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13.14 Factors Influencing Volcanic Hazards and the Morphology of

Volcanic Landforms
C Hickson, Alterra Power Corporation, Vancouver, BC, Canada
T Spurgeon, AGV Consulting/Alterra Power Corporation, Coquitlam, BC, Canada
R Tilling, Volcano Science Center, Menlo Park, CA, USA
P Adam, Alterra Power Corporation, Vancouver, BC, Canada
r 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

13.14.1 Prologue/Introduction 220

13.14.2 Volcanic Phenomena 221
13.14.2.1 Topography 221
13.14.2.2 Hydrology 222
13.14.3 Global Volcanic Features 223
13.14.3.1 Oceanic Ridges (Rift Zones) 223
13.14.3.2 Subduction Zones 224
13.14.4 Regional Features (4100 km) 225
13.14.4.1 Continental Flood Basalts 226
13.14.4.2 Ignimbrite Plateaus 226
13.14.4.3 Hot Spot Tracks 227
13.14.4.4 Continental Rift Valleys 227
13.14.4.5 Volcanic Cone Fields 228
13.14.5 Local Features (o100 km) 228
13.14.5.1 Constructional Landforms and Processes 228
13.14.5.1.1 Lava flows and domes 228
13.14.5.1.2 Pyroclastic flows 231
13.14.5.1.3 Fumarolic mounds and sinter/travertine terraces and deposits 231
13.14.5.2 Destructional Landforms and Processes 231
13.14.5.2.1 Pit craters 231
13.14.5.2.2 Maars 232
13.14.5.2.3 Tuff rings 232
13.14.5.2.4 Diatremes 232
13.14.5.2.5 Calderas 233
13.14.5.2.6 Debris avalanches/sector collapse 234
13.14.5.3 Composite Features 234
13.14.5.3.1 Shield volcanoes 234
13.14.5.3.2 Strato- or composite volcanoes 235
13.14.5.3.3 Cinder cones (scoria cones) – monogenetic and polygenetic 235
13.14.5.3.4 Tuyas 235
13.14.5.3.5 Tindars, subglacial mounds, hyaloclastite mounds 236
13.14.5.4 Other Volcanic Phenomena that may Result in Morphological Changes 236
13.14.5.4.1 Pyroclastic fall deposits 236
13.14.5.4.2 Lahars 237
13.14.5.4.3 Tsunamis 238
13.14.5.4.4 Volcanic gases 238
13.14.5.4.5 Volcanic and tectonic earthquakes 238
13.14.5.4.6 Lightning strikes 239
13.14.6 Conclusion 239
References 239

Hickson, C., Spurgeon, T., Tilling, R., Adam, P., 2013. Factors influencing
volcanic hazards and the morphology of volcanic landforms. In: Shroder, J.
(Editor in Chief), James, L.A., Harden, C.P., Clague, J.J. (Eds.), Treatise on
Geomorphology. Academic Press, San Diego, CA, vol. 13, Geomorphology
of Human Disturbances, Climate Change, and Natural Hazards,
pp. 219–242.

Treatise on Geomorphology, Volume 13 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374739-6.00360-2 219

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220 Factors Influencing Volcanic Hazards and the Morphology of Volcanic Landforms

Glossary Ignimbrite The rock formed by the widespread

Columnar jointing Joints form in solid, hard rock
stretched to the point that it breaks. When this happens, the
rock fractures in a plane parallel to the maximum principal
stress and perpendicular to the minimum principal stress
(the direction in which the rock is being stretched). In
cooling lava, the joint systems are typically polygonal
because the cooling introducing stresses that are isotropic in
the plane of the direction of cooling; thus, the joints form
perpendicular to the cooling surface. In shallow intrusions
and subglacial deposits, joint orientation can be used as
paleo indicators to the direction of the cooling surface.
Felsic A term used to describe an igneous rock having
abundant light-colored minerals when the type of minerals
or the silica content is unknown and a more definite term
cannot be used (such as ‘rhyolite’). Also when referring to a
range of rock types that are high in silica. In modern usage
it replaces the word ‘acid.’ (Opposite of mafic, which
replaces the term ‘basic.’)
Hummocks/hummocky terrain The characteristic steep-
sided mounds that may preserve original stratigraphy and
are formed during very large landslides, such as a sector
collapse at a volcanic edifice. In very large landslides,
multiple hummocks often form a characteristic terrain of
mounds protruding from a more uniform surface formed of
more disaggregated material from the landslide.
deposition and consolidation of pyroclastic flows. The term
was originally applied only to densely welded deposits but
now includes nonwelded deposits, also synonymous with
welded ash-flow tuff.
Mafic A term used to describe an igneous rock having
abundant dark-colored minerals when the type of minerals
or the silica content is unknown so that a more definite
term cannot be used (such as ‘basalt’) or when referring to a
range of rocks low in silica. In modern usage it replaces the
word ‘basic.’ (Opposite of felsic, which replaces the term
‘acid’.)
Phreatomagmatic An explosive volcanic eruption that
results from the interaction of surface or subsurface water
and magma.
Tephra Broken, fragmented volcanic rock, formed from
explosive eruptions and making up airfall deposits from
explosive eruptions.
Volcanic hazard Any of the specific physical phenomena
associated with eruptions, earthquakes, ballistics,
pyroclastic flows, lava flows, lahars, etc., that may have an
impact on people, infrastructure, animals, vegetation, etc.
Volcanic risk The danger (or threat) of a specific hazard
impacting people, infrastructure, animals, vegetation, etc.,
that may or may not happen.

Abstract

Volcanism has a profound impact on our planet. The process can be viewed from three different levels – global, regional, and
local. Global scale features are associated with tectonic plate boundaries: the oceanic ridge systems and their attendant basins
that cover 60% of the Earth’s surface, and subduction zones and related volcanic arcs (mountain belts) and back arc regions.
Regional scale features (4100 km) are flood basalts, hotspot tracks, continental rift valleys, volcanoes, and volcanic cone
fields. Local features are the individual volcanic landforms that make up these regional and global features. The
local features are characterized by specific morphologies that are dependent on their mode of origin, composition,
spatial location, and state of erosion. The volcano’s morphology provides readable clues as to the hazard implications in the
event of renewed eruption. Volcanic landforms alter climate by creating long-term orographic effects, and volcanic eruptions
produce short-term (o5 years) weather perturbations by injection of particulate matter and gases into the atmosphere.

13.14.1 Prologue/Introduction Program website (USGS-VHP, 2009) is an excellent visual refer-

The information presented here is intended to be an intro-
duction to the diversity and complexity of volcanic landforms
and how volcanic phenomena can fundamentally alter land-
scapes. Our intention is to give the reader an overview of the
geomorphic aspects of volcanic deposits and landforms – a
subject only touched upon recently in geomorphology text
books such as Bull, 2007; Huggett, 2007; Trenhaile, 2007. As
space is restricted, this chapter is not intended to be a volcano
textbook – there are many good ones (e.g., Cas and Wright,
1988: Chapters 13 and 15; Francis and Oppenheimer, 2004:
Chapter 13; Lockwood and Hazlett, 2010). A particularly useful
reference is the classic study of Green and Short (1971), who
made the first systematic summary of volcanic landforms. In
addition, the photo-glossary on the USGS Volcano Hazards
ence, giving definitions with illustrative photographs of many of
the features discussed in this chapter. Sigurdsson et al. (2000)
(Encyclopedia of Volcanoes (Parts III and IV)) provide
good overviews of various volcanic phenomena and the indi-
vidual reviews are referred to as a good start to more detailed
research.
We do not provide a detailed discourse on volcanic hazards
and risk assessment. Specifically, we provide only overviews of
hazards as they pertain to various morphological structures
and volcanic phenomena as these topics require significant in-
depth study. The reader is referred to the following texts and
reviews for more specialized analysis of volcanic hazards and
risks (Casadevall, 1994; Scarpa and Tilling, 2006; Bebbington
et al., 2008; Felpeto et al., 2007; Gaillard and Dibben 2008;
Haynes et al., 2008; Parfitt and Wilson, 2008: 165–178; Paton
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Factors Influencing Volcanic Hazards and the Morphology of Volcanic Landforms 221

et al., 2008; Scott et al., 2001; Sigurdsson et al., 2000: Parts VII
and VIII; Sparks et al., 2005; Wright and Pierson, 1992).
Volcanic phenomena are Earth altering at various spatial
and temporal scales – from global to miniscule and from long
term to transient. Herein, we present the geomorphic features,
grouped into three broad categories in terms of size and en-
vironmental impact: global, regional, and local. Although each
category is subject to interpretation and the criteria for their
designation are arbitrary, we consider global scale features to
be the following: (1) oceanic ridge systems and their attendant
basins that cover 60% of the earth’s surface (Perfit and
Davidson, 2000: 94) and (2) subduction zones and associated
volcanic arcs (mountain belts) and back-arc regions. Regional
scale features (4100 km) include flood basalts, hotspot vol-
canism tracks, continental rift valleys, volcanoes, and volcanic
cone fields. These features impact climate and weather over a
broad area and thus affect the geomorphology of not just the
volcanoes themselves but also the adjacent landscapes.
Within the context of the global and regional features are in-
dividual ‘local’ volcanic features. These features are both con-
structional (positive relief) and nonconstructional (negative relief).
And, irrespective of whether they are positive or negative land-
forms, they are subject to modification by climatic conditions
(Francis and Oppenheimer, 2004: 340–349; Cas and Wright, 1988:
Chapter 10). These factors, combined with eruption dynamics
(dictated by magma chemistry and viscosity), vent characteristics,
and preexisting morphologies, create a vast array of landforms.
13.14.2 Volcanic Phenomena
The nature and morphology of volcanic landforms are dic-
tated by magma chemistry and viscosity, vent characteristics,
topography, and climate. Ample references and information
can be found in Sigurdsson et al. (2000). Volcanoes are
evolving landforms subject to eruption dynamics, magma
supply rates, and erosion. Of particular importance for geo-
morphological interpretations is topography and hydrology.
13.14.2.1 Topography
Preexisting topography has a significant effect on how
an eruption evolves. Understanding the slope angles and
the viscosity of the lava is an important aspect of hazard as-
sessments at volcanoes. Highly viscous lavas forming domes
or flow domes on steep slopes can be extremely unstable
and subject to collapse. These collapses can generate pyro-
clastic flows that are highly destructive (Francis and Oppen-
heimer, 2004: 230). More fluidal lavas flowing on steep slopes
are less hazardous, but their flow velocities can increase
greatly, resulting in ‘lava falls’ and rough tortuous lava
surfaces.
Preexisting valleys can channel lava flows as well as pyro-
clastic flows. Where a lava flow fills a valley (Figures 1 and 2),
with the passage of geologic time, it is possible to create an
inverted topography (‘deap lead,’ from California placer
mining parlance of the nineteenth century) as erosion pro-
gresses lateral to the lava flow, forming a parallel valley.
Conversely, preexisting ridges form barriers to pond or divert
lava flows.
If the topography of the volcano is elevated enough to
support ice and snow, its presence can influence eruptive
processes. Fluid lava can flow over ice and snow, but generally,
subflow melting creates cavities and caverns. The resulting
flow (after ice melt) can have gaps, irregularities, and other
unusual features. The melting snow/ice can also pond

Figure 1 This example of a steep gorge incised in volcanic rocks from British Columbia, Canada, provides an excellent example of a landform
resulting from the effusion of low-viscosity basaltic lava flows. Thin flows, 1–10 m in thickness, seen to the right of the falls, filled paleoriver
channels and valleys forming a plateau. During subsequent erosion, the columnar jointing in the flows produced near vertical walls creating a
gorge over which the Murtle River flows, forming the spectacular 141 m high Helmcken Falls (Photo by F. Schaer, 2009).
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222 Factors Influencing Volcanic Hazards and the Morphology of Volcanic Landforms

Figure 2 Fluid lava flows under gravitational influence to fill valleys and act as a leveling mechanism, subduing terrain. This example from Port
Rush, County Antrim, Northern Ireland, shows lava layers that have infilled paleotopography (Photo by C. Bentley, 2008).

Figure 3 Fluidal basaltic lava flowed in what was likely a meltwater channel beneath a glacier. Chilling against the underside of the glacier,
the resulting lava flow ‘esker’ shows a characteristic fan-like columnar joint pattern from perpendicular cooling to the ice surface (Photo by
T.C. Spurgeon, Brandywine Falls, British Columbia, Canada, 2007).

(or there can be preexisting water). In some cases, fluidal lava
has been known to flow in subglacial channels (Figure 3).
Widespread late Pleistocene glaciation in North America,
interacting with volcanic eruptions, has produced a variety of
different landforms (Hickson, 2000; Lescinsky and Sisson,
1998; Russell et al., 2007). Interaction with glaciers can create
a much more complex topography as well as distinctive sub-
glacial landforms.
13.14.2.2 Hydrology
Volcanoes are very complex structures whose shape is dictated
by a variety of variables, not just magma composition. Water
plays a very important and sometimes dramatic role in vol-
cano morphology and eruptions (Francis and Oppenheimer,
2004: 240; Moore et al., 1966a, b; Rodolfo, 2000; Wallace and
Anderson, 2000: 150).
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Factors Influencing Volcanic Hazards and the Morphology of Volcanic Landforms 223

The amount of surface water is controlled by the regional
climate. As most volcanoes are roughly circular in plan, a ra-
dial drainage pattern develops around the growing volcanic
edifice (Francis and Oppenheimer, 2004: 340–349). Water
flowing over the volcano’s surface is strongly controlled by
preexisting lava flows that form hard resistant barriers to im-
pede water flow. These barriers define the surface morphology.
As water erodes more deeply into the volcano, the presence of
dykes and sills can modify the flow. Additionally, in areas
where basaltic to andesitic lavas are common, their charac-
teristic cooling joint patterns (producing hexagonal columnar
jointing) (Figures 1 and 3) erode in vertical slices (Francis and
Oppenheimer, 2004: 340–349). This produces a characteristic
steep, cliff-like terrain, commonly with spectacular waterfalls
(Figure 1).
Volcanoes characteristically are made up of a variety of
deposits with differing permeability and porosity. The lava
flows tend to have virtually no porosity, but commonly
have fracture permeability through the cooling joints. The
breccia layers that form below lava flows (as they advance over
the surface) are permeable. Ash layers are also very permeable
and are commonly interlayered with the lava flows. The breccia
and ash layer provide conduits for the water. Where the
pathways are cut by subsurface dykes or sills, springs, and
other surface phenomena can develop, leading to localized
erosion.
High volcanoes or those in temperate to arctic climates are
modified by interaction with snow and ice. Snow or glacial ice-
clad slopes lead to rapid erosion and substantial changes in
morphology. Volcanism and glaciers create their own charac-
teristic landforms (Hickson, 2000; Smellie, 2000) that are
often overlooked at temperate latitude volcanoes and may
not be recognizable as a volcanic landform (Figure 4). Add-
itionally, the interaction of lava with glacial ice can create
very specific landforms such as tuyas, tindars, etc. (see
Section 13.14.5.3).
Water also influences the eruption processes. If magma
and water interact in the subsurface, phreatomagmatic erup-
tions are possible. These are the most powerful type of erup-
tions (Figure 5) known. Basaltic eruptions, normally benign,
can become explosive and highly destructive (Fiske et al.,
2009) if the eruption includes water. Well-documented
phreatomagmatic basaltic eruptions in Hawaii devastated
an area of 420 km2 with a highly explosive eruption
between 2800 and 2100 14C years ago (Dzurizin et al.,
1995: 170).
The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens (Figure 6) was also
phreatomagmatic. Instantaneous depressurization due to
gravitational failure (flank collapse) and mixing of intruding
magma with ice and expanding steam from the hydrothermal
system (Lipman and Mullineaux, 1981) caused a blast
that destroyed more than 650 km2, and left a thin, charac-
teristic ‘surge’ deposit (Hickson et al., 1982; Moore and Albee,
1981: 132). The thickness of the deposit is not indicative of
the force of the eruption, something that must be carefully
analyzed when carrying out hazard assessments (MAP: GAC:
2007).
13.14.3 Global Volcanic Features
Volcanic features of global scale define the shape of contin-
ents, their climates, and general physiography, creating a cas-
cading affect of impacts felt globally. These features are the
mid-ocean ridges and subduction zones, both extending 1000s
of kilometers across the Earth’s surface (Figure 7).
13.14.3.1 Oceanic Ridges (Rift Zones)
Rift zones are features that extend from hundreds to thou-
sands of kilometers – the longest being the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

Figure 4 Ember Ridge Northwest, British Columbia, Canada, is one of many nonclassic volcanoes that make up the Garibaldi volcanic belt, part
of the subduction-related Cascade magmatic arc. Many of the volcanoes, such as Ember Ridge, are subglacial or show extensive erosion from
glaciation. These volcanoes also rest on crystalline basement rocks (the light-colored areas to the right and left of the volcano) that rise to
elevations nearing or exceeding those of the volcanic peak (left background) (Photo by P.J. Adam, 2008).
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224 Factors Influencing Volcanic Hazards and the Morphology of Volcanic Landforms

Eruption types and VEI

100
Volume
Surtseyan Phreatoplinian VEI of erupted Examples

explosive
Fragmentation (F%)
Ultra
Plinian tephra

Non
0

n 0.00001 km3
50 nia
lca Plinian

Small
Vu 1

0.001 km3
Mono-Inyo craters
Sub–Plinian 2 past 5000 years

Moderate
Hawaiian Strombolian
0 0.01 km3
0.05 5 500 5000
(a) Dispersal (D km2) 3

0.1 km3

Large
4
Surtseyan Mount St. Helens
(<20 km) 1 km3 May 18, 1980
Phreatoplinian
(<40 km) (~1 km3)

Very large
5
Pinatubo, 1991
Explosiveness

10 km3 (~10 km3)

6
Tambora, 1815
Vulcanian 100 km3 (>100 km3)
(<20 km)
Ultra−Plinian 7 Long Valley Caldera
Strombolian and 760 000 years ago
(<10 km) Plinian (~600 km3)
Hawaiian
Sub–Plinian (<55 km)
(<2 km)
(<30 km) 8 Yellowstone Caldera
600 000 years ago
(~1000 km3)

(b) Height of eruption column (c)

Figure 5 These two diagrams show roughly the same thing in different ways – the more violence associated with an eruption, the greater the
impact. The change in violence is influenced by factors such as viscosity, volatile content, and interaction with ground water at a vent. (a) The
more fragmentation that occurs in the eruption, the greater the distance over which ash is dispersed. Modified from Walker, G.P.L., 1973.
Explosive volcanic eruptions – a new classification scheme. Geologische Rundschau 62(2), 431–446. (b) Increased explosivity also means higher,
more vigorous plumes. Modified from Cas, R.A.F., Wright, J.V., 1988. Volcanic Successions: Modern and Ancient – A Geological Approach to
Process, Products and Successions. Chapman and Hall, London, 528 pp. (c) The volcanic explosivity index (VEI) has specific named eruption
types for each index level. Reproduced from Newhall, C.G., Self, S., 1982. The volcanic explosivity index (VEI): an estimate of explosive
magnitude for historical volcanism. Journal of Geophysical Research 87, 1231–1238.

Estimates attribute 70–80% of all volcanic output on Earth to peaks such as in the Philippines to the mountain ranges of the
mid-ocean ridges (Crisp, 1984; Parfitt and Wilson, 2008: 10). Cascades of western North America. The Philippine mountain
The position of rift zones (and attendant subduction zones) range is made up of volcanic rocks of varying ages, with the
dictates the global physiographic makeup of the continents. youngest, most youthful, being classic strato-volcanoes such as
The crust of the ocean basins, dominated by basaltic lava Mount Mayon (Figure 8). For other ranges, slow subduction
flows, pillow lava, and associated material, is dense and thus rates result in volumetrically smaller production of magmatic
low standing. More than two-thirds of the earth is ocean- material (e.g., the Cascade arc). In these regimes, the ranges
water, dictating to a large extent global weather patterns are made up of basement rocks of varying affinity, commonly
that affect all scales of geomorphic development and ‘granitic’ in character, reflecting high uplift rates. Such vol-
interpretation. canoes themselves tend to be perched on top of the older
basement rocks (Figure 4).
These volcanic arcs form constructional highlands com-
13.14.3.2 Subduction Zones monly augmented in elevation by rapid uplift rates. The
highlands gather winter snows and form glaciers (Figure 9),
Subduction zones extend for thousands of kilometers even in very low latitudes. The high elevations can have a
and create a characteristic continental defining character. A climatic effect on areas downwind from the arc, in many cases
morphological trilogy of ocean trench, mountain range, creating rain shadows.
and back arc basin (see Cas and Wright, 1988: 446; Perfit The back-arc basin forms the final element in the
and Davidson, 2000: 102–107; Stern, 2002) characterizes trilogy (Perfit and Davidson, 2000: 106). In some parts
subduction zones. of the globe, the basin is better expressed than in others,
The mountain ranges formed as part of the subduction for example the Indonesian arc, part of the ‘Pacific Ring
trilogy vary in morphology from a chain of distinct volcanic of Fire’ (Figure 7). Other arcs have morphologically less
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Factors Influencing Volcanic Hazards and the Morphology of Volcanic Landforms 225

Figure 6 Mount St. Helen’s destructive phreatomagmatic eruption, 18 May 1980, left a large horseshoe-shaped crater from failure of the north
flank in a catastrophic landslide (sector collapse) (Photo by C.J. Hickson, 2005).

Siberian
plateau

Columbia
plateau
Hawaiian Mid-Atlantic
Islands ridge

East Africa
rift zone

Ring of fire
Deccan
traps

Volcano Subduction zone Plate boundary Flood basalt Divergent boundary

Figure 7 Schematic view of global plate configurations showing rift zones such as the mid Atlantic Ridge and subduction zones. Simplified
from Siebert, L., Simkin, T., Kimberly, P., 2010. Volcanoes of the World: Third Ed. University of California Press, Berkeley, 551 pp.

defined back-arc basins, but back-arc volcanism is evident 13.14.4 Regional Features (4100 km)
with its characteristic geochemical signature (Wilson, 1989)
and characteristically extensive cone fields and mafic Regional volcanic features are those whose spatial footprint is
volcanism. subcontinental in scale. Although still having a continental
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226 Factors Influencing Volcanic Hazards and the Morphology of Volcanic Landforms

Figure 8 In zones of rapid subduction such as the Philippines, magma volumes are sufficient to create volcanoes that maintain their
classic strato-volcano shape. Contrast Mount Mayon shown here in this 1968 photograph with Mount Garibaldi (Figure 9) (Photo by K.
Fredrickson, Smithsonian Institution, 1968).

Figure 9 The highly dissected nature of the youthful (B12 000 ybp), but heavily glaciated, Mount Garibaldi, British Columbia, Canada, is an
indication of the impact of glaciers on volcanic edifices. Mount Garibaldi’s modified strato-volcanic form is also due to synglacial eruptions and
low magma production rates that do not keep up with erosion (Photo by P.J. Adam, 2011).

impact, the features discussed here tend to be more spatially
restricted. For convenience, we consider features 4100 km in
size to be regional in scale.
13.14.4.1 Continental Flood Basalts
Continental flood basalts occur in many regions of the earth
and, depending on their geologic age, their geomorphic ex-
pression varies; however, whatever their ages, they create unique
landscapes and geomorphic regions. Noteworthy examples in-
clude the Deccan traps of India (66 million years old), Siberian
plateau (248 million years old), and the Columbia plateau (16
million years old) (Hooper, 2000: Table 1:349) (Figure 7). The
dominant feature of these regional landscapes are their planar
surfaces – the result of massive volumes of lava spilling out and
flowing great distances, subduing preexisting landscapes by in-
fill. Once formed, the erosion of these landscapes is dependent
on climate. Hot, wet climates promote more rapid disinte-
gration and incision of the lava surface than cold dry ones.
13.14.4.2 Ignimbrite Plateaus
In many parts of the world (e.g., western U.S., New Zealand,
central Andes), prominent plateaus – sometimes called
ignimbrite plateaus – have formed by the stacking of outflow
pyroclastic sheets associated with large explosive eruptions.
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Factors Influencing Volcanic Hazards and the Morphology of Volcanic Landforms 227

Generally associated with, or located near large calderas, these
distinctive plateaus are characterized by a planar surface that
can become highly dissected by posteruption erosion. A good
example is the Bandelier Tuff plateau that flanks all sides of the
Valles Caldera in New Mexico; the original areal extent before
erosion of the tuff was B2200 km2 (Smith and Bailey, 1966).
13.14.4.3 Hot Spot Tracks
Perhaps the most prominent landscapes on a regional scale
are the tracks of hotspot volcanism in an oceanic setting
(Schmidt and Schmincke, 2000: 383–402). The best known of
these is the Hawaiian Ridge-Emperor Seamount chain. Start-
ing from the 625 km long chain of Hawaiian Islands (Fig-
ure 10), the progressively older hotspot track is mostly
submerged seamounts, with only the sporadic subaerial
emergent island (Clague and Dalrymple, 1987: 5–54). These
seamounts represent a specific type of flat-topped volcanic
landform termed guyots (Schmidt and Schmincke, 2000:
395). Hotspot volcanoes do occur on continental crust,
Yellowstone and Kilimanjaro being well-known examples, the
former considered a supervolcano (Miller and Wark, 2008;
Sparks et al., 2005).
Hotspot volcanoes are typically shield volcanoes (see Sec-
tion 13.14.5.3.1). These sometimes massive edifices have ex-
tremely low slope angles, but can build to impressive heights.
For example, Kilauea – one of the world’s most active
volcanoes – reaches 1277 m in height; its neighbor, Mauna
Loa at 4170 m, is volumetrically the world’s largest active
volcano at 80 000 km3. Volcanoes like Mauna Loa and Africa’s
Kilimanjaro (5895 m) are high enough to collect snow and
create glaciers at near-equatorial latitudes. Their size affects the
climate of the areas and has a significant impact on regional
surface water flows and groundwater. In the case of
Kilimanjaro, it creates stream flow that is a dominant erosive
force on 42 200 km2 of the Pangani basin (Maganga et al.,
2001) as well as the 10 vegetation zones (Hemp, 2001) that
host a variety of rare and endangered species.
13.14.4.4 Continental Rift Valleys
Similar to the oceanic rifts, long continental tectonic valleys
are formed by extension of continental crust (Francis and
Oppenheimer, 2004: 24–27). In most cases, although not as
extensive as their oceanic counterparts (Figure 7), these
thinned areas of crust produce magmas that are chemically
distinctive. High in silica, but also with elevated potassium or
sodium, the peralkaline lavas typically erupt from centralized
vents forming shield volcanoes, or cinder cones. They can also
erupt from fissures. Commonly with very low-viscosity lavas,
the lava flows cover extensive areas of the valleys within which
they are hosted. Of these distinctive valleys, probably the best
known is the East Africa Rift Valley (Figure 7).

Figure 10 The Hawaiian hotspot track extends across the Pacific Ocean from its active southern end of the Big Island of Hawaii at the Lohi
seamount, to where it is being subducted into the Aleutian trench. Base map from Simkin, T., Tilling, R.I., Vogt, P.R., Kirby, S., Kimberly, P.,
Stewart, D.B., 2006. This Dynamic Planet: A World Map of Volcanoes, Earthquakes, Impact Craters, and Plate Tectonics. Third ed. U.S.
Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia (scale 1: 30 000 000 at equator).
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228 Factors Influencing Volcanic Hazards and the Morphology of Volcanic Landforms

13.14.4.5 Volcanic Cone Fields
In some parts of the world, vast areas are dotted with nu-
merous small volcanic cinder cones (Connor and Conway,
2000; Walker, 2000: 286–287). These regions are sometimes
related to back-arc volcanism, but can also be related to ex-
tensional tectonics.
13.14.5 Local Features (o100 km)
As defined here (o100 km in size), these ‘local’ features are
integral components of the global and regional scale struc-
tures. These features can be both constructional (positive re-
lief) and nonconstructional (negative relief) or sometime
combinations, such as calderas. But irrespective of whether
they are positive or negative landforms, they are subject to
postformation modification by climatic conditions. These
climatic factors, combined with syneruption dynamics (dic-
tated by magma chemistry and viscosity), vent characteristics,
and preexisting morphology, create a vast array of landforms
and hazard implications that we can only provide the basic
descriptions of in this chapter.
13.14.5.1 Constructional Landforms and Processes
13.14.5.1.1 Lava flows and domes
Lava flows vary in composition, behavior, structure, final
forms, and longevity. The variability of lava flows is addressed
below:
• ‘Morphologic characteristics’:
Low-viscosity lava flows (usually basaltic to andesitic in
composition) form tabular layers from o 5 m to tens of m
in thickness (Figure 1). The layers create characteristic
landscapes as they infill preexisting topography (Figure 2),
flattening it. However, due to the nature of the columnar
jointing, especially in basalt flows, subsequent erosion
creates characteristic escarpments (Figure 1).
High-viscosity lava flows (dacite to rhyolite) can form
stubby flows or domes that vary from several meters to
greater than 1 km in height (Fink and Anderson, 2000:
308). The viscosities of these lavas are such that they flow
only with difficulty, and characteristically with much in-
ternal shearing and brecciation. The internal breccia
pockets and shear layers become areas of weakness that
erosion can exploit and accentuate. Additionally, they
commonly are columnar jointed, the joint planes of which
are also zones of weakness just as in low-viscosity flows. At
appropriate viscosities, the flows create pancake-like de-
posits referred to as flow domes, or ‘tortes’ in Spanish
(Francis and Oppenheimer, 2004: 157) (Figure 11), and at
higher viscosity, show a more typical morphology of near
equal height to width (Figure 12).
• ‘Length, breadth, thickness’:
Voluminous low-viscosity flows in areas of sloping
topography have been known to advance considerable
distances. The basaltic Laki flow in Iceland in 1783, the
largest known historical lava flow, traveled 40 km (Cas and
Wright, 1988: 61) and covered an area more than 500 km2
(Decker and Decker, 2005). Dacitic lava from Opal Cone
(in British Columbia) flowed about 15 km (Figure 13),
although this is unusual for lava of such composition. An
example of a flow dome is Loma de Los Espinosa and the
nearby Colada las Niebles (Figure 11) in central Chile (Frey
et al., 1984: 135; Hildreth et al., 2010). Flow domes typi-
cally cover areas of less than 20 km2.

Figure 11 Colada las Niebles, Chile, is a spectacular example of a flow dome formed from high to moderate viscosity rhyolitic lava. Effusion of
the lava created a landform approximately 5 km long and more than 300 m thick. The surface preserves waves and lateral ridges formed as the
lava flowed from the vent area and solidified in situ (Google Earth image, Laguna del Maule, Chile).
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Factors Influencing Volcanic Hazards and the Morphology of Volcanic Landforms
Figure 12 Small rhyolitic domes, approximately 150 m high and 700–1000 m in diameter, form prominent features in the flat plains east of
Volcán Santa Clara, Nicaragua (White, 2008) (Photo by C.J. Hickson, 2009).
• ‘Surface Armoring’:
Figure 13 As the flow viscosity increases, surface features, such as
flow marginal levees and surface waves, become more pronounced.
The transition from a flowing fluid to a solid is extremely rapid, thus
preserving the flow features. Erosion along the flow margins often
accentuates the features (Photo by P.J. Adam, Ring Creek, BC,
Canada, 2008).
• ‘Surface features’:The surfaces of lava flows vary from being
relatively smooth with very little relief to substantial relief,
as great as tens of meters. Where low-viscosity lava ponds in
depressions to accumulate a significant thickness (more
than two or three times topographic variation), the flow
surface is smooth, broken only by pressure ridges and
contraction fractures. When the viscosity is low and the lava
is actively flowing, the characteristic ropey or pahoehoe
textures can transform into rubbly or blocky ‘aa’ surfaces,
229
common with cooling (see Peterson and Tilling, 1980),
degassing, and abrupt changes in topography or eruption
conditions. Where there is sufficient slope angle, the so-
lidified surface can rupture and flow as rafts, creating ex-
tremely irregular topography with several meters of relief. If
the lava flows over water pockets or wet ground, explosions
can occur, creating jumbles of blocks of lava and even
craters. With flows of increasing viscosity (such as dacite or
rhyolite), the surface becomes much more blocky and ir-
regular. These flow surfaces can be highly contorted and
have several meters of relief (Figures 11 and 13); they are
commonly glassy or vitreous as the rapid cooling of the lava
surface impedes crystallization.
In areas of significant slope, low-viscosity lavas can form
‘lava falls.’ However, high-viscosity lavas are subject to
structural failure on steep slopes (or sharp breaks in slope).
The result is spalling of large portions of the dome in hot
avalanches that can create localized (but deadly) pyroclastic
flows. A thick apron of talus can build up around the base
of the flow subduing its shape.
Levees and surface waves are commonly preserved
through solidification of the flow while in the process of
flowing. The phase change from a liquid to a solid is very
rapid and abrupt, in some places preserving transient fea-
tures like levees (Figures 11 and 13). The preservation of
these features can provide information on the velocity and
viscosity of the flow when it was actively moving.
Because of the presence of well-defined columnar joints
in the solidified flow, subsequent erosion is favored along
these joints to form distinctive steps in what might other-
wise be a planar surface (Figure 14). The columnar joints
form perpendicular to the cooling surface (Figure 1), and in
thick flows, forms a characteristic triumvirate – thinner,
more rapidly cooled columns in the upper most part of the
flow, a central zone of irregular columns, termed the en-
tablature, and thick, more slowly cooled columns below.
The rate of cooling is reflected in the size of the columns –
the more rapid the cooling, the narrower the columns.
Erosion progresses in a vertical manner (Figures 1, 4, and
14). Additionally, the base of the lava flow is generally less
well indurated (hardened) – a breccia or paleosol is com-
monly present. Water can undermine the base of the flow
promoting the failure of the layers above (Figures 1 and 14).
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230 Factors Influencing Volcanic Hazards and the Morphology of Volcanic Landforms

Figure 14 The channeled scablands of Washington State, USA form a regional scale feature resulting from the catastrophic erosion of the
plateau surface formed from the Columbia River basalts by the Missoula outburst flood at the end of the Fraser Glaciation, around 12 000 years
ago. The scablands are typified by dry valleys, gulches, and other water eroded landscapes where no water exists today (Photo by T.C.
Spurgeon, 2008).

N Little Colorado Grand falls

river

Lava flows

Edge of
Scan Francisco
volcanic field
35 20 00 N
Merriam crater

8 km
111 18 00 w

(a) (b)

Figure 15 (a) Geologic sketch map of Grand Falls lava flow area showing the 20-ka-old basaltic lava flow that filled the 60 m deep canyon of
the Little Colorado River, northern Arizona, USA, forming a lava dam that diverted the course of the river. Illustration by B Black in Duffield,
W.A., 2007. Volcanoes of northern Arizona: sleeping giants of the Grand Canyon region (Second ed.). Grand Canyon Association, 68 pp.
(b) Aerial oblique view (looking upstream) showing this lava flow and the diverted river course. Reproduced from M Collier in Duffield, W.A.,
2007. Volcanoes of northern Arizona: sleeping giants of the Grand Canyon region (Second ed.). Grand Canyon Association, 68 pp.

Within high-viscosity lava domes and flow domes, internal
breccia pockets and shear layers are areas of weakness along
which erosion is enhanced. As with basalt flows, they too are
columnar jointed, but commonly, the jointing is more ir-
regular and the joint spacing is larger. The joint planes are also
zones of weakness as with low-viscosity flows. During glaci-
ations, domes are generally preserved and retain their basic
mounded morphology.
Inverted topography is common in areas of tabular lava
flows. As the fluid lava fills preexisting valleys and depressions
(Figure 2), water eventually finds a route beside the lava flow,
creating a new valley. Because domes are generally more massive
and harder to erode than tabular flows, their tendency is to
block and divert drainage. The presence of irregular drainage
patterns is commonly a clue to the underlying volcanic geology.
Lava flows can also form effective dams (Figure 15), creating
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Factors Influencing Volcanic Hazards and the Morphology of Volcanic Landforms 231

lakes, diverting stream courses, and reorganizing the surface flow
(Deligne et al., 2009; Grant and Cashman, 2007; Huscroft et al.,
2004). This can also create a continuing hazard, as the lava dam
may not be stable over long periods of time. An example of the
catastrophic consequences of failure of a lava dam occurs in the
basaltic lava flow that dammed the Nass River in northern
British Columbia. Evidence suggests that the river flow was
blocked for only a short period of time and then ruptured,
creating a water wave that swept away a First Nations village and
killed an estimated 2000 people (Hickson et al., 2007).
13.14.5.1.2 Pyroclastic flows
Pyroclastic flows are extremely hazardous and destructive
processes that can have a number of origins (Nakada,
2000). The most well known are those that originate from
the collapse of a rising eruption column. Depending on the
size of the eruption, height of the collapsing column, and
topography, pyroclastic flows can travel 100 s to 1000 s of
kilometers from the vent. They also vary significantly in
characteristics depending on the magma type and size of the
eruption. The most common pyroclastic flows involve
dacitic to rhyolitic ejecta erupted during subplinian to pli-
nian eruptions, but basaltic pyroclastic flows such as at
Villarrica (Rosi et al., 2003: 306; Witter et al., 2004: 305)
and Kilauea (Fiske et al., 2009) have also been reported,
although they are rare.
If the pyroclastic flow is confined by a valley, the topographic
constriction can lead to increased thickness of the deposit and
greater heat retention, resulting in welding of a deposit that
might not otherwise have occurred in a different topographic
regime (Hickson et al., 1999). The topography may also impact
the direction and distance a flow travels. The impact of
topography on the volcanic products is an extremely important
aspect of hazard evaluation in areas of rugged terrain.
13.14.5.1.3 Fumarolic mounds and sinter/travertine
terraces and deposits
Many volcanic fields develop hot water (geothermal) systems
in proximity to the volcano. Geothermal waters are rich in
various dissolved solutes that, when disgorged on the surface,
form precipitate deposits. Depending on the temperature of
the water, the resulting surface deposits vary from carbonate-
rich (calcite ‘tuffa’ or ‘travertine’) to silica-rich (silica ‘sinter’)
deposits (Coolbaugh et al., 2009). The deposits can cover
many square kilometers of ground to depths of hundreds of
meters. Sinter deposits resist erosion by surface and ground
waters, and form resistant ‘caps.’
13.14.5.2 Destructional Landforms and Processes
A wide variety of landforms can result from explosive pro-
cesses around the area of the vent. In most cases, they result
from the interaction of rising magma with groundwater. This
interaction is one of the most explosive forces known, and is
termed ‘phreatomagmatic’ (Figure 6).
13.14.5.2.1 Pit craters
Pit craters are rounded to irregular steep-walled craters that
can be a few meters to several hundred meters across and tens
of meters deep. They have two forms of origin. Some, related
to explosive interaction of rising magma with ground water,
have low rims formed of basement clasts expelled by the
explosion and contain no juvenile material (Figure 16).
These features are thought to form when rising magma
interacts with ground water a few hundred meters below the

Figure 16 Pit craters involve magma interacting with ground water at relatively shallow levels. Groundwater is heated to critical temperatures
and pressures that exceed the confining lithostatic pressures. The system explodes, forming pit craters with steep sides and a small amount of
rim material (Google Earth Image, Spanish Lake, Wells Gray Provincial Park, BC, Canada).
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232 Factors Influencing Volcanic Hazards and the Morphology of Volcanic Landforms

surface. They are most commonly observed in basaltic cinder move at speeds in excess of 100 m s1 and are erosive near the
cone fields, and thought to occur because there are many vent, but depositional farther away as velocities decrease
dykes cutting through the subsurface (Roche et al., 2001), (Nakada, 2000). A recent review of maars and diatremes can
increasing the potential for magma/water interactions. The be found in White and Ross (2011).
second form of pit craters are common at basaltic shield vol-
canoes, occurring within summit calderas (e.g., Kilauea and
13.14.5.2.3 Tuff rings
Mauna Loa) or along rift zones radiating from the calderas
Tuff rings (tuff cones) form when the proportions of juvenile
and are not explosive in origin. Their origins are commonly
volcanic material increase and the eruption becomes domin-
attributed to collapse related to the withdrawal or draining of
ated by magma/water interactions and the eruption occurs
underlying magma.
through standing water rather than ground water. These
eruptions are capable of building much larger depositional
aprons around the vent and structures that may be several
13.14.5.2.2 Maars
hundreds of meters in height. A classic example in the U.S. is
Maars are similar to explosively generated pit craters in that
Fort Rock, Oregon. The deposits are characteristically colored
they result from the interaction of rising magma with
yellow brown by the hyaloclastite clasts (altered side-
groundwater. They are generally circular or ovoid depressions
romelane) that dominate the deposits.
with low rims (Figure 17). However, differing from pit craters,
Both maars and tuff rings are common where basaltic
there is juvenile material mixed with lithic clasts expelled from
volcanism is occurring under shallow water or in areas with a
the vent area (Vespermann and Schmincke, 2000: 684). The
high water table. Hazards associated with the eruptions are
juvenile (and usually subordinate) material contains glassy
near-vent ballistics and more laterally extensive and de-
fragments (called sideromelane (basaltic glass) in the case of
structive surges.
basalts) caused by quenching of lava during the steam ex-
plosions. Shattered basement rocks dominate the deposit and
typically very characteristic sedimentary structures are noted as 13.14.5.2.4 Diatremes
the clasts are deposited by high-velocity base surges formed by Francis and Oppenheimer (2004) note ‘that maars that show
the explosions. These explosive ground-hugging surges can up in odd geological contexts around the world are surface

Figure 17 Maars distinguish themselves from pit craters by ejecting juvenile magmatic material as well as fractured basement rock. The
ballistic ejecta apron formed of fine-grained juvenile basalt clasts, can be seen in this example from Soda Lake, Nevada (Google Earth image,
Soda Lake, NV, USA).
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Factors Influencing Volcanic Hazards and the Morphology of Volcanic Landforms 233

Pre-eruptive
landsurface
Tephra ring

Crater

Crater lake,
reworked tephra
and country rock
material

Diatreme

Floating
reef

Root zone

Contact
breccias

Magma flow
Feeder dyke system direction

Figure 18 This diagram of a cross section of a diatreme shows the main features formed from the explosive ejection of magma to the surface
to form the feature. The ‘maar’ is the crater-like depression surrounded by a ring of ejecta. Due to the brecciated and unconsolidated nature of
the funnel deposits, the round shape can survive erosion, forming a long-lasting topographic depression. Reproduced from Lorenz, V.,
Kurszlaukis, S., 2007. Root zone processes in the phreatomagmatic pipe emplacement model and consequences for the evolution of
maar–diatreme volcanoes. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 159, 4–32.

expressions of diatremes.’ Diatremes are the second most
common volcano type on continents and islands according to
Lorenz (2007). The diatreme itself is a funnel-shaped pipe
(Figure 18) blasted through basement rock and containing a
host of shattered (brecciated) rock fragments from both deep
and shallow levels (Francis and Oppenheimer, 2004: 329;
White and Ross 2011). There are several models of diatreme
formation; the phreatomagmatic pipe emplacement model
(see Lorenz and Kurszlaukis, 2007; White and Ross, 2011) is
seen as the most prevalent today (Lorenz, 2007: 286).
With a few notable younger exceptions (e.g., Bearpaw
Mountains, Montana 50 Mya, Downes et al., 2004), most
diatremes originated during the Archean, whereas most kim-
berlite erupted as diatremes 90 Myr ago. Diatremes are only
exposed by deep erosion of older volcanic successions (Cas
and Wright, 1988: 378). Because the uppermost levels of the
structure are breccias, the rocks tend to alter more easily and
the surface manifestation is a circular depression referred to as
a maar. Diamonds and various other minerals are carried to
the surface in the magmas originating deep in the mantle,
making diatremes important economically (Parfit and Wilson,
2008: 14).
13.14.5.2.5 Calderas
Calderas are large collapse structures defined as being more
than 1 km in diameter (Figure 19). They form from the
withdrawal of massive amounts of magma, the sudden
evacuation of which causes the overlying roof of the volcano
to collapse. Lipman (2000: 645, Table 1) provided a list of
calderas with diameters and volumes erupted. The largest
known young (Quaternary) caldera is the Toba Depression in
Sumatra, Indonesia. Measuring 30  100 km, it was not rec-
ognized as a caldera until satellite imagery was available and
the characteristic rounded to ovoid shape was noted along
with correlation of the lavas with significant airfall deposits
in the Indian Ocean (Oppenheimer, 2002: 1595, Figure 2).
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234 Factors Influencing Volcanic Hazards and the Morphology of Volcanic Landforms

Figure 19 Crater Lake in Oregon, USA, exemplifies a collapse caldera. Measuring 9.6 km (E–W) by 7.52 km (N–S) wide and averaging 350 m
deep, the 18.6 trillion litre lake fills the collapse void created from the eruption of Mount Mazama, 7700 years ago. With a maximum depth of
592 m, it is the deepest lake in the continental USA (Cranson, 2005) (Photo by F.W. Baumann, 2009).

For further information on the formation of very large calderas
by supereruptions, see Mason et al. (2004) and Sparks et al.
(2005), and for the impact of aerosols on global climate see
for example, Mills (2000).
Hazards associated with calderas are dominated by far-
reaching pyroclastic flows and ash fall. These very large erup-
tions can have an impact on global climate.
Continued or renewed volcanism will likely infill the associ-
ated crater and landslide scarp, or erosion will ultimately take
its toll. A diagnostic attribute of such large landslides is the
hummocky terrain they create. Commonly, these hummocks
(intact blocks) preserve the stratigraphy of the volcano within
the blocks that can be 1000 s of meters in size.

13.14.5.2.6 Debris avalanches/sector collapse 13.14.5.3 Composite Features

The presence of water sources (in addition to the prerequisite
Volcanoes come in a variety of sizes and shapes. The varied
heat and exsolving gases from the cooling magma) can create
eruptive styles, periodicity, and time transgressive nature of
subsurface geothermal reservoirs within the volcano. The
volcanic behavior in terms of both syneruptive and poster-
presence of significant quantities of clay, resulting from
uptive behavior yields a palimpsest of products at any vol-
hydrothermal alteration of volcanic rocks, weakens the sta-
cano. A volcano is not a simple one-off edifice, but is rather a
bility of the volcano. Such zones of weakness can create haz-
complex structure that evolves over time. To properly under-
ardous conditions, possibly leading to large-scale failure
stand a given volcanic structure, this evolutionary process and
of a significant portion of the volcano’s flank, called a ‘sector
its products needs to be understood. Indeed, much of that
collapse’ or ‘debris avalanche’ (Ui et al., 2000) (Figure 6).
historical palimpsest may be missing, making unraveling of
The phenomenon was first observed during the 18 May 1980
the volcano’s history problematic. This ‘missing’ history is
eruption of Mount St. Helens (Glicken, 1996). It was shortly
important from a hazard perspective, as some hazardous
after this event that workers in many parts of the world began
events, such as phreatic explosions and their attendant surge
to recognize the hummocky terrain near volcanoes as resulting
deposits, can leave only a limited and highly erodable deposit.
from collapse of the volcano’s flanks (see Siebert, 1984). The
Hazard analysis requires an understanding of the frequency,
farthest-reaching volcano collapse deposit (B120 km long)
type, and duration of each type of event associated with the
during the Quaternary occurred at Nevado de Colima, Mexico.
volcano.
This deposit has a volume of 22–33 km3, covering 2200 km2
in area. However, the largest known volume (46 km3) for a
debris-avalanche deposit is at Mount Shasta (Siebert, 2002: 13.14.5.3.1 Shield volcanoes
215). The reader is referred to Siebert (2002): 215 (Table 1) for Shield volcanoes are exactly what the nomenclature implies –
a summary of debris avalanches. very large, broad, shield-like structures that have a low aspect
Debris avalanches and their deposits are very significant, ratio (i.e., much wider than they are tall). These volcanoes
both from a hazard perspective and from a morphological form when a centralized vent produces low-viscosity flows
viewpoint. The resulting morphology of the volcano (Fig- over a long period of time (Walker, 2000: 284). Most com-
ure 6) represents a transitional, unstable landscape. monly, they are comprised of basaltic lavas, but some shield
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Factors Influencing Volcanic Hazards and the Morphology of Volcanic Landforms
Figure 20 Shield volcanoes form over great spans of time with the effusion of low-viscosity lava. This example of a peralkaline shield volcano
is from the Ilgatchuz Range, BC, Canada (Photo by P.J. Adam, 2008).
lavas of the high silica ‘peralkaline’ family have very low vis-
cosity – equivalent to or sometimes even lower than basalt
(Figure 20).
Normally shielded volcanoes (as well as strato-volcanoes)
develop radial drainage patterns. As the lava flows over the
surface, it armors the surface and with uniform precipitation,
the volcano develops a radial drainage pattern. However, the
shield-building flows develop a rubbly base and blocky,
brecciated tops, and these interflow breccia zones provide
conduits for ground water. As incision of the volcano pro-
gresses, the radial pattern can be disrupted by sills and dykes
that commonly intrude the edifice. These features deflect
ground water flows along the interflow breccia and can lead to
irregular drainage patterns. Some shield volcanoes are high
enough to support perennial snow and even glaciers at low
latitudes. In some cases, the source of snow and ice provides
an important ground water recharge source as well as surface
water. These edifices can be large enough that they also impact
local weather. Variations in precipitation can also lead to one
side experiencing accelerated erosion over other aspects.
Hazard aspects of shield volcanoes include lava flows, near-
source ballistics and pyroclasts, phreatomagmatic explosions,
and degassing.
13.14.5.3.2 Strato- or composite volcanoes
Composite or strato-volcanoes, as their name implies, have a
more complex morphology than shield volcanoes as they are
made up of a mixture of morphologies. They generally consist
of explosively erupted cinders and ash interlayered with lava
flows where the upper slopes can stand at an angle of repose
up to 35̊ (Walker, 2000: 286). As noted above, the change in
lava composition from basalt to rhyolite changes the dynamic
behavior of the magma. Within a single edifice, varying gas
concentrations in the ascending magma can change the
eruptive style from passive effusion of lava to explosive ex-
pulsion of clastic material. Depending on viscosity, passive
extrusion can create a range of morphological units from
tabular lava flows (Figure 1) to high-aspect-ratio domes
(Figure 12). The combination of effusive flows, domes (either
central or on the flanks), and thick pyroclastic deposits creates
an edifice with much steeper slopes than those of a shield
volcano. Because the angle of repose for fragmental material is
higher than that for fluidal material, such volcanoes form the
typical cone shape so familiar to many people (Figure 8).
Hazardous events include pyroclastic flows, lava flows,
phreatomagmatic eruptions, sector collapse, near and widely
235
dispersed ballistics and ash falls, degassing, and climate
change.
13.14.5.3.3 Cinder cones (scoria cones) – monogenetic
and polygenetic
Cinder cones are small constructional landforms created from
ejecta (scoria) expelled during one or more eruptions. ‘Scoria
cone’ is considered synonymous with cinder cones but maars
and tuff rings are also in some cases referred to as ‘scoria’
cones. By definition, this is correct, but it can be misleading. If
the genetic origin of pile of scoria is known, it should be
referred to by its genetic name. Cinder cones include both
monogenetic (single eruption) and polygenetic (multiple
eruptions) cones, and may occur as isolated single cones or in
fields. Cones can also be nested as well as spatially clustered.
Cinder cones can also occur as parasitic monogenetic cones on
polygenetic shield and strato-volcanoes. They also occur in
fields of cinder cones, where their eruption duration, repose
periods, and eruptive reoccurrence result in the distribution of
the cones over a wide area (Cas and Wright, 1988: 374).
Cinder cones, because they are constructed of poorly
consolidated, in some cases lightly sintered material, are very
erodible. Young cones may have slope repose angles up to 331,
whereas older eroded cones may have repose angles as low as
15̊ (Cas and Wright, 1988). In many areas where lava flows
exist, their feeder vents are never found and the locations can
only be surmised by topographic analysis. The flows filling old
topography are relatively durable and generally survive glaci-
ation, whereas the cinder cone itself does not.
Hazards posed by cinder cones are generally limited to
near-vent ballistics, lava fountaining, and ashfall. Lava flows
can be far traveled.
13.14.5.3.4 Tuyas
Tuyas are volcanoes that have developed underneath thick
glacier ice (Hickson, 2000: 255). If the subglacial hydraulics
and topography are favorable, water can be ponded beneath
the glacier (Kelman, 2005; Smellie, 2000). It is into this
ponded water that the magma erupts. For basaltic magmas,
the interaction with water is fairly passive and results in the
formation of pillow lava, pillow breccia, and fragmental
(hyaloclastite) deposits. These deposits build up within the
water-filled chamber that gradually enlarges due to the pres-
ence of hot water heated by the erupting magma. Typically,
upward-melting progresses more rapidly than lateral melting
eventually penetrating the top of the glacier. Once the glacier
surface is pierced, the eruption continues with flows deposited
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236 Factors Influencing Volcanic Hazards and the Morphology of Volcanic Landforms
Figure 21 Tuya Butte in northern British Columbia, Canada, is the type locality for the tuya landform. Formed from layers of pillow lava and
breccia (lower flanks) with subaerial flows forming the flat top of the edifice when it becomes emergent from the subglacial lake (Photo by C.J.
Hickson, 1994).
on the pile of fragmental material. The volcanoes are charac-
teristically steep sided (angle of repose of fragmental material
in water) and flat topped due to the capping subaerial flows
(Figure 21) (Hickson, 2000; Smellie, 2000). If it were not for
the presence of confining ice, such volcanoes would likely take
the form of shield volcanoes.
Because tuyas develop in a very dynamic environment, they
are subject to extensive erosion during and after volcanism.
The glacier is moving as the eruption progresses, thereby en-
hancing potential interaction with the growing volcanic pile.
Melting in excess of the ice movement will result in less
interaction, but as soon as the eruption slows or stops, the
edifice will be overwhelmed with ice. Most tuyas are inter-
layered with tills and once the glacier overwhelms the volcano,
the relatively poorly consolidated breccias and pillow lavas are
easily assailed by erosion. However, the warm and permeable,
highly reactive deposit (due to the presence of significant
sideromelane) undergoes rapid zeolite-facies metamorphism
that creates a surprisingly durable deposit.
Hazards associated with tuyas are related to large volumes
of subglacial meltwater (jokulhlaups) that can be suddenly
released. Wide-spread ash fall is also commonly associated
with these types of eruptions due to the explosive interaction
of magma and melt water.
13.14.5.3.5 Tindars, subglacial mounds, hyaloclastite
mounds
Tindars are a variation of tuyas, but because of their origin
from fissures rather than central eruptions, they are long linear
features that do not develop capping lava flows. Formed
within a meltwater pocket, like tuyas, they are dominated by
pillow lava, pillow breccia, and hyaloclastite, but did not have
sufficient volume to melt through the overlying ice cap. Tin-
dars are probably under-represented relative to tuyas as they
are more susceptible to erosion. Their linear form is less
massive than a tuya; thus, overriding ice sheets are more likely
to destroy evidence of them.
In addition to tuyas and tindars, there are many other
variations of subglacial volcanoes. A subglacial volcano that
was likely destined to be a cinder cone (rather than a shield
volcano and thus a tuya) instead can form a cone-like sub-
glacial mound (Figure 22) because of the low volume of
ejected material. Such a mound has steeper slope angles than a
cinder cone due to the higher angle of repose of fragmental
material in water than in air. Additionally, the rapid con-
version of sideromelane to palagonite and pervasive zeolite
facies alteration preserves the steep slopes and the general
morphological form.
There are also volcanic fields where lava flows originate in
topographically high areas free of glacial ice, but as they flow
downslope, they interact with ice-filled valleys (Hickson,
2000; Figure 23). As with tuyas, jokulhlaups can be associated
with these types of eruptions. Because these vents are unlikely
to breach the glaciers surface, widespread ash fall is unlikely.
13.14.5.4 Other Volcanic Phenomena that may Result in
Morphological Changes
13.14.5.4.1 Pyroclastic fall deposits
Pyroclastic falls can accumulate to very great thicknesses close
to the vent. In areas of steep topography, landsliding of thick,
unstable accumulations can increase the down-slope thickness
several times that of the direct airfall accumulation. An im-
portant consideration for hazard assessments is determining
the amount of loose material that could be remobilized after a
major airfall event. Commonly, plinian or subplinian erup-
tions are accompanied by heavy rain due to the particulate
matter in the ash cloud. This rain can mobilize the un-
consolidated ash, creating debris flows and eroding the slopes.
The presence of considerable amounts of ash can continue to
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Factors Influencing Volcanic Hazards and the Morphology of Volcanic Landforms 237

Figure 22 Subglacial volcanoes can in some cases take on characteristics similar to cinder cones, such as this subglacial volcano, Pyramid
Mountain, Wells Gray, BC, Canada, but have a higher angle of response and lack summit craters due to their subaqueous origin (Photo by P.J.
Adam, 2009).

Figure 23 Hyaloclastite plasters the walls of many valleys in British Columbia, Canada – the result of extensive late synglacial volcanism. This
example is from the Clearwater valley (Photo by C.J. Hickson, 1982).

create problems by choking waterways and making them
uninhabitable to fish and other aquatic life for years.
13.14.5.4.2 Lahars
‘Lahar’ is an Indonesian word for a flood, but by many vol-
canologists, it is taken to mean a primary debris flow, triggered
by an eruption (Vallance, 2000). On volcanoes with perennial
snow (or glaciers), pyroclastic flows sweeping downslope can
rapidly transform into lahars that can be very far traveled. In
the upper reaches, they can be erosive, but downstream, as
velocities decrease, they have the capacity to deposit significant
quantities of material (Figure 24). The volume can choke
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238 Factors Influencing Volcanic Hazards and the Morphology of Volcanic Landforms
Figure 24 This lahar from Soufrière Hills volcano, Montserrat, formed during the 1995 eruption and traveled 5 km downslope (Photo by N.
Fournier, 2005).
rivers, cause avulsion, and aggrade the river bed. Additionally,
the lahar material is commonly easily remobilized by rainfall,
and can continue to create sedimentation problems long
after the eruption. See Rodolfo (2000: 975, Table 1) for a list
of significant lahars and causal mechanisms.
Thus, lahars can be syneruptive or posteruptive, and may
come without warning. The 1991 eruption of Pinatubo in the
Philippines is one such example. Primary lahars were followed
by decades of secondary debris flows initiated by the frequent
occurrence of typhoons in the region (Rodolfo, 2000: 987).
There were more fatalities from secondary lahars than during
the actual 1991 eruption. Aggradation was so significant that
many villages became uninhabitable.
13.14.5.4.3 Tsunamis
Tsunamis can be generated by eruptive and noneruptive pro-
cesses at volcanoes (Begét, 2000: 1006). Sector collapse into a
body of water – either a lake (the wave is called a seiche), or
the ocean, although rare, occurred in Japan in 1792 at Mount
Unzen. The resulting tsunami swept 77 km of coastline, killing
9528 (Francis and Oppenheimer, 2004: 306). It is possible for
undersea volcanism to create tsunamis, but they are more
likely the result of volcanic earthquakes associated with the
eruption rather than the submarine activity itself. A third way
is from the collapse of a submarine caldera such as occurred
during the eruption of Krakatau, Indonesia, in 1883. The re-
sulting tsunami killed 36 000 people, some as far as 800 km
(Francis and Oppenheimer, 2004: 68; Winchester, 2003).
As with tsunamis triggered by earthquakes, the presence of
well-sorted sand layers is a telltale sign of a past event. Being
volcanic in origin, it is possible that there may be admixed
pumice clasts within the sand layers, giving clues to the vol-
canic origin.
13.14.5.4.4 Volcanic gases
The most important volcanic gases from a health perspective
are CO2, SO2, Rn, H2S, HCl, HF, and H2SO4 (Delmelle and
Stix, 2000: 803; Williams-Jones and Rymer, 2000: 998). Vol-
canic gases have no easily identifiable surface manifestation
unless they are fumarolic, in which case they can be associated
with areas of sulfur deposits and alteration (clay deposits).
They can also be associated with silica sinter. Fumaroles
commonly expel noxious gases and SO2, and can thus be
hazardous and must be approached with caution.
Many volcanoes passively degas odorless and invisible
CO2. This can be very hazardous as the gas is denser than air,
accumulating in low-lying areas and flowing downhill. Ani-
mals and humans are at risk of asphyxiation and great care
must be taken when entering areas where CO2 is escaping.
Commonly, the presence of dead animals or birds is a clue to
the presence of CO2. In areas where degassing has occurred
over an extended period of time, vegetation will be killed (see
Gerlach et al., 2001; Sorey et al., 2000); the abrupt conspicu-
ous dying of vegetation may signal gas presence and
accumulation.
13.14.5.4.5 Volcanic and tectonic earthquakes
Earth tremor associated with volcanism can destabilize a vol-
canic edifice. Volcanoes, especially strato-volcanoes, are highly
fractured, may contain a high proportion of weakly consoli-
dated strata, and can host extensive alteration zones, as well as
geothermal reservoirs. Ground deformation (inflation) of the
volcano before eruption can over-steepen slopes with poten-
tially catastrophic results, if internal pressures within the vol-
canic system are released suddenly by an earthquake. It is
suggested that the sector collapse and the resulting pyroclastic
surge (lateral blast) and landslide at Mount St. Helens, 18 May
 Author's personal copy
Factors Influencing Volcanic Hazards and the Morphology of Volcanic Landforms
1980, was triggered by a 5.1-magnitude earthquake (Glicken,
1996: 1) rather than gravitational oversteepening. This rapid-
fire chain of events (lasting o1 min) led to the destruction of
more than 630 km2 of land as well as the deposition of a
2.5 km3 landslide, extending 29 km down the Toutle River
Valley from the volcano (Glicken, 1996: 14).
13.14.5.4.6 Lightning strikes
Lightning is commonly associated with explosive eruptions.
Although lightning strikes are rarely mentioned as a major
hazard, their impact can be significant. Little evidence for the
lightning strike is preserved in the geological record, but in
temperate vegetated areas, forest fires can be ignited by light-
ning, leading to devastation around the volcano. The 2008
eruption of Chaitén Volcano in Chile (Lara, 2009) produced
spectacular lightning displays and reports of lightning associ-
ated with eruptions of Alaskan volcanoes are frequent
(McNutt and Davis, 2000; Thomas et al., 2007).
13.14.6 Conclusion
Volcanism is one of the most fundamental planet-transform-
ing processes. Its influence on global scale processes such as
ocean currents, weather, and climate is profound, in addition
to how it changes the land surface. As summarized in this
paper, the morphology of volcanic landforms is extremely
varied and we have only scratched the surface rather than
plumbed the depths.
We have discussed volcanic landforms at both macro- and
microscales. Global scale features such as subduction zones
give our planet characteristic continents and oceans that are
continuously evolving over geological timescales. Regional
features are transformed over millennia and local features can
change in human time frames. Ranging from constructive to
destructive volcanic processes, fluidal to clastic, explosive to
effusive, all coupled with the unrelenting processes of erosion,
the range of possible landforms is diverse. We hope that this
paper provides at least a primer to the varied volcanic land-
scape and the references facilitate a deeper investigation and
understanding of this most fundamental of planet-trans-
forming processes.
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Biographical Sketch

Catherine Hickson received her PhD in Geology from the University of British Columbia in 1987. She worked for
the Geological Survey of Canada (GSC) for 24 years starting as a summer student and ending as the Program
Manager for the GSC’s National Natural Hazard Reduction program. During these years, she gained extensive
experience in mapping volcanic landforms and assumed a variety of management roles including subdivision
head of the GSC’s Vancouver Office and Project Manager for the Multinational Andean Project. This international
project involved hazard reduction related to volcanoes, landslides, and earthquakes in the Andean countries of
Venezuela, Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina. She left the public service in 2008 to join a
geothermal development company called Magma Power Corporation (now called Alterra Energy Corporation),
where she continues her active involvement with volcanoes while serving as Vice President Exploration and Chief
Geologist.

Terry C Spurgeon was employed for 35 years in the aviation industry. He was a pilot in the Royal Canadian Air
Force (RCAF) for 11 years and was a pilot civil aviation inspector with Transport Canada Aviation (TCA) for
24 years. During his employment with the latter, he acquired a BA Honors (Archaeology) and upon retirement
completed an MA (Archaeology) at Simon Fraser University with a focus on quaternary studies and earth sciences,
including taking numerous volcanology courses subsequent to the MA. While employed by TCA, he was a
coauthor of the Canadian Interagency Volcanic Event Notification Plan and was a participant in matters per-
taining to volcanic ash and aviation safety hazards, writing the initial material for aeronautical publications in
Canada. During the last decade, he has participated in a variety volcano field projects with the Geological Survey
of Canada (GSC) in conjunction with Dr. Catherine Hickson at Nazko Cone, Tseax Cone, and Mount Garibaldi.
Terry is currently a geothermal consultant at Alterra Power Corporation.

Robert I Tilling received his PhD in Geology from Yale University in 1963. He worked for the U.S. Geological
Survey (USGS) for 42 years, first on plutonic rocks in the Boulder batholith (Montana) and later mostly on studies
of volcanic eruptions and hazards in the U.S. and abroad. During his USGS career, Tilling also ‘rotated’ into and
out of several management positions: Scientist-in-Charge of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, 1975–76; Chief
of the Office of Geochemistry and Geophysics (OGG), 1976–1981; and Chief Scientist, Volcano Hazards Team,
1996–1999. While OGG Chief, he was responsible for the USGS studies in response to the reawakening and
eruption at Mount St. Helens Volcano, Washington State, in 1980. Although ‘officially’ retired since 2004, Tilling
remains actively involved in volcano hazards studies as a Scientist Emeritus with the USGS Volcano Science Center
in Menlo Park, California. A prolific author, he is well known as being a cocompiler of three editions (1989, 1994,
2006) of the all-time best-selling map ever produced by the USGS: ‘This Dynamic Planet: World Map of
Volcanoes, Earthquakes, Impact Craters, and Plate Tectonics.’
 Author's personal copy
242 Factors Influencing Volcanic Hazards and the Morphology of Volcanic Landforms

Paul Adam has a BSc in physical geography and biology (SFU, 1977) and a teaching certificate (UBC, 1978). He
taught geography, earth science, and geology to high school students until he retired in 2008. During this period,
he worked with the Geological Survey of Canada scientists in a variety of capacities, including field work at Tseax
Lava Flow (1994), Mount Baker (1997), Mount Cayley (1998), and Mount Garibaldi (2007). Since leaving
teaching, he has done contract work for the Geological Survey of Canada and Alterra Power Corporation. This
work has included updating the locations of Canadian volcanic sources, developing a collection of high-quality
photographs of Canadian volcanics and glacial-volcanic interaction features. A former mountain guide with
numerous first ascents, he has been a regular contributor to the Canadian Alpine Journal since 1984. He is the
author of ‘Whistler and Region Outdoors’ (1993), and has edited ‘Hotsprings of Western Canada’ by Glenn
Woodsworth, PhD.

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