Product/Process Design

Product design plan

 Product design plan
• In a product design plan, there are many activities to be first recognised and
then coordinated; some activities are worked in sequence, some in parallel.
• The master plan coordinates the various people and their mini-projects in an
overall time and resource plan so that the product design can be controlled.
• The plan begins with the product design specifications.
• These include a profile of the product characteristics as defined by the
consumer, the structure and composition, safety factors, convenience and
aesthetics, and also indicates the manufacturing, processing and storage
variables and their effects on the product qualities.
• Many of these product design specifications start as general descriptions;
product design and process development focuses them into definite,
quantitative descriptions
 Factors affecting Product Design
In food product design:
• Important marketing factors are
consumer acceptability, competitive
positioning, legal regulations, ethical
requirements, environmental
mandates and distributor
requirements;

• Important technical factors are raw

material availability, ease of
processing, cost, attainability and
reliability of product quality, shelf life,
equipment needs, human knowledge
and skills; and

• Important financial factors are costs of manufacturing and distribution, costs of

further development and the investment needed.
Parameters influencing Product Design
 Variables in Product Design
In the Product design, both the input variables to the process and the output
variables of the product qualities are identified early in the developments.

The input variables are:

• raw materials: type, quality, quantity;
• processing variables: types of processing, processing conditions.

The output variables are:

• product qualities;
• product yields

The design is a continuous study of the relationships between the input variables
and the product qualities, so that the final product prototype is the optimum
product under the conditions of the process.
Developing Chemical and Textural
Properties of Food
 Variables in Product Design
• The levels of the input variables that are possible in the production are
identified and used in the design experimentation.
• The level of a raw material (or ingredient) is the percentage in the formulation.
• Raw materials and ingredients are sometimes differentiated: raw materials as
the primary products from agricultural and marine sources, and ingredients as
processed materials.
• The levels of processing variables are related to physical, chemical and
microbiological measurements and also the achievable and necessary limits set
by equipment and environmental conditions.
• There are limits set on the input variables by the needs of the product,
processing and costs; there may be a lower level and a higher level, or just one
of these. Identifying these levels early in the design reduces the time spent on
experimentation.
• The two main parts of product design are making and testing the product
prototypes, and the two important groups of people are the designers (often
called developers in the food industry) and the consumers.
• The prototype products are tested under the standards set by the product
design specifications, so that product testing needs to be organised along with
the product design and the processing experiments.
• Regularly there is consumer input, to confirm that the product is developing
characteristics as identified in the product concept and not developing
characteristics which are neither wanted nor needed by the consumer.
• The design activities are
grouped into steps:
• ‘Getting the feel',
• Screening
• Ball-park studies
• Optimisation
• Scale-up of production
• Marketing strategy
• Financial analysis
• This allows control of the design
process as the consumer,
product and process activities
are coordinated into small mini-
projects with specific objectives.
 E.g. Simple Product Dev. Process
Fruit drink powders are dissolved in water to give a refreshing drink. These drinks
are popular with children, and are also used as cheap drinks for large parties.
1.Identify the ingredients in fruit drink powders by reading the labels on some
powders available in the supermarket or by searching in the internet.
2. Identify the important product qualities in such powdered drinks, and suggest
how you might test these product qualities with laboratory testing, with trained
sensory panel testing and with consumers.
3. Fruit drink powders are produced by mixing the ingredients so that they are
evenly dispersed and then they are packed into sachets. Identify important factors
in this processing and packing.
Outline the method you would use to develop a fruit drink powder.
Product
Testing
Example:
Testing of Thai Fermented Sausage (Nham)
In Thai sausage product design experimentation,
there were:
• chemical tests (pH, total acidity, volatile acidity,
residual nitrite, reducing sugars and cooked rice),
• physical tests (Instron compression, shear force
and energy, reflective colour, gas formation, water
activity, weight loss),
• microbiological tests (mesophilic aerobic micro-
organisms, Enterobacteriaceae, Staphylococcus
aureus, yeasts and moulds),
• sensory tests (appearance, texture, flavour) and
tests of consumer acceptability. The product profile
characteristics were: colour, visual texture, air
pockets, firmness, juiciness, smoothness, sourness,
saltiness, spiciness, pork flavour.
 Process Development
• Process development is interwoven with product design.
• For example, in the Thai sausage example the Thai sausage processing was divided
into three parts: raw material preparation (mincing of meat, cooking of rice), mixing
of the raw materials and stuffing into the sausage casings, and fermentation.
• The first two parts were kept standard throughout and only the fermentation
conditions were varied.
• This division of the process into its individual parts is the method used in either
analysing a current process for a new product (process analysis) or for building
a new process for a new product (process synthesis).
• The individual parts and then the connections between them are studied to
give the optimal overall process.
 Process Development
There are three aspects of studying processing: unit operations, unit processes and
processing limits:
Unit operations:
• These are the physical processes such as heating, pasteurisation, sterilisation,
freezing, chilling, drying, mixing, emulsifying, tumbling, pumping, conveying,
packing.
• They can be grouped into separation processes, assembly (or combining)
processes, conversion processes and preservation processes. There are more
than a hundred unit operations used in food processing.
Unit processes:
• These are the chemical, biological and microbiological changes such as
gelatinisation, hydrolysis, oxidation, browning, protein denaturation, vitamin
destruction, destruction and growth of micro-organisms, fruit ripening and meat
tenderising.
• There are a number of these reactions occurring together in a food process and
this leads to a complicated study in design.
 Process Development
Processing limits (maximum and minimum):
• These can be temperatures, rates of increase/decrease in temperature,
viscosities, mixing speeds, shear rates and pH, as well as processing times,
availability and cost of equipment and services such as water quantity and
steam pressures.
 Process Development
• The development steps are common in all projects, but the relative amounts of time
and effort required for different steps may change considerably.
• Many food products are processed in more or less generic equipment so the
emphasis in development lies on the product.
• If process development is more extensive, the logical sequence remains but the
description of the steps may change, for example detailed design for items of
equipment or a continuous line are included.
Food Processing Equipment
 Food Processing Equipment
• Food processing equipment is an umbrella term referring to the components,
processing machines, and systems used to handle, prepare, cook, store, and
package food and food products.
• Food Processing Equipment are employed for food and food product applications
ranging from bakery goods to beverages and dairy to produce, a wide range of food
processing equipment is available to execute the various unit operations necessary
during a complete production cycle, such as washing, separating, mixing, baking,
freezing, and sealing.
• Some pieces of equipment are primarily aimed toward the transformation—i.e.,
increasing the palatability, consumability, and digestibility—or preservation—i.e.,
extending the shelf life—of food.
• Some pieces of equipment are also employed to perform preliminary or auxiliary
functions, such as handling, preparation, and packaging.
Types of Food Processing Equipment
• There is a wide range of food processing equipment available to satisfy the various
functions which are integral to the food and food processing industries.
• Factors that an industry professional or procurement agent can consider across the
board to ensure that their food processing equipment fulfils their needs:
• Function
Some of the most common functions by which
• Form
food processing equipment are grouped include:
• Hygienic design Preparation
• Sizing Mechanical processing
• Construction requirements Heat processing
• Operational characteristics Preservation
• Cost Packaging
 Food Preparation Equipment
Unit Operation Description Equipment Employed

Cleaning Removes foreign matter and contaminants—e.g., soil, Wet Processes:

oil, insects, skins, chemicals, etc.—from the surface of Soak/floatation tanks (soaking),
raw food material via wet and dry cleaning processes Spray washers (spray washing)
Washing systems (washing)
Sterilizers (sterilizing)
Ultrasonic cleaners

Dry Processes:
Air classifiers, Magnetic separators, Screening
separators

Grading Closely related to, and often precluding, sorting Tungsten lights (candling)
processes Image processors
Assesses several characteristics of food matter (e.g., Laboratory equipment
flavor, damage, skin color, aroma, etc.) to determine
the overall quality

Peeling/Skinning Removes inedible or undesirable material to increase
the overall quality and/or appearance of the final food
product
Pressure vessels (flash steam peeling)
Stationary/rotating blades (knife peeling)
Carborundum abrasive rollers/bowls (abrasion
peeling),
Conveyors and furnaces (flame peeling)

Sorting Operates similarly to and overlaps with dry cleaning Sorting machinery
processes Disc separators (shape sorting)
Classifies and separates foreign matter and Sieves/screens (size sorting)
contaminants from raw food material based on a Machine vision sorting systems
measurable physical characteristic (typically size, Sorting conveyors
shape, weight, or color)
 Mechanical Processing Equipment
Unit Operation Description
Size Reduction Reduces the average particle size
of solid food matter through
mechanical processes involving
compression, shear, or impact
force
Size Enlargement Increases the average particle
size of solid food matter through
mechanical processes, such as
extrusion, agglomeration, or
forming
Homogenization Reduces the average particle size
(Also referred to as and increases the consistency of
emulsification) semi-solid and liquid food matter
Mixing Combines and disperses two or
(Also referred to as more components into one
blending) another to achieve and maintain
a uniform mixture and/or an
alteration to the functional or
aesthetic qualities of the food
product (e.g., texture)
Equipment Employed
Grinding/Crushing:
Impact mills, Pressure mills, Attrition mills, Jaw crushers, Roll crushers,
Strainers/pulpers
Cutting/Chopping:
Knives/blades, Band saws, Slicing machines, Meat grinders
Extrusion:
Non-thermal extruders, Single-screw extruders, Twin-screw extruders,
Refrigerated extruders
Agglomeration:
Rotating pans, Rotating drums, High-speed agitators, Tableting equipment,
Pelletizing equipment
Forming:
Bread molders, Pie and biscuit formers, Confectionary molders, Enrobing
machines
Homogenizers, Emulsifiers, Colloid mills, High shear mixers
Fluid Mixers:
Agitated tanks, Paddle mixers, Anchor mixers, Turbine mixers
Dough/Paste Mixers:
Horizontal dough mixers, Sigma-blade mixers, Cutter mixers
Solids Mixers:
Diffusive (passive) mixers, Convective (active) mixers, Drum blenders
 Heat Processing Equipment
Unit Operation Description Equipment Employed

Baking – Similar to, and often referred interchangeably with, roasting Baking ovens:
– Employs heated air (heated by convection, conduction, and Direct heating ovens
radiation)—and, in some cases, water vapour—to heat and Indirect heating ovens
produce physical and chemical changes in food material, such as Batch ovens
texture or flavour Continuous and semi-continuous
– Assists in the preservation of food matter by destroying ovens
microorganisms and reducing the amount of moisture at the food
surface
– Suitable for producing bread, crackers, biscuits, and other flour-
based or dough-based products

Blanching – Employs heated water or steam to reduce the number of Blanchers:

microorganisms and inactivate undesirable enzymes which can Steam blanchers
cause spoilage Hot water blanchers
– Also cleans, removes excess air from, softens, and improves the
overall quality
– Typically follows preparation operations and precedes
preservation operations, such as packaging, dehydrating, or
freezing
– Suitable for fruits and vegetables

Dehydration – Employs heat to remove (i.e., evaporate) water from solid, semi- Dryers:
solid, or liquid food material with the intention of producing a Convective dryers
solid food product with sufficiently low water content Contact (conductive) dryers
– Increases the shelf life of food products due to the reduced water Vacuum dryers
content which inhibits microbial growth and enzyme activity Freeze dryers
– Reduces weight and volume and/or transforms the form of the
final food product
 Heat Processing Equipment
Unit Operation Description Equipment Employed

Evaporation – Removes volatile solvents (typically water) from food material by boiling to Heat exchangers:
increase the concentration of solid contents Evaporators
– Increases the shelf life of food products due to the reduced water content, Condensers
but also increases the rate of chemical deterioration
– Reduces the weight and volume of the final food product
– Typically precedes operations, such as crystallization, precipitation, and
coagulation
– Suitable for liquid-based food products

Frying – Employs heated (~160–180 °C) fat or oil to transfer heat directly to food Fryers:
material Batch fryers
– Reduces moisture content, forms a surface crust (changes texture and Continuous fryers
structure), and inactivates microorganisms which improves shelf life and
overall quality

Pasteurization – Processes food material under medium temperatures (70–100 °C) to Pasteurizers:
inactivate most enzymes and microorganisms (but not spores) which cause In-container pasteurizers
spoilage Continuous flow pasteurizers
– Produces food products with limited shelf lives (short-term preservation
method) Heat exchangers:
– Little to no impact to quality and characteristics beyond the shelf life Plate heat exchangers
– Suitable for dairy, fruit/vegetable-based, wine, beer, and egg products Concentric tube heat
exchangers
Roasting – Similar to, and often referred interchangeably with, baking Roasting machinery:
– Employs heated air (heated by convection, conduction, and radiation)— Roasting ovens
and, in some cases, water vapor—to heat and produce physical and
chemical changes in food material, such as texture or flavor
– Assists in the preservation of food matter by destroying microorganisms
and reducing the amount of water at the food surface
– Suitable for meats, nuts, vegetables, etc.
 Food Preservation Equipment
Unit Operation Description Equipment Employed

Chemical – Employs natural and non-natural chemical substances Natural:

to prevent or inhibit spoilage Salt (salting)
– Can change the pH and other qualities of food material Smokers (smoking)
Acids (e.g., acetic acid, vinegar, etc.)
Non-Natural:
Sorbic acid, Sulfur dioxide, Benzoic acid

Irradiation – Employs ionizing radiation to destroy microorganisms Irradiation equipment, such as isotopes and
and inactivate enzymes which cause spoilage electron accelerators
– Little to no heating of food material

Refrigeration – Reduces the temperature of food material to depress Chilling (-1°C–8°C):

(Removal of the biochemical and microbiological processes of Chillers
Heat) microorganisms and enzymes which cause spoilage Mechanical refrigerators
– Helps maintain quality and characteristics of food Cryogenic systems
material
Freezing (below freezing point):
Freezers
Mechanical refrigerators
Cryogenic systems
Water Reduction – Reduces the amount of water in food matter in solid, Drying:
semi-solid, or liquid food material to inhibit Convective dryers
microbiological and enzymatic process which cause Contact (conductive) dryers
spoilage Vacuum/freeze dryer
Solute Addition:
Sugar, Salt
Concentration:
Evaporators, Condensers
 Food Preservation Equipment
Equipment Employed Function Description

Printers
(e.g., flexographic, photogravure,
planographic, screen, or ink-jet)
– Packaging Material Creation
– Enables the identification of food contents and the
indication of handling, storage, and usage
instructions (e.g., ingredient list, production date,
barcodes, etc.)
– Allows for branding and marketing (e.g., brand
name, logo, etc.)

Volumetric Fillers – Filling – Used to fill a set volume of the packaging

containers with liquid, paste, or small pieces of
solid food material

Net-weight/Gross-weight Fillers – Filling – Used to fill packaging containers with a specific

weight of liquid, paste, or small pieces of solid food
material

Seamers – Sealing – Creates a double seam in filled food and beverage

cans

Form-Fill-Seal (FFS) Systems – Sealing – Capable of forming, filling, and sealing flexible film
packaging containers

Checkweighers – Quality Control – Verifies that filled packaging containers are at the
required fill weight and removes underweight
products from the production line
Food Quality Measurement
Instruments
• An important aspect of food processing and food preparation is the topic of
food quality control. Food quality in a production setting can be degraded and
compromised by any number of contributing factors, the most common of
which include the presence of :
• Pesticides
• Pathogens
• Heavy metals
• Organic toxins
• Foreign objects

• There are a number of instruments used in food laboratories that can be applied
to assure food quality which applies to solids as well as beverages. Some of the
most common examples of these instruments and their use are described
below.
 Food Quality Measurement Instruments
There are a number of instruments used in food laboratories that can be applied to assure
food quality which applies to solids as well as beverages. Some of the most common
examples of these instruments and their use are described below:
• Alcoholic beverage analyzers – Can be used to measure the alcohol content, density,
color, and pH of alcoholic beverages.
• Carbonated beverage analyzers – measure product density, temperature,
current/fresh/inverted sugar concentrations, degree of inversion, and CO2 levels.
• Food analysis equipment – various instruments that can be used to measure the fat,
protein, and oil concentrations in food samples and detect the level of gluten in foods.
• Pesticide detection instruments – detects the presence of pesticides in food samples.
• Electron Spin Resonance Spectrometers – also known as electron paramagnetic
resonance (EPR), these instruments can be used to test the purity of products without
physically destroying or altering samples.
 Food Quality Measurement Instruments
• Cell and colony counters – can be used to measure the colonies of microorganisms that
have grown on an agar plate prepared from a sample.
• Incubators – are used to provide a controlled environment (i.e. temperature, humidity,
CO2 level) for food safety testing.
• Chemical imaging (NIR/Raman) systems – devices that use analysis of samples by
detecting and analyzing light that is in the near-infrared, visible, or near-ultraviolet light
areas of the electromagnetic spectrum.
• Magnetic analyzers – detect low levels of iron in food samples by measuring the imbalance
in resonance between two air core coils which can be translated into a signal that reflects
the level of iron present in the sample.
• Moisture analyzers – also known as moisture balances, these devices are used to establish
the percentage of moisture in a food sample, either by weighing the sample before and
after an evaporation process or by using an absorption spectrometer to analyze the gas
emitted during evaporation to establish its content.
• Saccharimeters – are instruments that specifically measure the concentration of sugars
present in a solution. They do so by measuring the refractive index of the liquid as light as
passed through it.
 Food Quality Measurement Instruments
• Polarimeters – devices that pass polarized light through a sample and measure the angle
at which the emitted light emerges. Optically active substances will cause a change in the
polarization angle of the emitted light, which can be used to establish concentrations of
sugars such as glucose and sucrose.
• Refractometers – are devices that measure the angle of refraction from light that is
passed through a liquid, gel, or solid substance and using that to establish parameters
such as the salinity and sugar content.
• Rheometers & Viscometers – are instruments that can measure the viscosity of a fluid
and the behavior of fluids when shear or stress forces are applied to it. Having this
information can reveal the properties of the fluid that relate to its structure and elasticity.

• Titration Equipment – can be used to detect

and measure the concentration of a substance
within a liquid through acid/base titration. The
addition of titrant of known concentration to a
known volume of solution with unknown
concentration can determine that unknown
concentration through a reaction neutralization.