes called the object or patient.
Now, let’s flip things around:
Passive voice: Jack was bitten by Jill.
The person, place, or thing acted upon
(sometimes called the object or patient) is
still Jack, but he’s moved forward in the
sentence, demoting Jill in importance.
In addition to switching the nouns, there is
a switch to the verb that’s necessary to do
that: Use forms of the verb ‘to be’, usually
with a past participle, as the verb. To do
that,
1. add an auxiliary, a form of to
be (is, are, am , was, were, has been,
have been, had been, will be, will
have been, being)
2. to a past participle, which
typically, but not always, ends in “-
ed.” Note: Exceptions to the “-ed”
rule include words like paid, won,
found, and driven. The UNC Writing
Center shows the resultant form as
follows:
form of “to be” + past participle =
passive voice
Why do we care? Passives can be useful,
and they are certainly ‘legal’, so don’t let
anybody tell you that they must never be
used. Sometimes, though, passives lose the
focus the author wants. Example:
 Active: Why did the chicken cross the
road?
  Passive: Why was the
road crossed by the chicken? (Pretty silly:
neither the chicken nor the tiger thinks
this little drama is about the road.)
Decide: What’s the focus you want? In the
previous example, do you want it to be the
chicken or the road? Use the passive voice
in the following instances:
  When the agent of the action is
unimportant, obvious, or unknown.
I was born in Pittsburgh. [passive]
Mother birthed me in Pittsburgh. [active]
Here, the actor is obvious, so the active
voice is not necessary.
 To emphasize the recipient of the
action, to make generic statements, or to
smooth out complex sentences.
Jack killed Jill. [active]
Jill was killed by Jack. [passive]
The second example is passive because Jill
did not kill herself. It was done to her; she
was acted upon by some outside force (her
brother Jack). If your focus is on Jill, write
about her: Jill died of a broken neck after
being pushed down the hill by her brother
Jack.
 Use active voice when you want the
focus to be clear and direct. Passive voice
often softens the focus. Do you need to
‘beat around the bush’ a bit? Then, use
passive voice. Here are some examples of
active and passive voice.
       Acid causes heartburn. [active]
      But: Heartburn is caused by acid.
[passive]
“Chocolate contains concentrations of
theobromine (a compound that occurs
naturally in many plants such as cocoa, tea
and coffee plants), which relaxes the
esophageal sphincter muscle, letting
stomach acid squirt up into the esophagus”
(Gillson). [active]
But: Chocolate has been found to contain
concentrations of theobromine, which can
cause heartburn, but also acts as a mild
aphrodesiac. [passive]
2. Use ‘I’ when discussing your own ideas
and actions.
If anybody ever told you you couldn’t use
the word ‘I’ in a document, you’ve been
had by a Grammar Troll. A professional or
academic paper, though, should focus on
issues, proofs, and ideas, and not on the
fact that it’s you who thinks, believes, or
imagines them. Readers presume honesty
and sanity, assuming that authors mean
what they write. So, it is not necessary to
say, I think, imagine, know, etc. 
Examples:
I focus:
I know that the earth is round.
(And we’re all proud of you! If it’s a tricky
fact, you want to cite a source. If not, why
take personal credit?)
 Idea focus: 
As Eratosthenes (276-195 BCE) clearly
showed, the earth is not flat (Siegel).
(Information of this kind, where
appropriate,  is not only value added, but
something you are not likely to have
discovered through experimentation.
Always cite the source both in the body of
the text and in a works cited section (also
sometimes
called references, resources, or bibliograp
hy).
3. Be careful not only to cite sources
correctly but also to obey the laws of fair
use.  In business and the professions;
failure to cite sources and to get
permission to use materials can result in
litigation. At university, it can result in
charges of Academic Dishonesty.   It’s
smart to take a bit of time to familiarize
yourselves with fair use and copyright law. 
It is not the same for all people, media, or
situations.  Educators, for example, have
the right to use some materials in certain
educational settings that could result in
litigation for corporations, or even
individuals.
4.Write out numbers below 10, and use
numerals for 10 and above.
 Never start a sentence with a
numeral. Seriously. 
Never. Slap your little fingers!
NOT: 21 guns were used in the salute.
  Instead: Twenty-one guns were used in
the salute.
Dates: When you write a date, do not use a
comma if the day is first, but if you put the
month first and then the day, you do. Do
not use a comma if there is no day given.
Here, American style is moving toward
European style:
Current Style in most style-
sheets: Officer, I last saw her on 7 June
2002, when she gave me back my ring.
Older style: I last saw her on June 7, 2002,
when she gave me back my ring.
European style matches the current
style: Howard Smith paid his taxes in full
on 15 May 2002, and he was never audited.
Check with the style book used in your
discipline or course. Once you choose, be
consistent.
5. Always use colons in formal letter and
memo salutations. (Note: A comma is often
used in email memos. Go with your
organization’s style-sheet there.) Also, it is
never wrong to use a person’s full
name. Add earned titles where they
exist. When in doubt, remain a bit formal.
Yes, even now. It is very easy to move to a
less formal voice if you are specifically
invited to, but hard to take it back once
you find you have overstepped the line.
When in doubt, look up titles. By the way,
general titles go at the beginning, but
specific degrees go after the name: Dr.
Sally Smithers or Sally Smithers, Ph.D.
(never both); Dr. Fred Flintstone or Fred
Flintstone, M.D. Never place titles
before and after the name.
Dear Ms. Sally Smithers:
Dear Dr. Sally Smithers:
 Dear Sally Smithers, M.D.
  Dear Dr. Sally Smithers, M.D.
SCIENCE
Biology
Biology, also referred to as the biological
sciences, is the study of living organisms
utilizing the scientific method.
Biology examines the structure, function,
growth, origin, evolution, and distribution of
living things.
It classifies and describes organisms, their
functions, how species come into existence,
and the interactions they have with each
other and with the natural environment.
Four unifying principles form the foundation
of modern biology: cell theory, evolution,
genetics and homeostasis.
Biology as a separate science was
developed in the nineteenth century, as
scientists discovered that organisms shared
fundamental characteristics.
Biology is now a standard subject of
instruction at schools and universities
around the world, and over a million papers
are published annually in a wide array of
biology and medicine journals.
Most biological sciences are specialized
disciplines.
Traditionally, they are grouped by the type
of organism being studied: botany, the study
of plants; zoology, the study of animals; and
microbiology, the study of microorganisms.
The fields within biology are further divided
based on the scale at which organisms are
studied and the methods used to study
them: biochemistry examines the
fundamental chemistry of life; molecular
biology studies the complex interactions of
systems of biological molecules; cellular
biology examines the basic building block of
all life, the cell; physiology examines the
physical and chemical functions of the
tissues and organ systems of an organism;
and ecology examines how various
organisms interrelate.
Applied fields of biology such as medicine
and genetic research involve many
specialized sub-disciplines.
A central organizing concept in biology is
that life changes and develops through
evolution and that all lifeforms known have
a common origin.
Charles Darwin established evolution as a
viable theory by articulating its driving force,
natural selection (Alfred Russel Wallace is
recognized as the co-discoverer of this
concept).
Darwin theorized that species and breeds
developed through the processes of natural
selection as well as by artificial selection or
selective breeding.
Genetic drift was embraced as an additional
mechanism of evolutionary development in
the modern synthesis of the theory.
Biological form and function is created from
and is passed on to the next generation by
genes, which are the primary units of
inheritance.
Physiological adaption to an organism's
environment cannot be coded into its genes
and cannot be inherited by its offspring.
Remarkably, widely different organisms,
including bacteria, plants, animals, and
fungi, all share the same basic machinery
that copies and transcribes DNA into
proteins.
For example, bacteria with inserted human
DNA will correctly yield the corresponding
human protein.
Chemistry
is the study of matter, its properties, how
and why substances combine or separate to
form other substances, and how substances
interact with energy. Many people think of
chemists as being white-coated scientists
mixing strange liquids in a laboratory, but
the truth is we are all chemists.
Understanding basic chemistry concepts is
important for almost every profession.
Chemistry is part of everything in our lives. 
Every material in existence is made up of
matter — even our own bodies. Chemistry
is involved in everything we do, from
growing and cooking food to cleaning our
homes and bodies to launching a space
shuttle. Chemistry is one of the physical
sciences that help us to describe and
explain our world.
General chemistry is the study
of matter, energy, and the interactions
between the two. The main topics in
chemistry include acids and bases, atomic
structure, the periodic table, chemical
bonds, and chemical reactions.
Acids, Bases, and pH
Acids, bases, and pH are concepts that apply
to aqueous solutions (solutions in water).
pH refers to the hydrogen ion concentration
or the ability of a species to donate/accept
protons or electrons. Acids and bases reflect
the relative availability of hydrogen ions or
proton/electron donors or acceptors. Acid-
base reactions are extremely important in
living cells and industrial processes.
Atomic Structure
Atoms are composed of protons, neutrons,
and electrons. Protons and neutrons form
the nucleus of each atom, with electrons
moving around this core. The study of
atomic structure involves understanding the
composition of atoms, isotopes, and ions.
Electrochemistry
Electrochemistry is primarily concerned
with oxidation-reduction reactions or redox
reactions. These reactions produce ions and
may be harnessed to produce electrodes and
batteries. Electrochemistry is used to
predict whether or not a reaction will occur
and in which direction electrons will flow.
Units and Measurement
Chemistry is a science that relies on
experimentation, which often involves
taking measurements and performing
calculations based on those measurements.
This means it is important to be familiar
with the units of measurement and the
various ways of converting between
different units.
Thermochemistry
Thermochemistry is the area of general
chemistry that relates to thermodynamics.
It is sometimes called physical chemistry.
Thermochemistry involves the concepts of
entropy, enthalpy, Gibbs free energy,
standard state conditions, and energy
diagrams. It also includes the study of
temperature, calorimetry, endothermic
reactions, and exothermic reactions.
Chemical Bonding
Atoms and molecules join together through
ionic and covalent bonding. Related topics
include electronegativity, oxidation
numbers, and Lewis electron dot structure.
Periodic Table
The periodic table is a systematic way of
organizing the chemical elements. The
elements exhibit periodic properties that
can be used to predict their characteristics,
including the likelihood that they will form
compounds and participate in chemical
reactions.
Equations and Stoichiometry
It's important to learn how to balance
chemical equations and how different
factors affect the rate and yield of chemical
reactions.
Solutions and Mixtures
An important part of general chemistry is
learning about different types of solutions
and mixtures and how to calculate
concentrations. This category includes
topics such as colloids, suspensions, and
dilutions.
PHYSICS
Physics, science that deals with the
structure of matter and the interactions
between the fundamental constituents of the
observable universe. In the broadest sense,
physics (from the Greek physikos) is
concerned with all aspects of nature on both
the macroscopic and submicroscopic levels.
Its scope of study encompasses not only
the behaviour of objects under the action of
given forces but also the nature and origin
of gravitational, electromagnetic,
and nuclear force fields. Its ultimate
objective is the formulation of a
few comprehensive principles that bring
together and explain
such disparate phenomena.
Physics is the basic physical science. Until
rather recent times physicsand natural
philosophy were used interchangeably for
the science whose aim is the discovery and
formulation of the fundamental laws of
nature. As the modern sciences developed
and became increasingly specialized,
physics came to denote that part of physical
science not included
in astronomy, chemistry, geology,
and engineering. Physics plays an important
role in all the natural sciences, however,
and all such fields have branches in which
physical laws and measurements receive
special emphasis, bearing such names
as astrophysics, geophysics, biophysics,
and even psychophysics. Physics can, at
base, be defined as the science
of matter, motion, and energy. Its laws are
typically expressed with economy and
precision in the language of mathematics.
Both experiment, the observation of
phenomena under conditions that are
controlled as precisely as possible, and
theory, the formulation of
unified conceptual framework, play essential
and complementary roles in
advancement of physics. Physical
experiments result in measurements, which
are compared with the outcome predicted
by theory. A theory that reliably predicts the
results of experiments to which it is
applicable is said to embody a law of
physics. However, a law is always subject to
modification, replacement, or restriction to a
more limited domain, if a later experiment
makes it necessary.
The ultimate aim of physics is to find a
unified set of laws governing matter, motion,
and energy at small (microscopic)
subatomic distances, at the human
(macroscopic) scale of everyday life, and
out to the largest distances (e.g., those on
the extragalactic scale). This ambitious goal
has been realized to a notable extent.
Although a completely unified theory of
physical phenomena has not yet been
achieved (and possibly never will be), a
remarkably small set of fundamental
physical laws appears able to account for all
known phenomena. The body of physics
developed up to about the turn of the 20th
century, known as classical physics, can
largely account for the motions of
macroscopic objects that move slowly with
respect to the speed of light and for such
phenomena
as heat, sound, electricity, magnetism,
and light. The modern developments
of relativity and quantum mechanics modify
these laws insofar as they apply to higher
all
speeds, very massive objects, and to the
tiny elementary constituents of matter, such
as electrons, protons, and neutrons.
What Are the Branches of Physics?
While there are more branches sprouting up
as science and technology progresses,
there are generally 11 branches of physics.
These are as follows.
Branches of Physics
1. Classical physics
2. Modern physics
3. Nuclear physics
4. Atomic physics
5. Geophysics
6. Biophysics
7. Mechanics
8. Acoustics
9. Optics
10. Thermodynamics
a 11. Astrophysics
the
What Are the Three Laws of Physics?
The three laws of physics, as they are
commonly referred to, are known formally
as Newton's laws of motion. They are
considered the basis of classical
mechanics. Newton's laws describe the
motion of a body upon which forces may act
and which may exert forces on other bodies.
When we speak of bodies, we are not
speaking of actual human bodies (although
human bodies can be included in this
definition), but of any piece of matter upon
which a force may act. Newton's three laws
are outlined below.
Newton's Laws of Motion (The Three Laws
of Physics)
1. Law of Inertia: A body remains at
rest or in uniform motion in a straight
line unless acted upon by a force. 
2. Force = Mass x Acceleration: A
body's rate of change of momentum is
proportional to the force causing it.
3. Action = Reaction: When a force
acts on a body due to another body,
then an equal and opposite force acts
simultaneously on that body.
What Are the Two Pillars of Modern
Physics?
The two pillars of modern physics are as
follows.
1. Albert Einstein's theory of relativity
2. Max Plank's quantum theory.
What Is the Theory of Relativity?
Albert Einstein's theory of relativity is one of
the most important discoveries of the
contemporary age, and states that the laws
of physics are the same for all non-
accelerating observers. As a result of this
discovery, Einstein was able to confirm that
space and time are interwoven in a single
continuum known as space-time. As such,
events that occur at the same time for one
observer could occur at different times for
another.
Einstein's theory of relativity is summarized
in the formula:
E = mc^2
In this equation, "E" represents energy, "m"
represents mass, and "c" represents the
speed of light.
What Is Quantum Theory?
Discovered by Max Plank in 1900, quantum
theory is the theoretical basis of modern
physics that explains the nature and
behaviour of matter and energy on the
atomic and subatomic level. The nature and
behaviour of matter and energy at that level
is sometimes referred to as quantum
physics and quantum mechanics.
Plank discovered that energy exists in
individual units in the same way that matter
does, rather than just as a constant
electromagnetic wave. Thus, energy was
quantifiable. The existence of these units,
called quanta, act as the basis of Plank's
quantum theory.
Geophysics is a branch of physics that
deals with the study of the Earth. It is mainly
concerned with the shape, structure and
composition of the Earth, but geophysicists
also study gravitational force, magnetic
fields, earthquakes, magma, and more.
Geophysics was only recognized as a
separate discipline in the 19th century, but
its origins date back to ancient times. The
first magnetic compasses were made from
Biophysics studies biological problems and
the structure of molecules in living
organisms using techniques derived from
physics. One of the most groundbreaking
achievements of biophysics is the discovery
of the structure of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic
Acid) by James Watson and Francis Crick.
What Is Physics?
The word physics is derived from the Latin
word physica, which means "natural thing."
According to the Oxford English Dictionary,
physics is defined as:
Definition of "Physics" by the Oxford English
Dictionary
"The branch of science concerned with the
nature and properties of matter and energy. The
subject matter of physics includes mechanics,
heat, light and other radiation, sound, electricity,
magnetism, and the structure of atoms."
Another definition by the digital encyclopedia
Microsoft Encarta describes physics as:
Definition of "Physics" by Microsoft Encarta
“A major science dealing with the fundamental
constituents of the universe, the forces they exert
on one another, and the results produced by
these forces. Sometimes in modern physics a
more sophisticated approach is taken that
incorporates elements of the three areas listed
above; it relates to the laws of symmetry and
conservation, such as those pertaining to energy,
momentum, charge, and parity.”
What these definitions indicate is that physics is
a branch of science that deals with the properties
of matter and energy and the relationship
between them. It also tries to explain the
material world and the natural phenomena of the
universe.
The scope of physics is very wide and vast. It
deals with not only the tinniest particles of
atoms, but also natural phenomenon like the
galaxy, the milky way, solar and lunar eclipses,
and more. While it is true that physics is a
branch of science, there are many sub-branches
within the field of physics. In this article, we
will explore each of them in depth.
What Are the Branches of Physics?
While there are more branches sprouting up as
science and technology progresses, there are
generally 11 branches of physics. These are as
follows.
Branches of Physics
1. Classical physics
2. Modern physics
3. Nuclear physics
4. Atomic physics
5. Geophysics
6. Biophysics
7. Mechanics
8. Acoustics
9. Optics
10. Thermodynamics
11. Astrophysics
Continue reading to explore each of these
branches in depth.
1. Classical Physics
This branch of physics is mainly concerned with
the laws of motion and gravitation as outlined in
Sir Isaac Newton and James Clark Maxwell’s
kinetic theory and thermodynamics,
respectively. This branch of physics deals
mostly with matter and energy. Often, physics
which date before 1900 are considered classical
physics, whereas physic which date after 1900
are considered modern physics.
In classical physics, energy and matter are
considered separate entities. Acoustics, optics,
classical mechanics, and electromagnetics are
traditionally branches within classical physics.
Moreover, any theory of physics that is
considered null and void in modern physics
automatically falls under the realm of classical
physics.
As Newton's Laws are one of the main features
of classical physics, let's examine them.
What Are the Three Laws of Physics?
The three laws of physics, as they are commonly
referred to, are known formally as Newton's
laws of motion. They are considered the basis of
classical mechanics. Newton's laws describe the
motion of a body upon which forces may act and
which may exert forces on other bodies.
When we speak of bodies, we are not speaking
of actual human bodies (although human bodies
can be included in this definition), but of any
piece of matter upon which a force may act.
Newton's three laws are outlined below.
Newton's Laws of Motion (The Three Laws
of Physics)
1. Law of Inertia: A body remains at rest
or in uniform motion in a straight line
unless acted upon by a force. 
2. Force = Mass x Acceleration: A body's
rate of change of momentum is
proportional to the force causing it.
3. Action = Reaction: When a force acts
on a body due to another body, then an
equal and opposite force acts
simultaneously on that body.
The Three Laws of Physics Explained
(Video)
2. Modern Physics
Modern physics is a branch of physics that is
mainly concerned with the theory of relativity
and quantum mechanics.
Albert Einstein and Max Plank were the
pioneers of modern of physics as the first
scientists to introduce the theory of relativity
and quantum mechanics, respectively.
In modern physics, energy and matter are not
considered as separate entities. Rather, they are
considered different forms of each other.
What Are the Two Pillars of Modern
Physics?
The two pillars of modern physics are as
follows.
1. Albert Einstein's theory of relativity
2. Max Plank's quantum theory.
What Is the Theory of Relativity?
Albert Einstein's theory of relativity is one of the
most important discoveries of the contemporary
age, and states that the laws of physics are the
same for all non-accelerating observers. As a
result of this discovery, Einstein was able to
confirm that space and time are interwoven in a
single continuum known as space-time. As such,
events that occur at the same time for one
observer could occur at different times for
another.
Einstein's theory of relativity is summarized in
the formula:
E = mc^2
In this equation, "E" represents energy, "m"
represents mass, and "c" represents the speed of
light.
Einstein's Theory of Relativity Explained
(Video)
What Is Quantum Theory?
Discovered by Max Plank in 1900, quantum
theory is the theoretical basis of modern physics
that explains the nature and behaviour of matter
and energy on the atomic and subatomic level.
The nature and behaviour of matter and energy
at that level is sometimes referred to as quantum
physics and quantum mechanics.
Plank discovered that energy exists in individual
units in the same way that matter does, rather
than just as a constant electromagnetic wave.
Thus, energy was quantifiable. The existence of
these units, called quanta, act as the basis of
Plank's quantum theory.
3. Nuclear Physics
Nuclear physics is a branch of physics that deals
with the constituents, structure, behaviour and
interactions of atomic nuclei. This branch of
physics should not be confused with atomic
physics, which studies the atom as a whole,
including its electrons.
According to the Microsoft Encarta
encyclopedia, nuclear physics is defined as:
“The branch of physics in which the structure,
forces, and behaviour of the atomic nucleus are
studied.”
In the modern age, nuclear physics has become
very wide in its scope and has been applied in
many fields. It is used in power generation,
nuclear weapons, medicines, magnetic
resonance, imaging, industrial and agricultural
isotopes, and more.
Who Discovered Nuclear Physics?
The history of nuclear physics as a distinct field
from atomic physics begins with the discovery
of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel in 1896. The
discovery of the electron one year later indicated
that the atom had an internal structure.
With this, studies began on the nuclei of atoms,
thus nuclear physics was born.
Nuclear physicists examine only the nucleus, not
the atom as a whole. | Source
4. Atomic Physics
Atomic physics is a branch of physics that deals
with the composition of the atom apart from the
nucleus. It is mainly concerned with the
arrangement and behaviour of electrons in the
shells around the nucleus. Thus, atomic physics
mostly examines electrons, ions, and neutral
atoms.
One of the earliest steps towards atomic physics
was recognizing that all matter is comprised of
atoms. The true beginning of atomic physics is
marked by the discovery of spectral lines and the
attempt to explain them. This resulted in an
entirely new understanding of the structure of
atoms and how they behave.
5. Geophysics
Geophysics is a branch of physics that deals
with the study of the Earth. It is mainly
concerned with the shape, structure and
composition of the Earth, but geophysicists also
study gravitational force, magnetic fields,
earthquakes, magma, and more.
Geophysics was only recognized as a separate
discipline in the 19th century, but its origins date
 back to ancient times. The first magnetic
compasses were made from
All of these discoveries can be included in the
field of geophysics, which is defined as:
"a natural science concerned with the physical
processes and physical properties of the Earth
and its surrounding space environment, and the
use of quantitative methods for their analysis."
Computer simulation of the Earth's magnetic
field in a period of normal polarity between
reversals. | Source
6. Biophysics
According to the Microsoft Encarta
encyclopedia, biophysics is defined as:
“the interdisciplinary study of biological
phenomena and problems, using the principles
and techniques of physics.”
Biophysics studies biological problems and the
structure of molecules in living organisms using
techniques derived from physics. One of the
most groundbreaking achievements of
biophysics is the discovery of the structure of
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) by James
Watson and Francis Crick.
Poll
Physics is the study of:
 Matter and Energy
 Matter and Work
 Light and Heat
 Earth and Astronomy
See results
7. Mechanical Physics
Mechanical physics is a branch of physics that
deals with the motion of material objects under
the influence of forces.
Often called just mechanics, mechanical physics
falls under two main branches:
 Classical mechanics
 Quantum mechanics
Classical mechanics deals with the laws of
motion of physical objects and the forces that
cause the motion, while quantum mechanics is
the branch of physics which deals with the
behaviour of smallest particles (i.e. electrons,
neutrons, and protons).
What Are the Main Branches of Mechanics?
Mechanics can be broken down into eight sub-
branches. These are as follows:
1. Applied mechanics
2. Celestial mechanics
3. Continuum mechanics
4. Dynamics
5. Kinematics
6. Kinetics
7. Statics
8. Statistical mechanics
8. Acoustics
The word "acoustics" is derived from a
Greek word akouen, meaning "to hear."
Hence, we can define acoustics as a branch
of physics that studies how sound is
produced, transmitted, received and
controlled. Acoustics also deals with the
effects of sounds in various mediums (i.e.
gas, liquid, and solids).
9. Optics
Optics is a branch of physics that studies
electromagnetic radiation (for example, light
and infrared radiation), its interactions with
matter, and instruments used to gather
information due to these interactions. Optics
includes the study of sight.
10. Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that
deals with heat and temperature and their
relation to energy and work. The behaviour
of these quantities is governed by the four
laws of thermodynamics.
The four laws of thermodynamics are as
follows.
1. If two systems are in thermal
equilibrium with a third system, they
are in thermal equilibrium with each
other. This law helps define the
concept of temperature.
2. When energy passes, as work, as
heat, or with matter, into or out from a
system, the system's internal energy
changes in accord with the law of
conservation of energy. Equivalently,
perpetual motion machines of the first
kind (machines that produce work with
no energy input) are impossible.
 3. In a natural thermodynamic process,
the sum of the entropies of the
interacting thermodynamic systems
increases. Equivalently, perpetual
motion machines of the second kind
(machines that spontaneously convert
thermal energy into mechanical work)
are impossible.
4. The entropy of a system approaches
a constant value as the temperature
approaches absolute zero. With the
exception of non-crystalline solids
(glasses), the entropy of a system at
absolute zero is typically close to zero,
and is equal to the natural logarithm of
the product of the quantum ground
states.
11. Astrophysics
The word "astrophysics" is a combination of
two Latin-derived words: astro, which
means "star," and phisis, which means
"nature."
Thus, astrophysics can be defined as a
branch of astronomy which is concerned
with the study of universe (i.e., stars,
galaxies, and planets) using the laws of
physics.
What Is the Difference Between and
Astrophysicist and an Astronomer?
Technically speaking, astronomers only
measure the positions and characteristics of
celestial bodies, whereas astrophysicists
use the application physics to understand
astronomy.

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