International Journal of Phytoremediation, 8:273–284, 2006

Copyright
C Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ISSN: 1522-6514 print / 1549-7879 online

DOI: 10.1080/15226510600992808

POTENTIAL OF VETIVER (VETIVERIA ZIZANIOIDES (L.)

NASH) FOR PHYTOREMEDIATION OF PETROLEUM
HYDROCARBON-CONTAMINATED SOILS IN VENEZUELA

Regine Brandt
Formerly University of Münster, Institute of Landscape Ecology, Münster, Germany.
In cooperation with PDVSA-Intevep (Centro de Investigación y Apoyo Tecnológico de
Petróleos de Venezuela S.A.), Department of Ecology and Environment, Los Teques,
Venezuela

Nicole Merkl and Rainer Schultze-Kraft

Institute of Plant Production and Agroecology in the Tropics and Subtropics,
University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany

Carmen Infante
Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, Venezuela

Gabriele Broll
University of Vechta, Department of Geo- and Agricultural Ecology, Vechta,
Germany

Venezuela is one of the largest oil producers in the world. For the rehabilitation of oil-
contaminated sites, phytoremediation represents a promising technology whereby plants
are used to enhance biodegradation processes in soil. A greenhouse study was conducted
to determine the tolerance of vetiver (Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash) to a Venezuelan
heavy crude oil in soil. Additionally, the plant’s potential for stimulating the biodegradation
processes of petroleum hydrocarbons was tested under the application of two fertilizer levels.
In the presence of contaminants, biomass and plant height were significantly reduced. As
for fertilization, the lower fertilizer level led to higher biomass production. The specific root
surface area was reduced under the effects of petroleum. However, vetiver was found to
tolerate crude-oil contamination in a concentration of 5% (w/w). Concerning total oil and
grease content in soil, no significant decrease under the influence of vetiver was detected
when compared to the unplanted control. Thus, there was no evidence of vetiver enhancing
the biodegradation of crude oil in soil under the conditions of this trial. However, uses of
vetiver grass in relation to petroleum-contaminated soils are promising for amelioration of
slightly polluted sites, to allow other species to get established and for erosion control.

KEY WORDS: phytoremediation, biodegradation, petroleum hydrocarbons, oil contamina-

tion, toxic effect, fertilizer levels, vetiver, root surface area, tropics

INTRODUCTION
For decades, the petroleum industry has been the mainstay of the Venezuelan
economy; this country is one of the world’s top oil producers (OPEC, 2003). As a

Address correspondence to R. Brandt, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Institute of Geobotany

and Botanical Garden, Am Kirchtor 1, 06108, Halle, Germany. E-mail: regine.brandt@gmx.de

273
274 R. BRANDT ET AL.

consequence, the long history of oil production has left its mark on the environment,
especially in production and pipeline areas (Wagner, 1998). Disposal of oil base wastes,
oil spills from well blow-outs, and pipeline ruptures are the most common sources of
petroleum contamination (Reis, 1996). Since the enactment of strict environmental laws
in the 1990s, the Venezuelan oil industry has integrated environmental considerations
in its activities (Wagner, 1998). The PDVSA-Intevep (Centro de Investigación y Apoyo
Tecnológico de Petróleos de Venezuela S.A.), a research center, has the important role of
supporting the state-owned oil company, PDVSA, in meeting the legislative environmental
demands (Infante, Vásquez, and Lippke, 1999).
Concerning the rehabilitation of oil-contaminated soils and waters, engineering
techniques based on physical, chemical, and thermal processes are commonly used
(Frick, Farrell, and Germida, 1999). However, especially in sites with diffuse low-to-
medium pollution, help may also be found in promising biological techniques, such as
phytoremediation (Schröder, Harvey, and Schwitzguébel, 2002), i.e., the “use of green
plants and their associated microbiota, soil amendments and agronomic techniques to
remove, contain or render harmless environmental contaminants (Cunningham et al., 1996).
This method is applicable to heavy metals, radionuclides, and a broad range of organic
pollutants such as petroleum hydrocarbons (PHCs) (Schröder et al., 2002). The effectiveness
of phytoremediation is site-specific and can be greatly affected by environmental factors.
In general, the technology is enhanced at higher temperatures if water and nutrients are
in adequate supply (Frick et al., 1999). Thus, this cost-saving and environment-friendly
cleanup method might work effectively in the tropics, for instance in Venezuela.
In particular, plants with deep, fibrous roots and fast growth, such as grasses, are
useful in phytoremediation. The ability to tolerate conditions of stress is another important
required characteristic (Siciliano and Germida, 1998). Using perennials rather than annual
species is preferable, because reestablishment on a yearly basis is not required (Aprill and
Sims, 1990). The perennial vetiver grass (Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash) was chosen as the
subject species of this study. Due to the content of aromatic essential oils in its roots, vetiver
has been cultivated for thousands of years. Nowadays, the cultivated sterile type of vetiver
is mainly used in diverse environmental conservation practices. The striking morphological
feature of vetiver is the massive, finely structured, deep-growing root system (Greenfield,
2002). Furthermore, it is adaptable to a wide range of edaphic and climatic conditions
throughout the tropics and subtropics (Truong and Baker, 1997; Greenfield, 2002). These
factors make vetiver a promising species for phytoremediation.
Successful work had already been done in Australia and South Africa by using the
species for the rehabilitation of gold, platinum, coal, and other mines (Truong, 1999).
Investigations in China demonstrated positive effects of vetiver in purifying urban garbage
leachate of landfills (Xia, Liu, and Ao, 2000) and efficiently removing phosphorus and
nitrogen from eutrophic water (Zheng, Tu, and Chen, 1997). In Thailand, the effect of vetiver
on the decontamination of pesticides in order to prevent their accumulation in crops or other
parts of the agroecosystem was shown in a preliminary study by Pinthong et al. (1996).
In the phytoremediation of organics, which is based on a stimulated microbial
degradation in the rhizosphere, fertilization is essential for success. Adequate fertilizer
applications may reduce competition between plants and microorganisms for limited
nutrients in oil-polluted soil, resulting in enhanced PHC degradation rates (Hutchinson,
Banks, and Schwab, 2001). In this study, different fertilizer levels were tested.
The overall goal of this investigation was to evaluate the suitability of vetiver for
use in the phytoremediation of heavy crude-oil–polluted soils in Venezuela. The particular
 VETIVER FOR PHYTOREMEDIATION OF OIL-CONTAMINATED SOILS 275

Table 1 Experimental details

Fertilizer

Treatment Oil1 Plants2 Level (mg kg−1 soil)

A + + Low 220 N, 110 P, 110 K

B + + High 300 N, 150 P, 150 K
C + − Low 220 N, 110 P, 110 K
D + − High 300 N, 150 P, 150 K
E − + Basic 120 N, 60 P, 60 K

1+ PHC-contaminated soil; − Uncontaminated soil.

2+ 2 vetiver tillers/pot; −No plants.

objectives were to determine the species to oil in soil and to test its potential for stimulating
biodegradation processes of PHC.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Experimental Details
The experiment was conducted in a greenhouse at PDVSA-Intevep in Los Teques,
Miranda State, Venezuela. The objective was to study 1) the influence of oil on plant
growth (plants in PHC-contaminated and uncontaminated soil), 2) the effect of plants on
oil degradation (PHC-contaminated soil with and without plants), and 3) the influence
of different fertilizer levels on plant growth and oil degradation (PHC-contaminated soil
with two fertilizer concentrations; Table 1). Starting with the date of transplanting, the
experiment lasted 6 mo (from May to October 2002).

Soil Characterization and Preparation

The soil used for the experiment was taken from the savannah in Santa Bárbara,
Monagas State, in eastern Venezuela (Table 2). The air-dried soil was sieved through a

Table 2 Soil characteristics and physicochemical properties of Boscán crude oil

Soil characteristics Oil properties

Sand [% wt] 88 API gravity, 60◦ F [deg]2 10

Silt [% wt] 6 Salt [Lb MBls−1 ]2 22
Clay [% wt] 6 Sulfur [% wt]2 5.4
Texture Loamy sand Inorganic chlorides [ppm]2 <0.5
pH (H2 O) 5.9 Fractions [% wt]1 :
Organic matter [% wt] 0.9 Saturates 13.4
Total N [% wt] 0.04 Aromatics 40.0
Total P [ppm] 4 Polar fraction 46.6
K [ppm] 21
Ca [ppm] 81
Mg [ppm] 17
Al [meq 100 g−1 soil] 0.1

1 León et al., 1998.

2 Rosales and Villalobos, 2001.
276 R. BRANDT ET AL.

6-mm screen and dry leaves of a mixture of some local tree species (e.g., Hieronyma sp.
and Fraxinus sp.) were added (3% of dry soil weight) as a bulking agent. Finally, the soil
was mixed by hand with the Venezuelan heavy crude oil Boscán in the concentration of 5%
of dry soil weight (Table 2). The soil mixture was filled in cylindrical plastic pots (20-cm
diameter) to a soil column of 45-cm height (approximately 15 kg soil per pot).

Plant Maintenance
Vetiver plants (two transplants per pot) were genotype clones cultivated by Bioambi-
entes, S.R.L., Maracay, Aragua State, Venezuela. Two plants per pot were transplanted 14 d
after soil contamination with Boscán crude oil. A total of 45 pots was kept in a half-open
greenhouse without environmental control. The mean monthly temperatures were 19–20◦ C
(from a daily minimum average of 11◦ C to a maximum of 39◦ C). The mean monthly relative
humidity was 61–66% (from a daily minimum average of 32% to a maximum of 86%).
The daily photoperiod was characterized by 12 h of daylight with low variation during the
experimental period. Soil moisture was maintained at approximately 60% water-holding
capacity (about 17% of dry soil weight, as previously determined) by irrigating three times a
week. For this, the average soil water deficit was gravimetrically determined each irrigation
time and the corresponding water amount was added to the pots.

Fertilization
Plants in uncontaminated soil (treatment E) received basic doses of nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P), and potassium (K): 120, 60, and 60 mg kg−1 soil, respectively, in order to
support good plant growth. The PHC-contaminated soils (treatments A–D) were fertilized
at low (mg kg−1 soil: 220 N, 110 P, and 110 K) and high (mg kg−1 soil: 300 N, 150 P, and
150 K) levels. These calculations were based on practical experiences of PDVSA-Intevep
and data in the literature (Hutchinson et al., 2001). The fertilizer was composed of urea,
potassium nitrate, and urea phosphate. The total fertilizer amounts were split into four
applications (11, 26, 67, and 109 d after planting).

Evaluations and Sampling

Weekly ratings of plant mortality and reproduction ability were done during the first
2 mo of growth, in order to gather information on the toxicity of crude oil and the effect of
the fertilizer levels.
Three destructive samplings, using 4 pots per treatment A and B, and 2 pots per
treatment C and D, respectively, and 3 pots per treatment E, were taken at 2-mo intervals.
Concerning the treatments with plants (A, B, E), shoots were cut at their base and the
number and length of tillers was determined. Roots were carefully separated from the soil,
rinsed, and stored in isopropyl alcohol (50%) under refrigeration (4◦ C). Both shoots and
roots were dried at 60◦ C for 3 d and the dry weight of the biomass was determined. The
soil of each pot (all treatments) was homogenized and one 400-g composite sample was
stored at 4◦ C for 1–2 wk prior to analysis. Initial soil samples were taken before planting.

Root Structure
The evaluation of root structure by scanning the roots and computerized image
analyses was carried out with material from the last sampling (after 6 mo). One root sample
 VETIVER FOR PHYTOREMEDIATION OF OIL-CONTAMINATED SOILS 277

of each treatment with plants (A, B, E) was selected and approximately 3 g of representative
material were analyzed. In order to improve the contrast during scanning, the roots were
stained in a crystal violet solution (1 g 100 ml−1 water) at 50◦ C for 5 min. The roots
were dispersed on a thin, transparent tray with a 0.01-M NaOH solution and were scanned
in grayscale color mode with a resolution of 600 dpi (scanner type: CanonScan N670U)
(Kaspar and Ewing, 1998). The specific root length, root diameter, and root surface area
were analyzed with Win/Mac Rhizo 2002c, Régent Instruments Inc., for the determination
of root diameter classes (x < 2 mm (fine roots) and x > 2 mm).

Total Oil and Grease

The analyses of total oil and grease (TOG) were based on modifications of EPA
Method 3540 B (USEPA, 1994). Of each composite soil sample, two 20-g replicates were
analyzed. They were acidified with concentrated hydrochloric acid (HCl) to pH 2 and
dehydrated with magnesium sulphate monohydrate (MgSO4 ). Dichloromethane was used
as a solvent for the Soxhlet extraction, which lasts 10 h. After passing the extract through a
filter paper (Whatman No. 4) with approximately 1 g Na2 SO4 , the solvent was evaporated
at 45◦ C and the extract dried at 40◦ C until a constant weight. The percentage of TOG was
calculated based on soil dry weight.

Statistical Analysis
The statistical analyses were conducted using the Superior Performance Software
System (SPSS) 8.0 for Windows. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and a subsequent
least significant difference (LSD) test were used. In the case that data were heterogeneous
and not distributed normally, the Kruskal–Wallis test was used. Significant differences
were reported at p = 0.05. Moreover, the bivariate correlation between “root biomass” and
“TOG decrease” in the contaminated treatments with plants were evaluated with Pearson’s
correlation coefficient for normal-distributed variables at p = 0.05.

RESULTS
Mortality and Tiller Production
In the first 2 mo, the mortality rates of transplants in contaminated soils were 25% for
the low fertilizer level (A) and 40% for the high fertilizer level (B). In contrast, all plants
in uncontaminated soil (E) survived and were in good condition. Most of the transplants
in contaminated soil showed foliar necrosis but regenerated by tillering (92% in A and
79% in B). The new tillers did not exhibit leaf damage as necrosis or chlorosis, and their
mortality rates were very low in all treatments (<4%). At the end of the experiment, larger
numbers of tillers were recorded in the PHC soil (A: 44 tillers per pot; B: 54 tillers per
pot) than in uncontaminated soil (E: 38 tillers per pot; Figure 1). The differences between
treatment B and treatments A and E were significant (p = 0.05). A further observation was
the apparent reduction of the typical aromatic scent of vetiver roots from plants growing in
crude-oil–contaminated soil.

Total Biomass and Plant Height

Total biomass, reported as dry weight per pot, increased in all treatments over the
course of the experiment (Figure 2). Yields were lower in contaminated (A, B) than in
278 R. BRANDT ET AL.

Figure 1 Number of vetiver tillers as a function of time and soil treatment. Values are means ± standard
deviation. Treatment A: PHC-contaminated soil + low fertilizer level; Treatment B: PHC-contaminated soil +
high fertilizer level; Treatment E: uncontaminated soil + basic fertilizer level.

uncontaminated soil (E), and differences were significant (p = 0.05) during the whole
experiment. At the beginning of the experiment, all transplants had a height of 15 cm.
Generally, growth of tillers in contaminated soil was slower and tillers were shorter than
in uncontaminated soil (Figure 3). Differences between contaminated and uncontaminated
soil were significant (p = 0.05) throughout the study. Concerning the fertilizer effects in
contaminated soils, only in the second month biomass and height were significantly higher
in the low (A) than in the high (B) fertilizer level.

Figure 2 Total biomass (dry weight) of vetiver as a function of time and soil treatment. Values are means ±
standard deviation. Treatment A: PHC-contaminated soil + low fertilizer level; Treatment B: PHC-contaminated
soil + high fertilizer level; Treatment E: uncontaminated soil + basic fertilizer level.
 VETIVER FOR PHYTOREMEDIATION OF OIL-CONTAMINATED SOILS 279

Figure 3 Plant height of vetiver as a function of time and soil treatment. Values are means ± standard deviation.
Treatment A: PHC-contaminated soil + low fertilizer level; Treatment B: PHC-contaminated soil + high fertilizer
level; Treatment E: uncontaminated soil + basic fertilizer level.

Root Structure
There were large differences in root structure between the contaminated and
uncontaminated soil. Generally, roots growing in uncontaminated soil were longer and
finer than those growing in contaminated soil. Average specific root length was 1602.4 cm
g−1 roots for the low (A) and 1571.4 cm g−1 roots for the high (B) fertilizer level in
contaminated soil vs. 3979.7 cm g−1 roots in uncontaminated soil. Average root diameter
was 0.78 mm and 0.87 mm for the low (A) and high (B) fertilizer levels, respectively, in
contaminated soil vs. 0.46 mm in uncontaminated soil (E). Similarly, 83% of the root surface
in the low (A) and 80% in the high (B) fertilizer levels on contaminated soil belonged to
fine roots vs. 97% in uncontaminated soil (E) (data not shown).

TOG
The initial TOG content was 5.1% of the total soil dry weight. A decrease of TOG
was found over the course of the experiment in all contamination treatments (Figure 4).
However, no enhanced degradation due to the presence of vetiver was detected, compared
to the control in both fertilizer treatments. The bivariate correlations (r) between TOG
degradation and root biomass in treatment A (r = 0.05) and treatment B (r = −0.19) were
insignificant.

DISCUSSION
Vetiver transplants suffered under the influence of crude-oil contamination. The
effects of PHC on plants are attributed to phytotoxicity, which depends on several factors:
concentration of oil in soil, oil type and its content of phytotoxic compounds (e.g., aromatics,
which include most phytotoxic substances), environmental conditions, and plant species
(Baker, 1970). Due to its high aromatic content (40%), the oil used in this study was
280 R. BRANDT ET AL.

Figure 4 Total oil and grease (TOG) in soil (sample size: 20 g) as a function of time and soil treatment. Values
are means + standard deviation. Treatment A: plants + low fertilizer level; Treatment B: plants + high fertilizer
level; Treatment C: no plants + low fertilizer level; Treatment D: no plants + high fertilizer level.

expected to be highly toxic to plants regardless of the volatilization of a considerable amount

of aromatics that can be expected. Furthermore, the applied crude-oil concentration of 5%
was rather high. However, there are reports on large differences of PHC tolerance among
plants growing in contaminated soil. For instance, the forage legume alfalfa (Medicago
sativa L.) had significantly reduced biomass even at 2% (w/w; Wiltse et al., 1998), whereas
Radwan et al. (1998) reported that Faba bean (Vicia faba L.), also a legume, could tolerate
up to 10% (w/w).
Additionally, the bioavailability of crude-oil components was likely to be continu-
ously high over the course of the experiment because, due to low contents of clay, silt, and
soil organic matter in the soil, the adsorption of PHC can be considered negligible (Frick
et al., 1999). On the one hand, high bioavailability of oil components enhances the toxic
effects on plants; on the other hand, only bioavailable contaminants can be degraded by soil
organisms. In general, vetiver is considered to be a species that is highly tolerant to adverse
soil conditions. However, it is known to be rather weak during its early stage of growth
after transplanting (Chomchalow, 2000). Mortality of transplants in treatments A (25%)
and B (40%) is presumed, firstly, to be the effect of the uptake of phytotoxic compounds
(Wiltse et al., 1998) and, secondly, attributed to an inhibited water and nutrient uptake due
to the hydrophobic character of the crude oil.
Nevertheless, the species indicated a high potential of adaptation to the toxic
environment, as shown by the high rates of tillering. Large numbers of tillers, which
were in good conditions and did not show any foliar damages, were recorded after 6 mo
of growth. However, the growth of vetiver plants was significantly reduced throughout
the entire experiment in the presence of PHC. In PHC-contaminated soil, mean reduction
of total biomass and plant height was about 50% and 40%, respectively, compared to
uncontaminated soil, regardless of the higher fertilizer concentration in contaminated soil
compensating for the higher C/N ratio. High rates of plant mortality and reduction in height
and biomass are typical reactions caused by oil contamination (Lin and Mendelssohn,
 VETIVER FOR PHYTOREMEDIATION OF OIL-CONTAMINATED SOILS 281

1998). As to the root structure of vetiver, toxic effects of crude oil caused the reduction of
fine roots and, thus, higher root diameter in contaminated soil.
Fertilizers increase plant growth in oil-polluted soils in the case of nutrient deficiency
(Lin and Mendelssohn, 1998; Hutchinson et al., 2001). However, overfertilizing usually
leads to yield depressions. In the second month, plant growth parameters (biomass, height,
and tiller production) were significantly higher for the low (A) than for the high (B) fertilizer
rate. Therefore, during the first 2 mo of growth, the low level of fertilization (A) was more
adequate to compensate for deficiencies of N, P, and K in soil than the high fertilizer
level (B). Moreover, the high fertilizer rate seems to have negatively affected plant vitality.
Thus, the mortality of transplants and growth reductions were considered to be not only
the result of phytotoxicity, but also an effect of overfertilization, at least in the case of the
high fertilizer level. However, a visible recovery of plant growth in the high fertilizer level
was generally noticeable after the second month. At the end of the experiment, there was
no difference between the fertilizer treatments regarding plant growth in PHC soil.
The differences in TOG decrease between vegetated and unvegetated treatments were
not significant after 6 mo (low fertilization: 15% with plants [A] and 13% without plants
[C]; high fertilization: 11% with plants [B] and 12% without plants [D]). Thus, the presence
of plants did not result in lower TOG concentrations. Although Merkl, Schultze-Kraft, and
Infante (2005a, 2005b) and Merkl, Schultze-Kraft, and Arias (2005b) showed enhanced
degradation of crude oil under the influence of a tropical grass after only a few months, in the
trial presented here, a 6-mo period possibly was too short to show enhanced degradation
(phytoremediation effect). The plants need several weeks for adaptation to the adverse
environment and only once they were well established, they might have a positive effect
on microbial degradation in soil. Additionally, soil preparation and consequent aeration
stimulate biodegradation. Therefore, microbial degradation might be high even in the
unplanted soil. Differences between planted and unplanted units would thus occur later
in the course of the experiment. Therefore, study periods of at least 1 yr are suggested
for vetiver. Interestingly, the final TOG rates of all treatments were approximately the
same as the rates that were found after 2 mo of growth, i.e. PHC degradation from the
second to the sixth month of the study was negligible and PHC was degraded mainly in
the first 2 mo. Apart from biodegradation, a potential weathering process of PHC in soil
is volatilization of low molecular weight, aliphatic, and aromatic compounds (Potter and
Simmons, 1998). In the study, only the rapidly biodegradable and especially the volatile,
i.e., the low molecular weight PHC fraction, might have been reduced in the soil medium.
The effect of volatilization on reducing oil components in soil can be significant. For
instance, Chaı̂neau, Morel, and Oudot (2000) reported a decrease of 18% in the initial fuel
oil concentration in soil by volatilization. The degradation processes of polyaromatic and
polar hydrocarbons in particular, which are regarded as the PHC components most resistant
to biodegradation (León et al., 1998), seemed to be unlikely. However, hydrocarbon fraction
analyses (saturates, aromatics, and polars) should be included in further investigations
in order to obtain more detailed information about fraction changes throughout plant
development. In an experiment by Cunningham et al. (1996), no detectable changes in
the quantity and spectrum of PHC in soil were found after 1 yr of vetiver growth, but
the oil-contaminated soil became considerably less toxic to other plants due to improved
physical and chemical soil properties.
The addition of dry leaf matter (3% of dry soil weight) to oil-contaminated soil can
also be considered to be a controversial issue. On the one hand, it improved soil structure
and aeration in order to support a more efficient biodegradation. On the other hand, it
282 R. BRANDT ET AL.

was a rather substantial amount of leaf matter containing bioavailable lipids, which are
probably preferentially metabolized by soil organisms of the phytoremediation system.
In an experiment lasting only 6 mo, it cannot be determined surely whether depletion
of biological lipids occurred and whether microorganisms switched their metabolism to
crude-oil constituents.
A significant influence of fertilizer levels on oil degradation could not be detected
in this study. However, for the soil used, the low fertilizer level seemed to be sufficient to
meet the demands of plants and microorganisms for nutrients. A correlation between root
biomass and TOG decrease during the 6-mo study could be shown in neither the low nor
high fertilizer levels.
Root structure is considered to be just as important as root biomass concerning
degradation processes (Wiltse et al., 1998). In particular, fibrous root systems with large
surface areas, creating large rhizosphere volumes, are favorable for phytoremediation
(Siciliano and Germida, 1998). However, vetiver root surface areas and rhizosphere volumes
were reduced in contaminated soil. Thus, potential rhizosphere effects on TOG degradation
were affected. An effect of PHC on the root surface area was also found in the case of
switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) (Banks et al., 2000).
Van der Lelie et al. (2001) suggest improving the economics of phytoremediation by
using plants with added values as, e.g., oil- or fragrance-producing plants such as vetiver,
lavender, or coriander. But, as observed in this study, the production of aromatic oils can
be decreased by contamination in soil. Furthermore, the reduction of the typical scent of
vetiver indicates a change of metabolism under the toxic effects of PHC.
As root exudates control the quality and quantity of microbial populations in the
rhizosphere, an altered plant metabolism caused by pollutants may have an effect. In the
reverse case, microorganisms also have a strong influence on the health conditions of plants.
Siripin (2000) noticed a high rate of soil-microorganism biodiversity in the rhizosphere
of vetiver plants. Among others, he found associations with nitrogen-fixing bacteria,
phosphate-solubilizing microorganisms, and mycorrhizal fungi, which may explain the
survival ability of vetiver under adverse conditions. This demonstrates the complexity of
plant–microorganism interactions. Therefore, an evaluation of the microorganism popula-
tion in the rhizosphere soil should, whenever possible, be included in phytoremediation
research.

CONCLUSIONS
Biomass and plant height of vetiver were reduced in the presence of heavy crude
oil in soil. However, the species was found to have a high potential to adapt to the toxic
environment, due to its vegetative reproduction ability. Therefore, it should be viewed as
a species with a definitive phytoremediation potential. However, there was no evidence of
vetiver enhancing biodegradation of PHC in soil under the conditions of this trial. Field
studies covering a prolonged period are required for better plant establishment and to
eventually expect higher biodegradation rates in the presence of vetiver.
The cultivation of vetiver on oil-polluted sites in Venezuela is considered to be
useful. Vetiver provides erosion control and, thus, prevents contaminants from surface
spreading. Moreover, if planted on slightly contaminated soil, it could ameliorate and
prepare soils for subsequent cultivation of remediation species. Concerning fertiliza-
tion, a NPK concentration as in the low level (mg/kg soil: 220 N, 110 P, 110 K) is
 VETIVER FOR PHYTOREMEDIATION OF OIL-CONTAMINATED SOILS 283

considered to be adequate for vetiver growing in the oil-polluted savannah soil of eastern
Venezuela.

Acknowledgements
This work was supported by a grant from the Father-and-Son-Eiselen Foundation
(Ulm, Germany).

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