Petunjuk Pemilihan Valve PDF

Guidance for Valves Selection

Guidance for Valve Selection
Table of Contents
Page
1. Scope........................................................................................................................................7
2. References ...............................................................................................................................7
3. Terms and Definitions ...............................................................................................................9
4. General Topics .......................................................................................................................10
4.1. Connection to Piping ...................................................................................................10
4.2. Construction/Commissioning Conditions .....................................................................11
4.3. Maintenance Considerations .......................................................................................11
4.4. Isolation .......................................................................................................................12
4.5. Testing - General .........................................................................................................16
4.6. Specific Additional Tests .............................................................................................19
4.7. Design and Stress/Strain Considerations ....................................................................21
4.8. Weight/Cost Minimisation ............................................................................................22
4.9. Auxiliary Connections in Valve Bodies ........................................................................23
4.10. Fugitive Emissions .......................................................................................................26
4.11. Actuation/Operation .....................................................................................................28
4.12. Fire Safety ...................................................................................................................31
4.13. Relief of Cavity Overpressure ......................................................................................33
4.14. Valve Leak Detection in Service ..................................................................................33
4.15. Non Destructive Examination (NDE) ...........................................................................35
4.16. Welding........................................................................................................................36
4.17. Weldment and Casting Repair .....................................................................................37
4.18. Electrical Isolation and Continuity ................................................................................37
4.19. European Pressure Equipment Directive ....................................................................38
5. Valve Type Selection ..............................................................................................................38
5.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................38
5.2. Factors Affecting Selection ..........................................................................................38
5.3. Selection Charts ..........................................................................................................40
6. Service Description .................................................................................................................41
6.1. General ........................................................................................................................41
6.2. Clean Service ..............................................................................................................41
6.3. Dirty Service ................................................................................................................41
6.4. Fouling/Scaling Service ...............................................................................................42
6.5. Slurry Service ..............................................................................................................42
6.6. Solids ...........................................................................................................................43
6.7. Hazardous Service ......................................................................................................43
6.8. Searching Service .......................................................................................................43
6.9. Solidifying Service .......................................................................................................43
6.10. Corrosive Service ........................................................................................................43
6.11. Viscous Service ...........................................................................................................44
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6.12. Vacuum Service ..........................................................................................................44

6.13. High Temperature Service ...........................................................................................44
6.14. Low Temperature Service (0°C to –50°C (32°F to –58°F)) .........................................45
6.15. Cryogenic Service (below –50°C (–58°F))...................................................................46
6.16. Anhydrous Ammonia Service ......................................................................................46
6.17. Chloride Service ..........................................................................................................47
6.18. Sour (wet H2S) Service ................................................................................................47
6.19. Hydrogen Service ........................................................................................................47
6.20. Hydrofluoric Acid (HFA) Service ..................................................................................48
6.21. Wet CO2 and Chlorine Service ....................................................................................48
6.22. Oxygen Service ...........................................................................................................48
7. Valve Function and Description ..............................................................................................48
7.1. Isolation (Block) Valves ...............................................................................................48
7.2. Valve Types for Prevention of Flow Reversal (Check) ................................................93
8. Special Valve Applications....................................................................................................107
8.1. Shut-down valves ......................................................................................................107
8.2. Automatic Blow Down Valves ....................................................................................111
8.3. Flow Diversion ...........................................................................................................112
8.4. Bellows Sealed Valves (See Figure 52) ....................................................................115
8.5. Valves for Cryogenic Service ....................................................................................116
8.6. Vacuum Service Valves .............................................................................................117
8.7. Deluge Service Valves ..............................................................................................117
8.8. Excess Flow and Slam-Shut Valves (See Figure 54 & Figure 55) ............................117
8.9. Dosing Valves ............................................................................................................119
8.10. Valves Associated with Pig Launchers/Receivers .....................................................119
8.11. Subsea Applications ..................................................................................................119
9. Seals, Packings, and Gaskets ..............................................................................................124
9.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................124
9.2. Elastomer O-Rings ....................................................................................................125
9.3. Polymer Lip Seals ......................................................................................................126
9.4. Proprietary Seal Designs ...........................................................................................126
9.5. Gland Packings .........................................................................................................126
9.6. Chevron Seals/Packings ...........................................................................................127
9.7. Diaphragm Seals .......................................................................................................127
9.8. Thrust Seals ..............................................................................................................128
9.9. Metal Seals/Gaskets ..................................................................................................128
9.10. Pressure Seal Joint (See Figure 57) .........................................................................129
9.11. Metal Bellows ............................................................................................................129
10. Materials ...............................................................................................................................129
10.1. Pressure Boundary (Shell) Materials .........................................................................129
10.2. Material Composition of Welding End Valves ............................................................132
10.3. Metallic Valve Trim Materials (Obturator/Seat/Stem) ................................................133
10.4. Bolting........................................................................................................................135
10.5. Plating........................................................................................................................136
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10.6. Hard Coating .............................................................................................................136

10.7. Ceramics ...................................................................................................................137
10.8. Elastomers (Rubber) and Polymers (Plastic) ............................................................137
10.9. Graphite Packing and Seals ......................................................................................139
10.10. Asbestos Replacement Materials ..............................................................................140
10.11. Material Temperature Limitations ..............................................................................140
10.12. Temporary Coatings, Lubricants, etc. ........................................................................142
Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................165
List of Tables
Table 1 – Recommended Seat Leak Rates .....................................................................................17

Table 2(A) – Comparison of shell test times (seconds) ...................................................................18
Table 2(B) – Comparison of seat test times for ball valves (seconds) .............................................18
Table 3 – Recommended minimum bypass size (DN (NPS)) ..........................................................25
Table 4 – Size at Which Gear Operator to be Supplied (DN (NPS)) ...............................................29
Table 5 – NDE Requirements ..........................................................................................................35
Table 6 – NDE of Weldments ..........................................................................................................36
Table 7 – Method to Achieve Valve Shut Off ...................................................................................50
Table 8 – Minimum Bore Diameter of Reduced Bore Ball Valves....................................................50
Table 9 – Typical Specifications (ASTM) and Applications of Valve Shell Materials .....................131
Table 10 – ISO 10434 Seating Surface Trim Selection .................................................................134
Table 11 – Typical Application of Metallic Trim Materials ..............................................................135
Table 12 – General Application Data for Non-Metallic Materials ...................................................138
Table 13 – Temperature limits of valve shell materials ..................................................................140
Table 14 – Temperature Limits of Metallic Trim Materials .............................................................141
Table 15 – Temperature Limits of Non-Metallic Materials .............................................................141
List of Figures
Figure 1 – Isolation Arrangements ...................................................................................................13

Figure 2 – Low Pressure Gas Leak Rate Comparison ....................................................................18
Figure 3 – Wedge Gate Valve (Outside Screw) ...............................................................................52
Figure 4 – Flexible Wedge ...............................................................................................................53
Figure 5 – Parallel Expanding Gate Valve .......................................................................................55
Figure 6 – Slab Gate Valve (Outside Screw) ...................................................................................56
Figure 7 – Slab Gate Valve (Internal Screw) ...................................................................................57
Figure 8 – Downstream Sealing Slab Gate Valve ............................................................................58
Figure 9 – Upstream and Downstream Sealing Slab Gate Valve ....................................................58
Figure 10 – Parallel Slide Gate Valve ..............................................................................................59
Page 4 of 165
Figure 11 – Venturi Pattern Gate Valve ...........................................................................................60

Figure 12 – Knife Edge Gate Valve .................................................................................................61
Figure 13 – Rotary Disk Gate Valve ................................................................................................62
Figure 14 – FCCU Gate Valve .........................................................................................................63
Figure 15 – Floating Ball Valve (Single Piece Body) .......................................................................65
Figure 16 – Floating Ball Valve (Three Piece Body) ........................................................................65
Figure 17 – Top Entry Trunnion Mounted Ball Valve .......................................................................66
Figure 18 – End Entry Trunnion Mounted Ball Valve .......................................................................67
Figure 19 – Single Piston Seat - Pressure Differential from Pipe to Body Cavity ............................68
Figure 20a – Double Piston Seat - (Pressure Differential from Pipe to Body Cavity) ......................68
Figure 20b – Double Piston Seat - (Pressure Differential from Body Cavity to Pipe) ......................69
Figure 21 – Eccentric (Orbit) Ball Valve ...........................................................................................71
Figure 22 – Butterfly valve (concentric disk, lined) ..........................................................................73
Figure 23 – Double Offset Butterfly Valve ........................................................................................75
Figure 24 – Plug Valve Patterns (Round Opening; Regular; Venturi) ..............................................79
Figure 25 – Lubricated Taper Plug Valve ........................................................................................80
Figure 26 – Pressure Balanced Plug Valve .....................................................................................80
Figure 27 – Sleeved Plug Valve .......................................................................................................82
Figure 28 – Expanding Plug Valve ...................................................................................................83
Figure 29 – Wedge Plug Valve ........................................................................................................84
Figure 30 – Weir Type Diaphragm Valve .........................................................................................86
Figure 31 – Straight Pattern Diaphragm Valve ................................................................................87
Figure 32 – Standard (straight) pattern globe valve .........................................................................88
Figure 33 – Oblique Pattern Globe Valve ........................................................................................88
Figure 34 – Angle Pattern Globe Valve ...........................................................................................89
Figure 35 – Needle Pattern Globe Valve .........................................................................................90
Figure 36 – Pinch Valve ...................................................................................................................91
Figure 37 – Flush Bottom Valve .......................................................................................................92
Figure 38 – Lift Check Valve (Ball Type) .........................................................................................95
Figure 39 – Lift Check Valve (Disk Type) ........................................................................................95
Figure 40 – Lift Check Valve (Piston Type) .....................................................................................96
Figure 41 – Screw-Down Stop and Check Valve .............................................................................97
Figure 42 – Swing Check Valve .......................................................................................................97
Figure 43 – Tilted Disk Swing Check Valve .....................................................................................99
Figure 44 – Duo Disk Wafer Check Valve .....................................................................................100
Figure 45 – Diaphragm Check Valve .............................................................................................102
Figure 46 – Axial Flow (Nozzle) Check Valve ................................................................................102
Figure 47 – Plate Check Valve ......................................................................................................103
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Figure 48 – Foot Valve ...................................................................................................................104

Figure 49 – Swing Check with Supplementary Loading ................................................................105
Figure 50 – Diverter Globe Valve ...................................................................................................113
Figure 51 – 4-way Diverter Expanding Plug Valve ........................................................................113
Figure 52 – Bellows Seal Gate Valve ............................................................................................115
Figure 53 – Cryogenic Globe Valve ...............................................................................................116
Figure 54 – Excess Flow Valve ......................................................................................................117
Figure 55 – Slam Shut Valve .........................................................................................................118
Figure 56 – Seal Types ..................................................................................................................125
Figure 57 – Pressure Seal Joint.....................................................................................................129

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1. Scope
This Guidance relates to common types of isolating (block), check, and diverter valves for oil and gas
production facilities, refineries, and petrochemical plants, both onshore and offshore, including
subsea applications.
2. References
The following normative documents contain requirements that, through reference in this text,
constitute requirements of this technical practice. For dated references, subsequent amendments to,
or revisions of, any of these publications do not apply. However, parties to agreements based on this
technical practice are encouraged to investigate the possibility of applying the most recent editions
of the normative documents indicated below. For undated references, the latest edition of the
normative document referred to applies.
American Petroleum Institute (API)
API Spec 6A718 Specification of Nickel Base Alloy 718 (UNS N07718) for Oil and Gas
Drilling and Production Equipment.
API Spec 17D Specification for Subsea Wellhead and Christmas Tree Equipment.
API Std 598 Valve Inspection and Testing.
API Std 602 Steel Gate, Globe and Check Valves for Sizes DN 100 and Smaller for the
Petroleum and Natural Gas Industries.
API Std 603 Corrosion‐Resistant, Bolted Bonnet Gate Valves.
API Std 606 Compact Steel Gate Valves‐Extended Body.
API Std 607 Fire Test for Soft‐Seated Quarter‐Turn Valves.
API Std 609 Butterfly Valves: Double Flanged, Lug‐ and Wafer‐Type.
API RP 941 Steels for Hydrogen Service at Elevated Temperatures and Pressures in
Petroleum Refineries and Petrochemical Plants.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
ASME B16.34 Valves ‐ Flanged, Threaded, and Welding End.
ASME B31.1 Power Piping.
ASME B31.3 Process Piping.
ASME BPVC, Sec IX Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section IX ‐ Qualification Standard for
Welding and Brazing Procedures, Welders, Brazers, and Welding and
Brazing Operators.
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
ASTM A105/A105M Standard Specification for Carbon Steel Forgings for Piping Applications.
ASTM A126 Standard Specification for Gray Iron Castings for Valves, Flanges, and
Pipe Fittings.
ASTM A182/A182M Standard Specification for Forged or Rolled Alloy and Stainless Steel Pipe
Flanges, Forged Fittings, and Valves and Parts for High‐Temperature
Service.
ASTM A216/A216M Standard Specification for Steel Castings, Carbon, Suitable for Fusion
Welding, for High‐Temperature Service.
Page 7 of 165
ASTM A217/A217M Standard Specification for Steel Castings, Martensitic Stainless and Alloy,
for Pressure‐Containing Parts, Suitable for High‐Temperature Service.
ASTM A350/A350M Standard Specification for Carbon and Low‐Alloy Steel Forgings,
Requiring Notch Toughness Testing for Piping Components.
ASTM A351A351M Standard Specification for Castings, Austenitic, for Pressure‐Containing
Parts.
ASTM A352/A352M Standard Specification for Steel Castings, Ferritic and Martensitic, for
Pressure‐Containing Parts, Suitable for Low‐Temperature Service.
ASTM A395/A395M Standard Specification for Ferritic Ductile Iron Pressure‐Retaining
Castings for Use at Elevated Temperatures.
ASTM A494/A494M Standard Specification for Castings, Nickel and Nickel Alloy.
ASTM A564/A564M Standard Specification for Hot‐Rolled and Cold‐Finished Age‐Hardening
Stainless Steel Bars and Shapes.
ASTM A744/A744M Standard Specification for Castings, Iron‐Chromium‐Nickel, Corrosion
Resistant, for Severe Service.
ASTM A890/A890M Standard Specification for Castings, Iron‐Chromium‐Nickel‐Molybdenum
Corrosion‐Resistant, Duplex (Austenitic/Ferritic) for General Application.
ASTM B62 Standard Specification for Composition Bronze or Ounce Metal Castings.
ASTM B164 Standard Specification for Nickel‐Copper Alloy Rod, Bar, and Wire.
ASTM B348 Standard Specification for Titanium and Titanium Alloy Bars and Billets.
ASTM E562 Standard Test Method for Determining Volume Fraction by Systematic
Manual Point Count.
British Standards Institute (BSI)
BS 6755‐2 Testing of valves,
Part 2: Specification for fire type‐testing requirements.
Engineering Equipment and Materials Users Association (EEMUA)
EEMUA Publication 153 Process piping‐supplement to ASME B31.3.
EEMUA Publication 182 Specification for integral block and bleed valve manifolds for direct.
EEMUA Publication 192 Guide for the procurement of valves for low temperature (non‐
cryogenic) service.
EEMUA Publication 194 Guidelines for materials selection and corrosion control for subsea oil
and gas production equipment.
Euro Norm (EN)
EN 12266‐1 Industrial valves—Testing of valves, Part 1: Pressure tests, test
procedures and acceptance criteria Mandatory requirements.
EN 12570 Industrial valves—Method for sizing the operating element.
International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
ISO 5208 Industrial valves—Pressure testing of valves.
ISO 10423 (API 6A) Petroleum and natural gas industries — Drilling and production
equipment — Wellhead and christmas tree equipment.
ISO 10432 (API 14A) Petroleum and natural gas industries—Downhole equipment—
Subsurface safety valve equipment.
Page 8 of 165
ISO 10434 Bolted bonnet steel gate valves for the petroleum, petrochemical and
allied industries.
ISO 10497 Testing of valves—Fire type‐testing requirements.
ISO 13628‐4 Petroleum and natural gas industries ‐ Design and operation of subsea
production systems – Part 4: subsea wellhead and tree equipment.
ISO 14313 (API 6D) Petroleum and natural gas industries—Pipeline transportation
systems—Pipeline valves.
ISO 14723 Petroleum and natural gas industries ‐ Pipeline transportation systems ‐
Subsea pipeline valves.
ISO 15156 Petroleum and natural gas industries—Materials for use in H2S‐
containing environments in oil and gas production.
ISO 15761 Steel gate, globe and check valves for sizes DN 100 and smaller, for the
petroleum and natural gas industries.
ISO 15848 Industrial valves—Fugitive emissions—Measurement, test and
qualification procedures.
ISO 17292 Metal ball valves for petroleum, petrochemical and allied industries.
Manufacturers Standardization Society of the Valve and Fittings Industry (MSS)
MSS SP‐55 Quality Standard for Steel Castings for Valves, Flanges, Fittings and
Other Piping Components ‐ Visual Method for Evaluation of Surface
Irregularities.
MSS SP‐91 Guidelines for Manual Operation of Valves.
NACE International (NACE)
NACE MR0103 Materials Resistant to Sulfide Stress Cracking in Corrosive Petroleum
Refining Environments.
3. Terms and Definitions
The following terms and definitions apply:
Double block and bleed valve
A valve with two seating surfaces which, in the closed position, provides a seal against pressure from
both valve ends of the valve with a means of venting/bleeding the cavity between the seating
surfaces.
Note that this is effectively the same definition as is included in ISO 14313 (API 6D).
Double isolation valve
A single valve with two seating surfaces, each of which provides a seal against pressure originating
from a single source. This feature may be provided in one direction or in both directions.
Double isolation and bleed valve
A single valve with two seating surfaces, each of which provides a seal against pressure or flow from
a single source, with a means of venting the cavity between the seating surfaces.
Passive action
Valves that rely primarily on the presence of differential pressure to effect a seal.
Page 9 of 165
Positive action
Valves in which the sealing force is applied mechanically as part of valve operation.
4. General Topics
4.1. Connection to Piping
4.1.1. Flanges
Flanges are the most common method of connecting valves into piping and enable easy
removal of valves for maintenance/replacement. They have increased cost and lower integrity
compared to welded connections.
Proprietary compact flange arrangements are available to reduce weight and cost and
manufacturers of these willingly provide valve manufacturers with dimensional details.
a. Flanged end valves shall be installed adjacent to equipment on which blinds are required
or if frequent valve maintenance or replacement is expected.
b. A valve with integrally forged/cast flanges should be selected in lieu of a valve with
welded‐on flanges.
Welding of the flanges may, in some cases, distort the valve body.
c. If a welded‐on flange valve is provided, the joint should be a full penetration butt weld
and welding details, welding procedures, post‐weld heat treatment, and examination
should be carefully considered and reviewed.
4.1.2. Welded Ends
Welded ends are connections of high integrity and low cost; however, valves cannot easily be
removed from the line for maintenance. (see clause 4.3.)
a. If post weld heat treatment is required on butt weld end valves incorporating soft seals,
they should be provided with pipe pups and heat‐treated at the manufacturer’s works,
before assembly. Pups should have a minimum length of 150 mm (6 in) or the DN (NPS),
whichever is the greater and a maximum length of 500 mm (20 in). The manufacturer
should be required to confirm that the length is adequate to prevent damage to soft seals
when the valve is welded to the pipe.
Pup pieces are a common source of problems. The most obvious solution is for the
purchaser to free issue these to the valve manufacturer but this may not be the best
option since the
 Manufacturer may require the pups to have additional thickness to permit
hydrostatic shell testing of the valve after assembly;
 Manufacturer requires timely supply of material to facilitate weld procedure
qualification etc. if schedule is not to be affected;
 Use of extremely strong pipe material usually requires the provision of an
intermediate adaptor to match the pipe wall thickness to the valve.
b. Material requirements relating to the valve body should apply to the pups.
c. Valves with butt welding ends may be welded together if there is adequate clearance
between handwheels, levers, etc.
d. Butt welding end valves manufactured by machining the flanges off a flanged end valve
are not permitted.
Page 10 of 165
4.1.3. Compact Clamp Connectors
Consideration should be given to the use of proprietary compact connectors for weight/cost
savings particularly if expensive materials are being used or if maximum ease of removal for
maintenance is required.
As with compact flanges, connector manufacturers readily supply design details to valve
manufacturers. Compact connectors require greater attention to cleanliness during make‐up
than flanges.
4.1.4. Other Connections
a. Threaded connections and proprietary compression fittings sometimes used in small bore
valves.
b. Threaded connections should not be used on toxic service, flammable liquids above their
flashpoint, hydrocarbon gas service, hydrogen, sea water, produced water, methanol, or
steam service.
c. Compression fittings may be used on sizes up to DN 25 (NPS 1) and are subject to the
same limitations as threaded connectors except that steam service is allowed.
d. Wafer style check and butterfly valves shall be of the through drilled lug type.
Lugs protect the bolts from direct contact with flames in the event of a fire and prevent
loss of clamping load on the pipe flanges.
4.2. Construction/Commissioning Conditions
a. Measures should be taken to protect soft seated valves during construction, line flushing,
and plant start‐up. These measures include:
Conditions during construction, line flushing, and plant start‐up are frequently the most
severe that a valve sees. Even if the normal operating conditions are clean, soft seated
valves can suffer permanent damage unless steps are taken to protect them.
1. Selection of valves suitable for dirty service.
This ensures that such problems are avoided or minimised.
2. If 1 above is not possible, installing critical valves after flushing is completed.
3. In the case of soft seated ball valves of moderate to large size, protection by means
of silicone sealant application to the joints between seat/body and seat/ball.
This has been shown to be effective and may offer the most economical alternative.
b. Fabrication yard and stores procedures should warn against unnecessary removal of valve
end covers and should insist on their replacement should removal ever be necessary.
Valves should be stored in a clean dry environment.
4.3. Maintenance Considerations
4.3.1. General
The maintenance strategy for valves on the facility shall be established early in the selection
process.
The maintenance strategy can affect both the ultimate choice of valve type and the spares
requirements.
Page 11 of 165
4.3.2. Valves Maintained in Situ
The ease with which internals can be withdrawn and the equipment/craneage/onsite skills
needed to do this should be carefully investigated, particularly for large valves.
It is assumed that it is always possible to replace gland packings, gearboxes, etc. in situ. If
maintenance in situ is intended, welded pipe connections become possible, but valve internals
need to be capable of being accessed and removed via the bonnet, etc. This is automatically
the case for gate valves, globe valves, swing check valves, plug valves, and top entry ball
valves. In situ maintenance cannot be conducted on butterfly or wafer check valves.
4.3.3. Valves Removed to a Workshop for Maintenance
This allows maximum flexibility of valve selection and is often the most practical option.
Spares holdings should take account of the need to provide complete replacement valves.
4.4. Isolation
4.4.1. Terminology
4.4.1.1. Double Block Isolation
a. A double block and bleed valve shall be as defined above.
There is much confusion over the term “double block and bleed valve”. As used in
ISO 14313 (API 6D) this relates to blocking of two opposing sources of flow/pressure and
being able to vent the space (i.e. the valve cavity) between them.
See Figure 1.
b. A double isolation valve shall be as defined above
The more usual requirement is for a double block isolation of equipment (etc.) from a
single source of flow/pressure (for the purpose of breaking containment) using two valves
(or a single valve incorporating two isolations).
Note: the latter is not specifically addressed in the current edition of ISO 14313 (API 6D)
although test protocols for single valves that incorporate such a facility are included.
c. A double isolation and bleed valve shall be as defined above
When a body cavity vent, drain, or bleed is provided with a double isolation valve the
valve may be described as a “double isolation and bleed valve”. There is a proposal for
the next edition of ISO 14313 (API 6D) to include a definition of this.
See Figure 1.
Page 12 of 165
Figure 1 – Isolation Arrangements
4.4.1.2. Positive and Passive Action
See above for definitions.
Typical passive action valves are trunnion mounted ball valve, floating ball valve, slab type gate
valve, parallel slide gate valve.
Typical positive action: valves are parallel expanding type gate valve, split wedge gate valve,
“Orbit” type ball valve, “Konosphera” type ball valve, “Klyde” type ball valve, expanding type
plug valve, “wedge” plug, globe valve).
Standard wedge gate valves fall somewhere between the two but are assumed to be “positive”
here.
Taper plug valves fall somewhere between the two but are assumed to be “passive” here.
Butterfly valves employ positive sealing that may be augmented or diminished by the effects of
pressure, depending on the direction.
4.4.2. Positive versus Passive Action
The theoretical advantage of valves closing with a “positive” action is that they maintain shut‐
off tightness regardless of the presence or absence of a pressure differential and are not
sensitive to the speed with which a pressure differential is established. In practice this depends
on how well seating surfaces are preserved, etc. and there may be other operating conditions
that preclude their use (e.g. dirty service).
In all cases, the operating force requirements (size for size) of “positive” action valves is
greater than for comparable “passive” action valves ‐ a significant consideration as size and
pressure increase. This is particularly true for “upstream + downstream seating” types such as
some expanding gate valves. Also, if a significant temperature reduction is experienced after
closing, the force required to break open some positive sealing types (e.g. wedge and parallel
Page 13 of 165
expanding gate valves), is usually greatly increased and such valves are not recommended for
use in these applications.
4.4.3. Double Block Isolation
4.4.3.1. Alternatives
If double block isolation is required by the isolation philosophy, this can be achieved in three
ways:
a. Two single valves in series with a vent connection from the connecting pipe. All block
valve types can be used in this arrangement.
b. An integral body (or manifold) incorporating two isolating valves and a vent valve. In all
cases such arrangements should meet EEMUA Publication 182.
Very large sizes may be impractical because of the high mass of the body. In smaller line
sizes, arrangements of ball, balanced plug, butterfly, and gate valves are available. The
specialised, positive isolation ball valves (Klyde, Konosphera, Orbit) can be used in smaller
sizes, but two valve manifold versions may be difficult to obtain. The same is true of
expanding plug and wedge plug valves.
Many of the standard arrangements of two valve double isolation manifolds available on
the market are of drastically reduced bore compared to the pipe. This may not matter
(e.g. on dry gas systems) but in other applications the potential effects of high velocity
flow and increased pressure drop should be considered.
Smaller sizes of integral valve manifolds are ideally suited to isolation of static branches
(e.g. instruments). These are available in arrangements using ball valves and globe/needle
valves and in combinations of both. Vent valves should always be needle type. The
“monoflange” design is extremely compact, but is not suitable for use in flowing systems
or if scale, wax, hydrate, etc. is anticipated (because of the complex porting comprising
drilled holes).
c. A single ‘double isolation and bleed valve’ as defined above. There are three possibilities:
In all cases it is possible to vent the cavity between the sealing surfaces through a bleed
connection provided in the valve body. If the feature is provided in both directions there
is not normally automatic relief of cavity overpressure caused by expansion of trapped
liquids and an external relief valve is necessary in liquid or condensing service.
1. The most suitable valves are positive sealing types in which the seat load is applied
mechanically to both upstream and downstream seats simultaneously (e.g.
expanding gate, expanding plug). Split wedge gate valves may also be considered,
but sealing may not be as effective. Expanding plug valves incorporating a thick
section elastomer seal should not be used in gas service above Class 300 rating
because of the risk of explosive decompression damage.
There is a design of triple offset butterfly valve that incorporates two seat seals in a
single disk with a vent from the space between. In this case there is a high
probability that any damage to the first seat seal also affects the second.
2. Valves that rely on the fluid differential pressure to provide a seal on both seat faces
simultaneously are the second choice for this duty. One possibility is an “upstream
+ downstream sealing” slab type gate valves in which the second seat is loaded by
the differential pressure acting across the gate, but the cavity is sealed by the
upstream seat. Automatic venting of body cavity overpressure is normally preserved
and an external relief valve is not necessary.
Page 14 of 165
The ability of a slab gate valve to perform this function depends on the detail design
of the seat to body seal arrangement and on the ability of the gate to move relative
to the stem. In all cases in which this arrangement is contemplated, the
manufacturer should be required to confirm suitability and specialist advice should
be sought. If good sealing against very low differential pressure is required and if the
valve is located in a vertical pipe this option may not be appropriate because the
mass of the gate may negate any sealing effect on the upper seat.
At least one manufacturer (WOM) offers a ball valve design in which the inlet side
seat consists of two sealing surfaces with a vent from the space between. In this
case, both sealing surfaces are simultaneously pressure energized, but the design is
only available with soft seats and necessitates a more complex arrangement of seals
in the seat pocket.
3. Trunnion mounted ball valves having “double piston effect” seats are the third
choice. The second (downstream) seat is only energized when the cavity has been
pressurised (unlike the slab type gate valve) although some spring loading of seat to
ball is always provided.
There may be no practical difference between the isolation integrity of a single
“double piston seat” ball valve and two standard trunnion mounted ball valves in
series although, in shut‐down applications, the two valve arrangement would offer a
theoretical increase in reliability of closure. In the case of soft seated valves the two
valve arrangement might offer reduced risk of sustaining simultaneous damage to
both seats.
In all arrangements the vent (bleed) valve and pipework should be of sufficient size
to carry away anticipated leakage past the upstream valve or seat without incurring
a pressure rise in the body cavity (especially important in gas service). This
connection should be provided with a double block and bleed valve arrangement if
access may be required in service (e.g. for hot oil flushing of leaking valves).
See clause 7.1.5 for requirements for double piston seat arrangements.
Butterfly, globe, and conventional single plug valves are not suitable for double block
or double block and bleed duty if a single valve is required.
There may be a preference for two separate valves for double block isolation.
4.4.3.2. Application
The decision about when to specify double block valve isolation should be based on criticality
taking into account the type of hazard consequence of leakage and mitigation available, but
typically, double block isolation to isolate equipment or atmospheric connections should be
applied in the following services:
Particular plants/Business Units may have their own rules regarding application of double
block isolation valves.
a. Toxic fluids.
b. Highly flammable and searching fluids such as hydrogen.
c. Fluids above flash point at operating temperature.
d. If fluid contamination must be prevented.
e. If it is necessary to prevent the formation of explosive mixtures.
f. Drains connected to closed drain systems.
Page 15 of 165
g. If it is necessary to remove essential equipment from service for cleaning or repairs while
the process continues in operation.
4.4.4. Pig Launcher/Receiver Valves
a. Pig launcher/receiver primary pipeline isolation valves shall be ball valves type.
b. Pig trap kicker valves and vent valves should be capable of withstanding the high
velocities (e.g. on gas service) in throttling mode against a differential pressure when
partially open as well as providing acceptable shut‐off.
1. Soft seated ball valves are not recommended for this duty.
2. Lubricated balanced plug valves are eminently suitable.
3. For low pressure applications (Class 600 or lower rating) triple offset, metal seated
butterfly valves can be considered if the service is known to be clean.
4. Globe valves may be appropriate for gas vent duty, but ideally require an on/off
shut‐off valve (e.g. soft seated ball) in series.
c. Receiver drain valves should be quarter turn valves having a high degree of abrasion
resistance such as tungsten carbide coated balls, stellite/carbide coated balanced plugs,
etc.
Receiver drain valves usually have to cope with highly abrasive service.
At least one valve manufacturer offers a modified ball valve having a side entry point that
allows the insertion and removal of pigs. Whilst this may offer some operational facility
there is only a single isolation between the operator and the process so the valve cannot
be used on a live system unless additional isolating valves are provided on either side.
4.5. Testing ‐ General
4.5.1. Recommended Factory Acceptance Tests (FAT)
a. The following tests are recommended for all valve types:
1. Hydrostatic shell test at 1,5 x rated pressure.
2. Hydrostatic seat leak test at 1,1 x rated pressure or, depending on valve type*.
3. Low pressure gas seat test (e.g. ISO 14313 (API 6D) C3.3). Gate and globe valves
having a back seat should also be subjected to a hydrostatic back seat test if
appropriate.
4. If valves are being used on gas service a representative sample (e.g. 10%) of each
unique type, size, and pressure rating should be subjected to a gas:
a) Shell test at rated pressure.
b) Seat leak test at rated pressure.
Valves that shut off by application of external force should generally be seat
tested at high pressure whilst valves that shut off by application of differential
pressure should generally be seat tested at low pressure.
5. If valves having a sealed body cavity are on liquid service and not buried or located
subsea, a representative sample (e.g. 10%) of each unique type, size, and pressure
rating should be subjected to a cavity relief test (e.g. ISO 14313 (API 6D) C.7).
Page 16 of 165
The EEMUA Valve Committee have made recommendations for testing of both
commodity valves and valves intended for more critical duties and these are
generally endorsed and reproduced in Appendix B.
b. For valves with joints perpendicular to the pipe axis (e.g. split body (end entry) ball valves)
at least one such valve of each unique material/size/rating on the order should be tested
with blank flanges, welded end caps, etc. to demonstrate the adequacy of the specified
bolt torque.
It is common practice for manufacturers to hydro‐test valves using end closures that react
the longitudinal force resulting from pressure against an external structure. This means
that the body joints never see any longitudinal force on test, so if bolt pre‐load is
inadequate, this only becomes apparent during the hydro‐test of the piping system!
4.5.2. Recommended FAT Seat Leak Rates
The leak rates shown in Table 1 are recommended for inclusion in procurement specifications
as factory acceptance criteria.
The leak rates for metal seated valves are achievable by technically competent and
experienced suppliers. Lower leak rates may be achievable in some cases, but this might be at
the expense of considerable time and effort so the temptation to specify them should be
resisted in all but extreme cases. Although leak rates for some types of hard metal seated
valve are higher than for soft seated they are less susceptible to damage in service and “as
new” shut off integrity is more likely to be preserved. If local experience indicates that
alternative leak rates are appropriate/acceptable this should be applied.
Table 1 – Recommended Seat Leak Rates
Valve Type Hydro Seat Test L.P. Gas Seat Test (API 6D H.P. Gas Seat Test

Max. Leak Rate (ISO 5208) App. C) 6 bar (90 psi) 1.1 x Rated Pressure (1)
Max. Leak Rate (ISO 5208)
Gate B Slab type: C Slab type: C
Exp. type: B Exp. type: 5 x B
Wedge type: B Wedge type: by agreement with
supplier
Soft seat: A Soft seat: B
Ball Soft seat: A Soft seat: A Soft seat: B
Metal seat: C Metal seat: C Metal seat: D
Check Soft seat: A Soft seat: A Soft seat: A
Metal seat: D Metal seat: 3 x D Metal seat: 9 x D
Globe B B 5 x B
Butterfly Soft seat: A Soft seat: A Soft seat: B
Metal seat: B Metal seat: C Metal seat:
5 x C (preferred sealing direction)
D (non‐preferred direction)
Lubricated, A A B
Balanced Plug
(1) Note that these acceptance standards are arbitrarily chosen and may require adjustment to suit particular circumstances.
For most applications, leak rates up to Rate D would be acceptable but might indicate quality problems in certain valve
types.
Figure 2 provides a comparison of the acceptance standards of ISO 5208 with those of
API Std 598 for low pressure gas testing. The API Std 598 leak rates do not incorporate
sufficient flexibility to address all valve types and some requirements e.g. zero leakage for
metal seated ball valves less than or equal to DN 50 (NPS 2) are impractical.
Page 17 of 165
Figure 2 – Low Pressure Gas Leak Rate Comparison
Gas Leak Rate Comparison
100
90
80 ISO 5208 Rate B
Leak Rate mm3/sec
70 ISO 5208 Rate C

60
ISO 5208 Rate D
50
Leak rate ISO 10434
40
30 Leak rate ISO 10434
20 Leak rate ISO 10434
10
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Valve Size DN

EEMUA Information Sheet No. 32 provides a one page summary of the requirements of
commonly encountered valve test standards.
4.5.3. Test Duration
With the exception of ISO 14313 (API 6D) the test hold times specified in valve reference
standards are mostly very short (see Table 2). The test durations of ISO 14313 (API 6D) are
recommended if practical (e.g. if valves are being manufactured to order).
Table 2(A) – Comparison of shell test times (seconds)
Size API 598 and ISO 10434 EN 12266‐1 ISO 5208 ISO 14313

DN (NPS) Check Other (API 6D)
 50 (2) 60 15 15 15 2 min

65–150 (2 ½–6 60 60 60 60 5 min
200–300 (8–12) 60 120 180 180 5 min
 350 (14) 120 300 180 180 15 min
Table 2(B) – Comparison of seat test times for ball valves (seconds)
Size API 598 and EN 12266‐1 ISO 5208 ISO 14313

DN (NPS) ISO 17292 (API 6D)
 50 (2) 15 15 15 2 min
65–150 (2 ½–6) 60 15 15 2 min
200–300 (8–12) 120 30 30 5 min
 350 (14) 120 60 60 5 min
15 Seconds is really not sufficient time to determine whether there is a leak through the wall
of a valve casting, for example. However, increasing the specified test time in the case of
commodity valves usually incurs increased cost and valves purchased from stock have already
been tested, so increased test times may not be practicable in some cases. Note that
stabilisation times for high pressure gas tests can be significantly longer than the test time.
Page 18 of 165
4.6. Specific Additional Tests
4.6.1. Cavity Relief Test
Valves that are intended to self‐relieve cavity overpressure (e.g. in the event of a fire) should
be type tested on liquid during FAT (one per size/rating).
4.6.2. Electrical Insulation Test
Soft seated ball and plug valves should be type tested during FAT (one per size/rating) to
demonstrate that there is good conduction between the ball/plug/stem and the valve body.
4.6.3. Low Temperature Test
a. If valves will definitely be subjected to significant low temperature that is not a transient
condition and are then required to seal, a type test such as that recommended by EEMUA
Publication 192 should be considered. Actual service temperatures should first be
accurately determined (i.e. not the impact test temperature of the body material!).
Such tests are time consuming and expensive so should not be resorted to lightly. There
should be no need to test if temperatures are above –10°C (14°F).
b. For temperatures below –50°C (–58°F) the valve should undergo a full cryogenic type test
in accordance with BS 6364 or a comparable standard.
Valve seat leakage normally increases at low temperature so this should be allowed for.
Polymer lip seals characteristically leak during temperature transients, but then stabilise
at the new temperature so this should be taken into account.
4.6.4. High Temperature Test
A type test may be considered if sustained high temperatures will be experienced, particularly
if soft seals may be operating near their limit or if the valve’s ability to shut off may be in
question.
4.6.5. Gas Seat Leak Testing
a. There are three common options:
1. Low pressure tests (e.g. 4 bar to 6 bar (60 psi to 90 psi)) applied as an alternative to
high pressure liquid tests.
2. Low pressure tests applied in addition to high pressure liquid tests e.g. as a quality
check.
3. High pressure tests (at rated pressure) applied in addition to high pressure liquid
tests (and, sometimes, in lieu of liquid tests if there is a desire to keep the valve dry).
b. In evaluating the appropriateness of any test, consideration should be given to the valve
type and the way in which the seating force is applied (e.g. by fluid pressure or external
force).
1. If closing force is applied by the working fluid pressure (e.g. all ball valves) the
alternative of a LP gas seat test is appropriate (particularly on smaller, lower
pressure valves). As an addition to a HP liquid seat test it also represents a useful
additional quality check – indicating that there are no major problems with
assembly, seat facings, etc.
2. If closing force is mechanically applied (e.g. wedge gate, expanding gate, globe,
butterfly valves) high pressure seat testing is more appropriate.
Page 19 of 165
In the case of larger valves the effect of differential pressure on the obturator (ball,
gate, etc.) should also be taken into account (e.g. deflection of metal seated valve
balls leading to higher leak rates at higher pressure).
4.6.6. Practical Considerations of High Pressure Gas Testing
High pressure gas tests require large volumes of nitrogen or air and, if test times are not to be
unacceptably long, a means of compressing it reasonably quickly. Safety considerations also
demand test pits or concrete walled enclosures. Some manufacturers have such provisions but
not all. High pressure gas seat testing can therefore be expensive and time‐consuming. The
larger the valve, the more expensive and time‐consuming it becomes.
4.6.7. Application of High Pressure Gas Tests
a. Valve destined for liquid service should not be subjected to high pressure gas testing.
b. Valves destined for high pressure gas service should be subjected to high pressure gas
testing. For reasons of time and cost the test should be carried out on a randomly chosen
sample and fully integrated with the manufacturer’s other testing.
The size of the sample can be agreed in each case, but should not be less than one of
each unique type/size/rating.
In the case of stock valves HP gas testing could be applied in the same way if the destined
service is gas.
4.6.8. Leak Rates for High Pressure Gas Test
High pressure gas seat testing is not required by any standard. It is offered as an additional test
at the purchaser’s discretion in ISO 14313 (API 6D), but this does not stipulate acceptable leak
rates. In defining these note that low pressure gas seat leak rates are quoted at standard
conditions and that the leak rate across a valve seat does not increase linearly with increasing
pressure (although it does often increase). There is the further problem that the acceptable LP
leak rate usually quoted for soft seated valves is zero. In practice, for metal seated valves, a
multiple of the LP allowable leak rate seems to work (e.g. 5 to 10 times). For soft seated valves
ISO 5208 Rate B is recommended.
4.6.9. High Pressure Gas Shell Leak Test
It is possible to test the seats of a trunnion mounted ball valve or slab/expanding gate valve
without testing the body seals and to do so does not require pressurisation of the body cavity
(which can sometimes hold a lot of gas). However, having decided to go to the trouble and cost
of HP gas testing (of sample valves) it is probably worth performing the shell leak test as well
(zero visible leakage using detergent film or water immersion).
4.6.10. Helium Leak Testing
Valves intended for service with searching fluids (e.g. hydrogen) may be subject to type or
sample testing using helium (or a mixture of nitrogen plus 1% helium used as a “tracer”) to
prove a high degree of leak tightness. Details of the test should be subject to agreement with
the valve manufacturer.
Leak rates are influenced by valve type, valve size, seating material, etc. Practical
considerations should dominate when defining acceptable values. The following acceptance
standards (taken from an EEMUA information sheet 192) are suggested for soft seated valves.
 Through body leakage: (based on mass spectrometer measuring 1% helium in
nitrogen).
Page 20 of 165
o Gland/stem seal leakage not to exceed 0,001 5 ml/s (92 x 10–6 in3/s) at any
single point.
o Gland/stem seal leakage not to exceed 0,004 ml/s (244 x 10–6 in3/s) total.
o Body/bonnet etc. joint leakage not to exceed 0,000 3 ml/s (18 x 10–6 in3/s) at
any single point.
o Through wall leakage ‐ no single source to exceed 0,000 001 ml/s
(61 x 10–9 in3/s).
 If leakage is measured by bagging the complete valve, maximum total leak
rate should be as for the gland alone.
 Through seat leakage: (based on flow measurement) not to exceed
0,018 ml/min/mm DN (0,027 in3/min/in NPS).
As an alternative, a gas analyser and sniffing probe may be used measuring leakage in ppm.
However, correlations between the two systems of measurement are notoriously difficult and
such data as has been collected shows wide scatter. Comparative tests involving the actual test
equipment, valves, and test gases used are recommended if accurate information is required.
4.6.11. Fire Type Testing
See clause 4.12.
4.7. Design and Stress/Strain Considerations
4.7.1. Valve Shell
a. In order for valves to function correctly (open, close, seal, etc.) deflections and
deformations should be restricted.
This deformation limitation usually means stress remains well within elastic limits i.e.
valve designs are usually strain limited. In most cases, this approach ensures that stresses
are also maintained within allowable limits.
This is an important distinction between valves and vessels where elastic deformation
under load is frequently not a problem.
b. Valve stress design should be conservative.
This is necessary to limit deformation and for other reasons (e.g. valve shells are full of
stress concentrating features not usually taken into account in design).
Commonly used standards cannot always be relied upon to provide this. For example, the
most commonly used standard for larger and higher pressure ball and gate valves
(ISO 14313 (API 6D)) contains no design requirements at all at time of writing and
ISO 10423 (API 6A), which is frequently used for design pressures beyond the standard
ASME Class ratings, allows design stresses that may create problems with certain
materials. In particular, austenitic and duplex alloys are known to experience “cold creep”
if local high stress levels are high. This phenomenon results in ongoing permanent strain
that is exacerbated in course grained material (e.g. castings).
c. The use of weld end valves with Special Class or Intermediate Ratings per ASME B16.34
should be approved by the Purchaser, but can sometimes be advantageous to reduce
weight/cost at higher pressures.
Limitations placed on end connections are intended to prevent such valves being
transferred to fully rated piping systems for which they would be inadequate.
Page 21 of 165
d. The use of fabricated valves should be similarly approved.
4.7.2. Bolted Joints
If valves employ bolted joints, bolt pre‐load should be sufficient to prevent leakage in service
and such bolts should always be pre‐loaded to at least 50% of their yield stress.
Of particular concern are split body (end entry) ball valves that have joints perpendicular to
the pipe axis. Product and design standards for such valves (ISO 17292, ASME B16.34) may
require additional bolt area to be provided at such joints.
4.7.3. Drive Train
There is frequently confusion over the stress limits necessary for valve stems and other
components of the drive train.
Valve train design should be such that:
a. The stresses under normal operating conditions (i.e. when the valve is being
opened/closed against design differential pressure) remain within design allowable limits,
bearing in mind that operating torque/force may increase after some years in service.
b. The actuator have sufficient margin to be able to operate the valve acceptably
throughout its life.
c. The valve stem and other drive train components be capable of withstanding the
maximum output of the actuator (e.g. when operating against a jammed valve) without
sustaining permanent deformation. In the case of electric actuators this means with the
torque switch setting applied throughout the stroke.
Electric actuators are manufactured in a limited number of sizes and output torque is
frequently limited by an adjustable torque switch to avoid damage to the valve drive
train.
It will be seen that (b) and (c) above conflict and care is needed in the specification of
design differential pressure and required actuator safety factor (particularly in the case of
spring return actuators) if the designer is not to be presented with an impossible
problem.
A factor of 1,5 is recommended for general applications with a factor of 2 being applied
for ball valves and plug valves on ESD applications.
4.7.4. Fatigue
If valves are used in high cycle applications and particularly if wide thermal variations or
thermal shock occur, valve designs should be subjected to fatigue stress analysis or testing to
confirm their suitability.
Common valve design standards do not consider fatigue. For most standard rating valves in
most applications this is not a problem.
4.8. Weight/Cost Minimisation
The following techniques should be considered as a way of minimising weight and hence cost,
particularly if valves are being procured in expensive alloys.
a. Use of compact flanges or clamp connectors in place of standard ASME etc. flanges.
b. Selective use of corrosion resistant overlays.
c. Butt welding of valves to pipework.
Page 22 of 165
d. Use of welded construction trunnion mounted ball valves.
Note: This usually precludes refurbishment at other than the manufacturer’s works.
e. Use of pressure seal joints at the body/bonnet interface of high pressure gate, globe,
check valves.
This design uses a split ring to transfer the pressure load on the bonnet to the body thus
eliminating the heavy bonnet flange. The joint incorporates a graphite gasket, metal
gasket, O‐ring, or energised lip seal as appropriate. Metal gaskets can be difficult to
remove for maintenance. Sealing efficiency increases with pressure. At low pressure
sealing can be a problem and LP gas leak tests are recommended during FAT.
f. Use of threaded and seal‐welded bonnet/cover for valves less than or equal to DN 50
(NPS 2) in non‐corrosive service.
g. Use of reduced bore valves if pigging is not a requirement.
This also minimises the size of actuators.
h. Use of lugged wafer butterfly valves and duo‐disk lugged wafer check valves.
i. In the case of high pressures and large pipe sizes, use of ASME B16.34 intermediate rating
valves if design conditions fall between two standard ratings (e.g. between Cl 900 and
Cl 1500).
This allows reduced wall thickness, smaller internal flanges, etc. Such a valve is
comparable to a fully rated valve used at the limit of its rating.
j. Use of stress analysis.
Detailed analysis (e.g. FEA) may be used to justify lighter construction standard rating
valves when these are specified in accordance with pipeline valve standards. In such cases
it is important to ensure that adequate rigidity is retained and functionality preserved.
This usually necessitates an investigation of deflections.
k. Use of plug valves.
l. Use of a single valve (e.g. expanding gate) to provide double block and bleed isolation
instead of two independent valves, as appropriate, considering operating conditions.
4.9. Auxiliary Connections in Valve Bodies
4.9.1. General
a. Penetrations of the pressure retaining boundary such as auxiliary bleed/vent/drain points
should be minimised.
Taper threaded valve body plugs and needle type 'vent' plugs are a common cause of
leakage incidents on gas production systems and should be avoided. This is usually due to
either corrosion or poor mechanical strength (excessive PTFE tape application etc.).
b. If valve body connections are necessary for operational/testing reasons on larger size
valves they should be terminated with a blank flange or a flange + block and bleed valve
arrangement. Alternatively, and on smaller sized valves, butt weld or socket weld
connections should be specified. Pipe nipples should be at least one schedule heavier
than required by the piping line class for reasons of robustness.
c. The location of such connections should comply with the general requirements of ASME
B16.34. If not necessary for operational reasons these connections should be eliminated.
Page 23 of 165
d. The type of vent connection that comprises a needle seated in a threaded plug should be
avoided, particularly on gas service. A valve with a plugged or capped outlet should be
used instead.
These corrode in marine environments, are a source of leakage, and may require a shut‐
down to repair.
e. Threaded connections required for factory acceptance testing and not needed thereafter
should be fitted with a plug seal welded in position in accordance with an approved
welding procedure. Minimum ligament length of the seal weld should be 1/3 x nominal
size of the plug and not less than 3 mm (1/8 in), but should, in no case, exceed 13 mm
(1/2 in). Exposed threads should first be ground off.
f. Socket welded connections should not be used on sea water, produced water, methanol,
HF, H2SO4, and steam service or if particulate or sludge could accumulate in the crevice
behind the pipe nipple.
g. Threaded connections should not be used on toxic service, flammable liquids above their
flashpoint, hydrocarbon gas service, hydrogen, sea water, produced water, methanol, or
steam service except by agreement with the purchaser.
Threaded connections are usually acceptable if there is a valve between the thread and
the process or main valve body.
h. PTFE tape should not be used to seal taper threads. Anaerobic sealing compounds may be
used.
i. If threaded connections are agreed and there is a risk of crevice corrosion, the threads
should be protected by appropriately housed O‐rings.
j. If an external pressure relief valve is provided to relieve body cavity overpressure (e.g. on
a parallel expanding gate valve), this should always be a properly set and certified type
and should be separated from the valve body by a (normally locked open) ball valve to
facilitate in service testing. Set pressure should be between 1,1 x and 1,33 x rated
pressure.
The factor of 1.1 x is intended to prevent relief occurring in normal operation and the
factor of 1,3 x provides some margin for inaccuracy against the shell hydrostatic test
pressure of 1,5 x rated pressure.
4.9.2. Bypasses
a. Bypass piping provided to equalize differential pressure or warm up downstream piping
and equipment may be an integral part of the valve.
b. An isolating gate valve should be provided in the bypass line of gate valves having a
metallurgy and pressure rating at least equal to that of the main gate valve.
c. Bypasses should be sized in accordance with Table 3 unless process requirements dictate
otherwise and pipes should meet the applicable piping design code.
Page 24 of 165
Table 3 – Recommended minimum bypass size (DN (NPS))
Valve Valve Pressure Rating
Size DN (NPS) Class 150 Class 300 Class 600 Class 900 Class 1500
< 250 (10) ‐‐‐ ‐‐‐ 20 (3/4) 20 (3/4) 20 (3/4)
250 & 300 (10 & 12) 25 (1) 25 (1) 25 (1) 25 (1) 25 (1)
350 to 500 (14 to 20) 40 (1 ½) 40 (1 ½) 40 (1 ½) 40 (1 ½) 40 (1 ½)
> 500 (20) 50 (2) 50 (2) 50 (2) 50 (2) 50 (2)

4.9.3. Vent/Drain etc. Valves
These should be sized and selected not only according to the quantity of fluid to be discharged
(which is usually small), but also with a view to their robustness. Generally they should not be
less than DN 20 (NPS 3/4).
4.9.4. Sealant injection
a. Seat sealant injection may be used to achieve isolation of a soft seated ball valve whose
seats are damaged. It should not normally be specified for hard metal seated ball valves
where it is ineffective.
If soft seated ball valves are in gas service, the injection facilities also allow flushing with
hot oil or proprietary compounds.
Stem sealant injection can sometimes permit continued operation until an opportunity
arises for rectification. In the case of self‐energising seals (O‐rings, lip seals, etc.) it is
usually sufficient to inject sealing compound into the space between the seals. In the case
of packed glands the graphite based “solid” injection systems offered by companies such
as Team and Safeseal have proven effective. In an emergency, these companies can hot
tap into a gland, but if such an eventuality can be predicted, it is sensible (safer and
cheaper) to procure the valve with a threaded fitting isolated from the packing chamber
by a ball valve. If using such techniques ensure that safety precautions comply with site
norms and are commensurate with the hazard presented by the operation.
b. Any operational advantage should be weighed against the number of additional potential
leak paths being introduced.
c. Lubricated, balanced plug valves should be periodically sealant injected, ideally
immediately before closure if valves are infrequently operated or, at least, at every plant
turnaround.
d. Seat sealant injection fittings should always be provided with two check valves and, on
high pressure service or if valves are connected directly to pipelines, consideration should
be given to the provision of a block valve (e.g. needle or ball type) between the fitting and
the valve to allow grease gun removal in emergencies or permit isolation of a leaking
fitting.
e. If it is intended to inject sealant/lubricant systematically in service, consideration should
be given to whether or not it would be an advantage to require the valve to be supplied
already injected.
Page 25 of 165
4.10. Fugitive Emissions
4.10.1. General
There is a need to minimise fugitive emissions of toxic fluids and volatile organic compounds
for safety, environmental, and economic reasons. Historically valves (particularly rising stem
designs) have been major sources of such emissions but, because of activity by regulators,
users, and manufacturers during the last ten years it is now possible to take advantage of
improved performance with little or no increase in cost.
Site surveys of conventional plant generally indicate that rising stem (globe type) control
valves are the worst culprits followed by rising stem (e.g. gate and globe) isolating valves with
conventional quarter turn valves (ball, butterfly, plug) giving fewer problems. This is not a
surprising result. Note that small valves are often worse than large ones.
Whilst there may sometimes be emissions from body joints, etc. these are not serious
problems; neither are quarter turn valves having self‐energised or pressure energised stem
seals such as O‐rings and lip seals. Packed glands are the major source of these emissions.
4.10.2. Purchasing/Specification Recommendations
a. When purchasing rising stem valves with packed glands, evidence should be sought that
the manufacturer has previously undertaken emission testing of the proposed packings
and range of valve sizes/ratings and can demonstrate acceptable results. If elevated or
reduced temperature service is contemplated, such tests should include a limited number
of appropriate requirements.
b. Mechanical aspects of rising stem valves (stem straightness, run‐out and surface finish,
gland guidance, etc.) should also be controlled.
4.10.3. Guidance on ISO 15848
A new ISO standard, ISO 15848, has been developed to offer standardised type qualification
testing and sample product testing of valves. It uses helium mass measurement of emissions
instead of the more familiar methane sniffing on grounds of safety and measurement accuracy
so there is an adjustment to be made to expectations where (e.g. site testing) experience is of
sniffing and measurement of emissions are in ppm.
a. If undertaken, fugitive emission testing for gland packed valves should be performed with
helium in accordance with ISO 15848.
The alternative of methane mass measurement offered by this standard should be
avoided since there is no basis for comparison.
Recommended requirements are:
1. Class C for rising stem valves.
2. Class B for quarter turn valves.
b. Test results should be adjusted based on experience.
c. Existing testing, performed in accordance with standards other than ISO 15848 may be
acceptable in lieu.
Type tests conducted in accordance with ISA 93.00.01 (with not more than one packing
adjustment) or VDI 2440 are normally acceptable.
d. ISO 15848 should not be specified for valves having PTFE lip seals or chevrons or for
valves sealed by elastomer O‐rings.
Page 26 of 165
Helium molecules travel through these materials because of their natural permeability
resulting in leak rates beyond the acceptance standard.
e. If sample product testing is undertaken, it should be at the rated pressure of the valve,
not at low pressure as specified by ISO 15848 part 2.
4.10.4. Bellows Seal Valves
a. For toxic and other critical services bellows seal valves should be considered.
Valve stem emissions can be completely eliminated by the use of bellows seal valves.
b. A secondary packed gland or other sealing system should be provided.
Bellows seal valves are relatively expensive, however, and may not be suited to some
services (e.g. solidifying).
4.10.5. Emissions Testing
Tests on rising stem gate/globe valve packings showed that:
 All graphite packings perform better than asbestos;
 Some relatively simple low to medium density graphite packings with braided end
rings can give very good performance;
 The best performance was obtained from an "engineered" design of packing with
some pressure energising capability;
 Graphite packings generally are relatively insensitive to stem damage;
 Stem straightness and run‐out must be carefully controlled;
 The gland follower must be guided on the packing chamber, not the stem;
 Whilst good surface finish and close tolerances may give improved sealing
performance, these parameters need not be better than is currently being achieved by
the leading valve manufacturers (and very smooth finishes obtained by burnishing are
positively disadvantageous).
 Very smooth stem finishes produced by burnishing, etc. are detrimental to good
sealing of graphite packings.
Tests on small (DN 50 (NPS 2)) quarter turn valves (seat supported ball, sleeved plug and
butterfly) having a wide variety of stem seals from a single PTFE ring through O‐rings to packed
glands showed that:
 Quarter turn valves should not be major sources of fugitive emissions;
 Standard designs should give acceptable sealing performance;
 There is no need to pay a premium for special "low emission" arrangements except on
high risk services (e.g. highly toxic);
 Alignment of actuators to the valve stem can have a major effect on performance.
It is possible that results might have been somewhat different for large valves, but provided
quality manufacturing ensures good concentricity/guidance of the stem (especially in the case
of actuated valves), it should be possible to avoid significant emission problems.
Most manufacturers of rising stem (globe type) control valves have done work on reducing
emissions and offer valves fitted with "low emission" packing arrangements at an increased
price. Tests on six manufacturers’ valves indicated that:
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 The majority performed well and it is possible to buy globe type control valves with
excellent low emission performance, some of which are available with fire tested
packing;
 The additional cost of valves fitted with low emission packings as a percentage of total
valve cost is not excessive in most cases (this is particularly true in a project
environment);
 Good guidance of the valve stem is a prime requirement for actuated valves;
 It is difficult to achieve good performance on modulating duty with graphite packing,
although one manufacturer did succeed;
 The need to limit actuating forces and hence packing friction is important in the case
of control valves and is another reason why graphite packings, with their relatively
high friction compared to polymers etc., are not ideal in this case.
An alternative approach is to maximise the use of quarter turn control valves (eccentric plug,
ball, butterfly) in applications in which operating conditions permit and cavitation, etc.
problems do not arise.
4.11. Actuation/Operation
4.11.1. Position Indication
The position of the valve obturator (ball, gate, etc.) and direction of closure should be clearly
indicated, regardless of the method of operation.
4.11.2. Hand Operation
a. Hand operated valves should be closed by turning the handwheel or lever clockwise.
The effort required to operate a valve depends upon its design, operating conditions, and
size. It is important to understand that valves fall into two basic groups:
o Those that are closed by application of force or torque pushing the obturator
against the seat (e.g. globe, wedge gate, expanding gate, butterfly).
o Those that are closed by sliding the obturator over the seat until a pre‐
determined position is achieved (e.g. ball, plug, slab gate, parallel slide gate).
In the case of forced seal type, increasing the closing force/torque usually reduces seat
leakage; in the case of sliding seal type, additional force/torque has no effect on seat
leakage and may cause damage to the valve.
b. Slab gate valves with internal travel stops should be backed off a small amount from the
fully closed position.
c. The handwheel/lever force required to operate new valves should be restricted to the
values specified in BS EN 12570 or MSS SP‐91 (applying a factor of 0,5 in the latter case to
take account of non‐ideal handwheel locations). If the force would exceed these values, a
geared operator should be provided. The minimum sizes and ratings for which a gear
operator should normally be supplied are shown in Table 4 and are subject to the
manufacturer’s recommendations.
In the case of ball valves, operating torque increases at low temperatures and gear boxes
may be necessary for smaller size valves.
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Table 4 – Size at Which Gear Operator to be Supplied (DN (NPS))
Valve Type Cl 150 Cl 300 Cl 600 Cl 900 Cl 1500 Cl 2500

Wedge Gate 350 (14) 250 (10) 200 (8) 150 (6) 100 (4) 50 (2)
Globe 200 (8) 200 (8) 150 (6) 100 (4) 75 (3) 50 (2)
Ball 200 (8) 200 (8) 150 (6) 150 (3) 150 (3) 50 (2)
Butterfly 200 (8) 200 (8) 150 (6) ‐ ‐ ‐
Plug 150 (6) 150 (6) 150 (6) 100 (4) 100 (4) 50 (2)
d. If fast closing valves (e.g. ball valves) are located in systems in which rapid closure could
produce water hammer gear, operators should be considered.
e. Gear operators should be totally enclosed, made from steel or ductile iron, and be
suitable for the site conditions (e.g. onshore, offshore, and subsea). Any lubricants used
should be suitable for use at the site ambient temperatures.
f. It is not good practice to open gate and ball valves (particularly soft seated designs)
against a high pressure differential (e.g. a high proportion of the rated pressure) and if
there is no other way of equalizing pressure a pressure equalizing bypass should be
provided around the valve. Parallel slide gate valves for steam services are normally
provided with integral by‐pass connections in size DN 200 (NPS 8) and above. The
requirement for a by‐pass is subject to the operating pressure and the manufacturer’s
recommendations.
Extremely high velocities can be generated in the early stages of opening gate and ball
valves which can damage valve seats (particularly soft seat inserts).
g. If valves are operated by hand via a gearbox (or, subsea, by ROV), the number of turns
required for an open/close operation should always be ascertained since this can be a
large number in the case of large valves – particularly at higher operating pressures. If this
is the case the purchaser should consider fitting an electric motor gear operator or
providing portable pneumatic or hydraulic wrenches.
h. If portable pneumatic or hydraulic wrenches are used, the operating pressure should be
limited to a value which does not cause damage to the valve or gearbox. The final part of
the operation should be completed by hand.
The torque multiplying effect of a gear box can result in damage if the input torque is not
restricted.
i. Handwheel keys should only be used in emergencies or if handwheels are known to be
inadequately sized. If employed, they should be used with caution, particularly in the case
of valves having a sliding type closure.
Increased operating torque is usually indicative of a problem that needs to be addressed.
j. Chainwheel operators should be avoided if possible and should not be used for valves in
threaded lines, valves with threaded bonnets, etc., or valves smaller than DN 50 (NPS 2).
Clamp‐on type chainwheels should not be used. Protective cable should be provided and
arranged so the wheel does not drop significantly in the event it becomes loose.
There have been incidents of chainwheels coming loose and injuring operators.
Chainwheels also are difficult to maintain/inspect.
4.11.3. Electric Motor Gear Actuator
a. Generally slow operation (because of gear reduction). Normally 3 Phase supply but DC
also available. Air motor override devices available for use in case of electrical power
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failure. Normally supplied with integral switchgear and position/limit switches. Torque
switches are included for valves that close on rising torque (wedge gate, expanding gate,
globe, etc.). Diagnostic capability comes as standard on the better specified actuators.
b. Electric motor gear actuators should not be used for shut‐down valves.
4.11.4. Hydraulic Actuator
a. Double acting piston cylinder arrangement. This arrangement should not be used for
shut‐down valves.
Very compact (operating pressure typically 200 bar (2 900 psi), but needs external “power
pack”.
Speed of operation dependent on length of lines from power pack (pump) and restriction
orifice size. Fluid can be bypassed around piston to avoid this.
“Electro hydraulic” actuators have a power pack mounted on or integral with cylinder as a
single unit requiring only an external source of electric power.
b. Spring to close/open. Spring to close/open may be used for shut‐down valves.
Helical coil or disk springs used to provide closing force/torque in one direction only,
opposing the hydraulic cylinder/piston.
Larger than double acting. Needs an external “power pack”.
Partial closure test capability can be built‐in or added on.
c. Gas over oil. Gas over oil may be used for shut‐down valves.
The energy of the working fluid in a gas pipeline is captured (e.g. in a volume tank via a
check valve) and used to pressurise the oil in a double acting hydraulic cylinder and
provide the motive force (instead of a spring).
Can be bulky because of the gas volume tank.
Like electro hydraulic, often supplied as an integral unit for mounting on the valve.
d. Double acting rotary vane. This should not be used for shut‐down valves.
This design uses the hydraulic fluid to rotate vanes mounted on a central shaft within a
cylinder.
Suitable for quarter turn valves only.
Relatively compact.
e. Hydraulic piston with helical spline (and similar). This should not be used for gate valves.
The linear motion of a spring return or double acting hydraulic cylinder is converted into
quarter turn rotation by a helical spline arrangement (see below).
Compact and relatively expensive.
Operating fluid has access to mechanism.
4.11.5. Pneumatic Actuator
a. Double acting piston cylinder arrangement. Should not be used for shut‐down valves.
Uses 4 barg to 7 barg (60 psig to 100 psig) compressed air supply.
Becomes impractically large for high pressure applications and large valves.
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Not usually realistic for gate valves.
b. Spring to close/open. May be used for shut‐down valves.
Helical coil spring used to provide closing force/torque in one direction only.
Larger even than comparable double acting pneumatic design.
Not usually realistic for gate valves.
4.11.6. Subsea Applications
For subsea applications the only option up to now has been hand/ROV operation or hydraulic
actuators (generally using water based hydraulic fluid that may be vented to sea), but the
prospect of electric operation is getting closer. One reason for the development of subsea
electric power is that, as water depth increases, the size of hydraulic actuators (for a given
valve and operating pressure) also increases.
4.11.7. Conversion of Linear to Rotary Motion
There are three current ways of doing this:
 Use of a scotch yoke mechanism. This device has an output torque/travel
characteristic that closely mirrors the resistive torque characteristic of a ball valve and,
for this reason along with its economy, it has been widely used. There is always a
potential side load on the valve stem and it is important to establish how this is dealt
with in the design or stem seal failure may result. The general standard of engineering
and material selection within the mechanism is also critical since high contact and
sliding loads are generated. In this design the hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders are
usually disposed parallel to the pipe axis.
 Use of a “helical spline”. This was a unique feature of the “Dantorque” design and may
be likened to the mechanism of a child’s spinning top but alternative designs now
exist. Effectively the piston rod slides down a number of parallel inclined planes to
generate rotation of the mating female component which is connected to the output
shaft. Because of the number of “splines” individual contact forces appear to be well
within the capacity of the materials used. An unusual feature of this design is that, in
some versions, the whole of the housing is pressurised, increasing the potential for
leakage. Very compact with the cylinder disposed perpendicular to the pipe axis.
 Use of helical grooves in a cylinder. This is a unique feature of the ATC design. It
operates in the same way as the helical spline above but uses a conversion mechanism
similar to the scotch yoke. It is a relatively novel design and claims great flexibility and
compactness. The cylinder is disposed perpendicular to the pipe axis.
4.12. Fire Safety
4.12.1. General
a. Soft seated valves (e.g. ball, plug and butterfly valves), or valves incorporating soft seals,
that are used in hazardous areas where they could be subjected to fire shall be of a fire
type tested design.
Valves incorporating soft seals usually require additional graphite “fire seals”.
b. Metal seated valves containing elastomer or polymer seat to body seals, stem seals, etc.
that are used in hazardous areas in which they could be subjected to fire should be of a
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fire type tested design and may be qualified by a test on a comparable soft seated valve
where other seals and materials are the same.
Metal seated valves containing no elastomer or polymer materials are usually assumed to
be fire resistant by inspection.
c. Valves required to be operated during a fire shall be capable of remote operation from
outside the fire risk area. The complete valve assembly including motor, actuator and
cabling shall be fire protected e.g. by the application of intumescent coatings or physical
shielding.
4.12.2. Fire Type Testing
a. Valve designs having soft (elastomer or polymer) seating components or that incorporate
soft body seals, stem seals, or seat to body seals should be subject to fire type testing in
accordance with ISO 10497 and provided with appropriate certification demonstrating
applicability of the tests to the valves being offered. If valve designs have been type
tested before 2005, testing in accordance with BS 6755 Part 2, ISO 10423 (API 6A), and
API Std 607 Issue 3 is acceptable.
API 607 Issue 4 allows qualification of a smaller valve by a test on a larger valve which is
not safe. If a manufacturer can show that he has not relied on this qualification rule,
testing to API 607 Issue 4 is acceptable.
b. A type test on a soft seated valve may be used to qualify a metal seated valve having the
same seat to body seals, stem seals and body seals.
c. If a valve incorporates no soft seals or other parts that could be affected by a fire it may
be considered to be “fire safe” and does not usually require a fire type test.
d. Fire type tests should be conducted by or witnessed by an independent agency.
Sleeved plug valves are capable of passing only the external leakage test. Lined valves and
diaphragm valves cannot pass either test.
4.12.3. Fire Type Test Standards
All fire type test standards expose valves to a simulated fire of a limited duration (usually
30 minutes) that is considered to provide adequate time for depressurizing and evacuating a
piping system in the event of a real fire. Both through‐valve seat leakage and external leakage
are measured. However, it is important to realise the limitations of such comparative test
standards that cannot take into account all the possible fire scenarios or durations.
New fire type tests should be conducted in accordance with ISO 10497.
Fire type test standards are being reduced from a multiplicity of documents and requirements
into just one that should be universally specified. This is EN ISO 10497 which incorporates
requirements appropriate to low pressure valves used in land based refinery and chemical
plants as well as the higher pressure valves common in oil and gas production. All EU countries
and API (refining) have agreed to adopt this standard. For some time it will be necessary to
accept existing test certification relating to e.g. API 607, API 6FA, BS 6755 Pt 2. Since most of
these standards incorporated comparable requirements this should not be a problem.
Nearly all fire type test standards work on the principal that a test on a smaller valve can
qualify a larger valve because the latter represents a greater heat sink and therefore seals etc.
would remain cooler than in the former during a test.
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It is important to ensure that detail designs and materials of seals in the valve being purchased
are genuinely qualified by the type tested items and materials. Valves should be certified "fire
safe" for flow in both directions.
4.12.4. Materials
a. If fire is a possibility, the following materials should not be used for valve components in
flammable or toxic service or if integrity must be maintained during a fire (e.g. fire water):
1. Cast, malleable, wrought, or nodular iron.
2. Brittle materials or low melting point materials such as aluminium, brass, or plastics
except that composite valves which have passed a fire type test may be used in
appropriate applications (e.g. water systems).
Plastic linings and seals should only be used in fire hazardous areas if the nature of the
fluid prohibits the use of fire resistant materials.
b. Low melting point alloy valves such as brass or bronze should not be used for services in
which failure of the valve in a fire would prevent flow to any process pump, steam
header, or emergency steam line.
4.13. Relief of Cavity Overpressure
a. If liquids (or other fluids having a high thermal capacity) are trapped in a valve body cavity
and are subject to heating from a fire or from e.g. steam accessing a closed branch, there
is a potential for extremely high pressures to be generated and some means of relieving
such overpressure should be provided.
Standard trunnion mounted ball valves, slab gate valves, and most ball valves with
floating seats normally offer automatic relief of cavity overpressure via the seats into the
pipe.
Some ball valves (e.g. where both seats are double piston type), expanding plug valves,
split wedge gate valves, expanding parallel gate valves and parallel slide gate valves are
not self‐relieving and an external overpressure relief arrangement such as an equalising
pipe or a relief valve must be provided.. Some of these designs may have a body cavity
which is sealed in both the open and closed positions.
b. Relief valves should be set, certified, and connected to the body cavity via a (locked open)
block valve (to facilitate testing of the relief valve). Set pressure should be between 1,1
and 1,3 times the main valve pressure rating at operating temperature.
4.14. Valve Leak Detection in Service
4.14.1. General
It is frequently necessary to identify leaking valves, examples are:
 Identification of losses to flare through leaking relief valves/blow down valves/vents.
 Maintenance planning – identification of leaking valves prior to shut down.
 Monitoring and assurance of the seat sealing integrity of emergency shutdown valves
(ESDV) and HIPPS valves.
 Assurance of the leak tightness of isolation valves before starting equipment
maintenance.
 Troubleshooting – identification of leaking valves on systems.
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 There are two principal methods of valve leak detection:
 Physical measurement of valve leakage.
 Leak detection using acoustic emission.
4.14.2. Physical Measurement of Valve Leakage
This is recommended to establish leakage of critical valves on new plant and for periodic
checks in which the acoustic technique is used (see below). Leakage can be identified by
isolating the pipework and monitoring pressure decay from or pressure rise of a known closed
volume over time.
This technique requires that the piping system has the necessary valves available to enable
isolation of pipework and that these do not themselves leak. It is relatively time consuming.
For some valves (e.g. HIPPS valves) there may be a statutory requirement for periodic valve
leakage measurements to be taken and system design should provide for physical readings to
be carried out.
4.14.3. Leak Detection Using Acoustic Emission
This is recommended for use if an initial physical measurement of leakage has been made and
for monitoring leakage trends.
The technique detects high frequency (ultrasonic) acoustic signals generated by fluid leaking
across the valve seat. It is particularly suited to the detection of gas leakage, but can also be
used with liquid.
Acoustic leak detection is a non‐intrusive technique using light, portable, intrinsically safe,
battery operated equipment. It is very quick to perform.
Readings can be taken from a valve in about one minute and an estimate of leak rate made.
Typical accuracy is 50% to 200% of the actual leak rate, i.e. “order of magnitude”.
4.14.4. Comparison of Techniques
It is recommended that, ideally, initial acoustic emission readings should be taken in
conjunction with a pressure decay type test under controlled conditions to provide a basis for
future comparison.
Acoustic leak testing is less accurate (order of magnitude) than, but extremely quick in
comparison to, physical leakage measurements and is very useful for establishing trends.
4.14.5. Acceptable Leak Rates
Acceptable leak rates vary widely. For a HIPPS valve protecting a small volume on liquid service
a high degree of closure tightness is necessary whilst a similar system protecting a long gas
pipeline has much greater tolerance of through seat leakage. In the case of emergency shut‐
down valves protecting facilities, it is often possible to tolerate a significant through seat
leakage that is usually limited only by the need to limit the hazard (e.g. fire) to the magnitude
assumed in the safety case.
For valves leaking to flare, environmental and economic considerations, based on the cost of
lost product and the cost of intervention, should be assessed to determine acceptable leak
rates.
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4.15. Non Destructive Examination (NDE)
4.15.1. General
a. The decision about whether or not to apply non‐destructive testing to valve materials and
finished parts should be based on a criticality approach taking into account the:
1. Working pressure and temperature.
2. Size of the valve.
3. Nature of the hazard presented by the working fluid (toxic/gas/liquid/flammable
etc.).
4. Method of manufacture (cast, forged, etc.).
5. Quality history of the manufacturer (if known).
6. Location (land, offshore, subsea).
7. Function of the valve.
8. Consequence of failure.
b. The choice of tests and acceptance standards should be aimed at ensuring integrity
without presenting the manufacturer with insuperable obstacles.
4.15.2. Test Recommendations
a. The test recommendations in Table 5 and Table 6 relate to three Quality Levels (QL3
(basic), QL2 and QL1) of increasing severity and appropriate testing/acceptance standards
are included in the valve supplier documents. It is intended that the Quality Level be
specified by the purchaser.
Table 5 – NDE Requirements
NDT of Materials/Components Forgings and HIPings Casting Plate

QL1 QL2 QL3 QL1 QL2 QL3 All
Visual examination Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Radiography or U/T of critical areas of pressure containing parts Y (1)
Radiography or U/T of entire pressure containing parts Y Y
Magnetic particle inspection of machined surfaces of pressure Y Y Y Y Y
containing parts (2)
Magnetic particle inspection of entire surface of pressure containing Y Y Y Y (1)
parts (2)
Radiography or U/T of weld ends (including 50 mm (2 in) from the Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
end)
Magnetic particle inspection of the surface of weld end (2) Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Liquid penetrant inspection of weld deposited overlay Y Y Y Y Y
Magnetic particle inspection of the machined surfaces of wetted Y Y Y Y Y
parts, including seats and obturator
Magnetic particle inspection of drive train components (3) Y Y Y
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NDT of Materials/Components Forgings and HIPings Casting Plate

QL1 QL2 QL3 QL1 QL2 QL3 All
(1) Critical sections as determined by 100% examination of a prototype*. Minimum as defined by ASME B16.34. If quantity of
any unique item exceeds 5, inspection may be of 20% selected at random. In the event of any failures, entire batch shall be
examined.
(2) Dye penetrant on non magnetic materials
(3) For the purposes of NDE valve stems shall be considered as part of the drive train, not the pressure containing boundary.
*Reliance solely on the ASME B16.34 defined critical areas is not recommended since
foundries can arrange the process such that these areas are defect free at the expense of
other parts of the casting.
Table 6 – NDE of Weldments
NDE of Weldments Quality Level
QL1 QL2 QL3
Visual Examination Y Y Y
Radiography or U/T of full penetration welds Y Y Y
Magnetic Particle Inspection of full penetration welds Y Y Y
Magnetic Particle Inspection of fillet and attachment welds Y Y
b. As a minimum, cast valves should be visually examined in accordance with MSS SP‐55.
4.15.3. Test Methods
a. If surface examination is being specified, magnetic particle examination in two mutually
perpendicular directions should be applied to ferro‐magnetic materials in preference to
liquid penetrant techniques except if access makes this impossible. The dry powder
method should not be used.
When selecting acceptance standards it should be noted that some of those to be found
in commonly used standards (e.g. ASME B16.34) permit linear defects that would be
unacceptably large in situations where the depth of the defect cannot be ascertained and
shown to be innocuous.
b. If volumetric examination is specified, radiography should normally be applied to carbon
and alloy steel castings and also to austenitic and duplex castings and forgings whilst
ultrasonic testing is preferred for carbon and alloy steel forgings, bar, plate, and hot
isostatic pressings (HIPings).
c. Full penetration welds should always be subject to volumetric examination by ultrasonics
or radiography along with visual and surface examination. Fillet welds should be subject
to at least a visual examination and, preferably, surface examination also.
d. Some defects are not always easily detected by conventional NDE (e.g. micro porosity
that has been noted in superduplex castings) and consideration should be given to
alternatives (e.g. a low pressure air test under water).
e. The commercial aspects of any decision should be borne in mind e.g. if radiography of
“critical sections” is specified, foundry methods are sometimes adjusted to ensure that
these areas are sound to the detriment of other areas of the casting. Sample testing to
100% coverage should be considered as potentially more productive.
4.16. Welding
a. Welding, cladding, or weld repair undertaken on pressure boundary parts (including seal
welding) should be performed by qualified welders and in accordance with a qualified
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procedure. Welding Procedure Specifications (WPS) and Procedure Qualification Records
(PQR) should be furnished for review and approval.
b. If material specifications are not included in the ASME BPVC, Sec IX Table of “P” numbers,
qualification tests should be conducted for each unique material specification.
c. If sour service is specified, the PQR should also meet the additional requirements of
ISO 15156 (or NACE MR0103 as specified) and should include hardness checks. For fillet
welds that are qualified by butt welds, the hardness survey should be performed on a
sample of the actual fillet weld.
d. The PQR for hard facing should include a hardness survey and finished surface chemical
analysis check.
e. Structural welds in pressure boundary parts should be full penetration butt welds with
pre and post weld heat treatment performed as required by the material specification.
f. If duplex stainless steel materials are to be welded, the procedure qualification should
include a metallographic examination in accordance with ASTM E562 to demonstrate that
the ferrite content is between 35% and 65% and that the microstructure contains no
grain boundary carbides and is free of undesirable intermetallic phases.
4.17. Weldment and Casting Repair
a. Repair of structural welds should be in accordance with the requirements of the piping
design code (ASME B31.3, B31.1 etc.) including any limitations on imperfections in
repairs. Repair of castings for commodity valves should be in accordance with the
materials specification. Weld repairs should be mapped.
b. For more critical applications limits should be placed on the extent of repair and castings
containing through wall defects should normally be considered unacceptable for the most
critical applications. Minor defects that do not impinge on the minimum required wall
thickness may be ground out and blended into the adjoining surface. Body castings shall
not be repaired by peening or impregnation.
c. Repairs to carbon steel castings should be post weld heat treated except if excavations
are shallow. Repaired austenitic or duplex stainless steel castings should be solution
annealed and water quenched.
d. Castings that leak through the body of the casting during hydrostatic or gas testing should
normally be rejected and no repairs allowed.
4.18. Electrical Isolation and Continuity
4.18.1. Isolation
The actuators of valves that are cathodically protected (e.g. buried valves) should usually be
isolated.
Electrical isolation of valve flanges may be necessary when mating with other valves or pipe
flanges of dissimilar materials.
4.18.2. Continuity
Valves that are cathodically protected should have electrical continuity between metallic parts
Electrical continuity and earthing (grounding) may be required in fully lined piping systems in
which static discharge can be a problem (e.g. if gasses are flowing at high velocities or if liquid
droplets, solid particles, or low conductivity liquids are present).
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4.19. European Pressure Equipment Directive
a. The European Pressure Equipment Directive (PED) applies to valves that are intended for
use in the countries of the European Economic Area (EEA) and their territorial waters,
regardless of the country of origin. Such valves should be certified as meeting the
relevant essential requirements of the directive and be CE marked as appropriate. The
PED does not apply to valves procured within the EEA but intended for use elsewhere.
b. There are two important exclusions affecting valves, to which the PED does not apply:
1. Valves associated with well control equipment upstream of and including the
production manifold of an oil or gas production facility.
2. Valves that are part of a pipeline.
Valves used in conventional subsea production facilities and transmission pipelines are
covered by these exclusions.
c. Valves associated with subsea processing facilities that may be interposed between the
Xmas tree and manifold or between the manifold and pipeline will have to be shown to
meet the essential requirements of the PED.
d. Purchase orders, etc. should require that the PED Category be marked on the nameplate
and the Declaration of Conformity.
There is an important omission in the PED marking requirements that affects valves.
Although the conformity assessment module is required to be marked on the valve, this
does not define the limitations of use so it is necessary to also mark on the category
which does define potential usage (e.g. of stock valves).
5. Valve Type Selection
5.1. Introduction
a. This clause considers the factors involved in valve selection and also provides a means of
determining the most suitable type (or types) of block and check valves for a particular
application given basic information about the service conditions.
b. A selection chart is provided which, in its spreadsheet form, speedily identifies
appropriate valve types for a given set of selected operating conditions.
c. Valve manufacturers should always be asked to confirm suitability of a particular type for
the required service and specialist advice should be sought in the more complicated
cases.
5.2. Factors Affecting Selection
Valve type selection should take account of:
a. Required function.
b. Service conditions.
c. Fluid type and condition.
d. Fluid characteristics.
e. Frequency of operation.
f. Isolation requirements.
g. Maintenance requirements.
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h. Environmental considerations.
i. Past experience in comparable conditions.
j. Weight and size.
k. Cost.
5.2.2. Required Function
Clause 7 describes the characteristics of different isolation and check valve types.
5.2.3. Service Conditions
If the service is defined as hazardous, cast iron, copper alloy, or plastic valves should not be
used.
Pressure and temperature (maximum and minimum) have a major effect on valve choice.
Valves containing elastomer or polymer parts are not normally useable above 200°C (390°F)
and some valve types are not useful at high pressure. Clause 10 deals with materials used in
valves.
5.2.4. Fluid Type and Condition
The nature of the working fluid (and, if appropriate, test and dosing fluids) i.e. whether it is a
liquid, gas, multi‐phase, slurry, etc. and whether it is clean or dirty affect valve type selection.
Dry gas and solvents such as methanol and methylated spirit tend to remove all traces of
lubricant from valve parts so that, when operated “dry”, operating forces may need to be 2 or
3 times those required in the “lubricated” condition. Steam service usually excludes valves
which incorporate polymer or elastomer seals etc. Abrasive particles such as catalyst fines or
sand cause wear in the moving parts of valves and, sometimes, erosion of parts in the flow
path so only valve types incorporating very hard (or, sometimes, very soft) trim materials are
useful.
5.2.5. Fluid Characteristics
Very viscous fluids and solidifying fluids often require valves to be fitted with trace heating or
steam jackets. Solidifying product may also necessitate a steam purge facility. Scaling service
provides a most difficult environment for valves and designs which employ self cleaning
features (such as a scraping action) are usually best suited. Clause 6 describes the
characteristics of commonly encountered service conditions.
5.2.6. Frequency of Operation
Selection of valves which are frequently operated should take into account the fact that shut
off capability is likely to deteriorate and the fitting of another valve (normally open) in series
may be necessary to ensure adequate isolation.
Most isolation valves are not operated frequently although some may be (valves on
regenerative processes, diverter service, etc.). If operation is infrequent there is likely to be an
increase in the required operating force with time.
5.2.7. Isolation Requirements
Very few valve types can maintain completely tight shut‐off over a significant period of
operation and this number is reduced still further if the working fluid is gas or if it contains
abrasive particles. This should be taken into account in selection (e.g. some valve types offer a
double isolation in a single body) and in system design (multiple valves, provision of
adequately sized venting facilities, etc.
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The need for intervention in a “live” system determines the seat leak tightness requirements
for valves isolating equipment. Shut down valves are rarely required to shut off tight and is
often acceptable with a significant through seat leak rate. Check valves rarely if ever shut off
tight and should be assumed not to do so in process design.
5.2.8. Maintenance Requirements
The location and available facilities etc. affects the possibility for valve maintenance and
therefore affects valve choice. Clause 4 considers the effect of maintenance philosophy on
valve type.
5.2.9. Environmental Considerations
The required degree of control of emissions to the environment is usually determined by the
nature (flammability, toxicity, searching tendency) of the process fluid or by the sensitivity of
the environment (marine, etc.). Valve stem seals are the most frequent source of emissions. In
general, valves having rotary, quarter turn operation are inherently less prone to emissions
than those with rising stems and the fewer flanged etc. joints a valve incorporates, the better.
Clause 4 deals more fully with this topic.
5.2.10. Past Experience
This should always be taken into account (good and bad) as it relates to comparable service
conditions. Sometimes, however, local expectations are conditioned by a lack of knowledge of
available alternatives.
5.2.11. Weight and Size
These factors should not be allowed to determine valve type if they do not represent a
constraint e.g. in new, onshore construction. In some applications, though, it is necessary to
try to minimise one or both.
5.2.12. Cost
Whole life cost should be considered, not just the purchase price.
Higher priced valve options frequently turn out to be cheaper on this basis, particularly if
unscheduled plant shut‐down can be avoided.
5.3. Selection Charts
a. The tables at the end of this clause are intended to assist with the selection of block and
check valve types for the more common service requirements. They provide guidance
only and users should ascertain that the service conditions are within valve
manufacturer’s recommendations for any particular valve type.
b. If a variety of valve types appear to be suitable, the user should consider past experience
for the service and additional factors which affect valve choice such as speed of
operation, availability, and the factors listed in 5.2 above which are not considered in the
tables.
The less onerous the service conditions, the wider the choice of possible valve types.
c. If any required box is blank the valve type should be discounted from consideration.
d. Further assistance can be obtained from more detailed information given elsewhere in
this guidance. In the more difficult cases specialist advice should be sought.
The charts assume that materials are chosen to be compatible with the working fluid, test
fluids, and dosing fluids.
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6. Service Description
6.1. General
a. The characteristics and condition of the process fluid shall be carefully defined.
The characteristics and condition of the process fluid are often the most significant
factors in selecting the correct type of valve e.g. clean fluids generally permit a wide
choice of valve types, whereas for dirty or abrasive fluids the choice is restricted;
hazardous (flammable, toxic) and searching fluids require special consideration to be
given to stem, body, and seat seals.
b. A fluid’s characteristics may fit one or more categories of service.
6.2. Clean Service
a. Clean service is a term used to identify fluids free from solids or contaminants.
b. Clean fluids include instrument air, nitrogen and other manufactured gases, potable and
demineralised water, steam, lube oil, diesel oil, methanol, and most dosing and injection
chemicals. Valves for fluids such as oxygen, hydrogen peroxide, and sometimes treated
water or lube oil require special attention to cleanliness of the valve. Valves for potable
water must meet local regulations.
c. Process fluids may be defined as clean depending on which part of the process is being
considered e.g. dry hydrocarbon gas downstream of scrubbers and dryers.
Clean services are generally less damaging to valves resulting in long term performance
and reliability. Selection from a wide range of valve types is possible for most applications
allowing greater freedom of choice.
d. If the fluid service is basically clean, attention should be given to protecting valves during
construction and during flushing operations which are unlikely to be clean. This may
require the temporary replacement of valves by spool pieces. Alternatively select a valve
type that is suitable for dirty service.
6.3. Dirty Service
6.3.1. General
Dirty service is a general term used to identify fluids with suspended solids that may seriously
impair the performance of valves unless the correct type is selected.
a. This type of service is often of major significance since many valves are very sensitive to
the presence of solids.
b. Dirty service may be further classified as generally abrasive or sandy.
6.3.2. Generally Abrasive Service
a. Generally abrasive service is a term used to identify the presence of abrasive particulate
in piping systems including pipe rust, scale, welding slag, sand, catalyst fines and grit.
These materials can damage seating surfaces and clog working clearances in valves
resulting in excessive operating force, sticking, jamming, and through seat leakage. Such
damage may be caused by particulate for quite low concentrations and of a size as low as
10 microns.
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Abrasive conditions are commonly found during construction, flushing, and line clearing
operations.
b. If abrasive conditions are likely to persist during normal operation, a valve suitable for
dirty services should be selected.
Typical conditions include naturally occurring particulate in the process fluid e.g. sand
from production wells, catalyst from FCCUs and corrosion products from pipe surfaces
that could be caused by e.g. a change in the nature of the fluid, the injection of dosing
chemicals or the release of pipe scale following drying out of the piping system in gas
service.
6.3.3. Sandy Service
a. Sandy service is a term identifying severe abrasive and erosive conditions occurring in oil
and gas production in which formation sand is carried through from the well. Sand
particle sizes are typically 50 micron to 450 micron and relatively low concentrations can
result in wear and jamming of inappropriately selected valves.
b. Severe erosion of valve trims and bodies may occur if pressure drop and velocity is high
(e.g. in chokes and separator level control valves). In the case of block valves, damage is
usually as a result of abrasion (wear of seat inserts, bearings, etc.) Soft seated ball valves
shall not be used in this service. Note that, in some cases, very fine sand can be carried
right through the process to oil export and that produced water systems almost always
contain sand.
c. Isolating valves intended for this service should ideally be type test qualified by a sand
slurry test such as those specified by ISO 10432 (API 14A).
6.4. Fouling/Scaling Service
Fouling or scaling services are general terms used to identify liquids or elements of liquids that
form a deposit on surfaces. Such deposits may vary widely in nature, with varying hardness,
strength of adhesion and rates of build‐up.
a. Components for valves in fouling or scaling service shall be selected to resist fouling or
scale build‐up.
This is particularly important if thick, hard, strongly adhesive coatings occur. Flexible
surfaces and components (e.g. rubber) can be effective in some cases. Valves which
employ a sliding/scraping action between obturator and seat may also be suitable.
b. Chemical injection, heat tracing, steam jacketing, or steam purging should be considered
to mitigate scaling tendency in this service.
6.5. Slurry Service
a. Slurry service is a general term used to define liquids with substantial solids in
suspension. Often the product is the solid and the fluid is primarily the means of
transportation, e.g. coal slurries and catalyst services.
Slurries vary widely in nature and concentration of solids. Hard abrasive solids of high
concentration can cause severe abrasion, erosion, and clogging of components. Soft, non‐
abrasive solids can cause clogging of components. In certain chemical processes
polymerization may block the cavities preventing valve operation.
b. Careful consideration should be given to valve designs for slurry services.
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6.6. Solids
Solids may be present in the form of hard granules, crystals, soft fibres, or powders. The
transporting media may be liquid or gas. Air or fluidised bed systems may be used for some
particulates. Specialised valves are available for many of these services, but development work
may sometimes be necessary.
6.7. Hazardous Service
The term ‘hazardous service’ can usually be assumed to include the following, any of which
may exist in combination with other services listed above.
Specific classification of fluids for the purposes of health and safety legislation requires
specialist advice. This information is often provided on the fluid data sheet.
a. Liquids above their auto‐ignition temperature (AIT), or 210ºC if the AIT is not known.
b. Flammable liquids flashing on leakage to form a substantial vapour cloud. This includes
LPG, LNG and NGL condensate.
c. Flammable fluids at Class 900 rating and above (e.g. hydrocarbon gas).
d. Fluids liable to cause a hazard by blockage due to hydrate formation, solids deposition, or
coking.
e. Toxic substances (e.g. chlorine, hydrofluoric acid, hydrogen sulphide, sodium hydroxide,
etc.).
f. Hydrogen service ‐ defined as service in contact with hydrogen or gaseous mixtures
containing hydrogen in which the partial pressure of hydrogen is 5 bar (abs), (72,5 psia) or
more.
g. Highly corrosive fluids such as acids and caustic alkalis.
6.8. Searching Service
a. Fluids with a high propensity for leakage that require special attention in valve design and
manufacture to prevent leakage through pressure containing components, seats, and
seals.
b. Includes gasses of low molecular weight such as hydrogen and helium and liquids of low
viscosity such as Dowtherm.
Hydrogen and helium are capable of passing through polymer and elastomer materials
used in seals (e.g. PTFE) because of the natural permeability of such materials.
6.9. Solidifying Service
Solidifying service is a general term used to identify fluids that change from liquid to solid
unless maintained at the correct conditions of temperature, pressure, and flow. It is a term
generally associated with fluids such as liquid sulphur and phthalic anhydride in which valves
of steam jacketed design may be required or heavy fuel oil in which valves often require heat
tracing to maintain temperature and operability.
6.10. Corrosive Service
a. Corrosive service is a term generally used to identify fluids containing corrosive
constituents that, depending on concentration, pressure, and temperature, may cause
corrosion of metallic components. Corrosive fluids include sulphuric acid, acetic acid,
hydrofluoric acid (HFA), wet acid gas (wet CO2), wet sour gas (wet H2S), and chlorides (e.g.
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seawater). Many chemicals are highly corrosive including concentrations of some
corrosion inhibitors.
b. Corrosion resistant materials or overlays for valve pressure containing components and
trim should be chosen to prevent the integrity or performance of the valve from being
impaired.
Valves are usually manufactured to standard patterns so specifying a particular corrosion
allowance in carbon steel is often not an option. Most valves will have ceased to function
correctly long before the corrosion allowance commonly specified for piping systems has
been used up.
c. The judicious use of overlays (e.g. in the seat pockets and seal surfaces of trunnion
mounted ball valves and slab gate valves) is recommended and can be extremely
economical and effective even if the service conditions are not normally corrosive.
Corrosive conditions may exist before the valve enters a nominally non‐corrosive service,
e.g. if untreated test water is left inside.
d. The following types of corrosion should be considered when selecting valve materials and
designs:
1. Corrosion resulting in general wastage (typical with wet CO2).
2. Crevice corrosion.
3. Galvanic corrosion between dissimilar materials.
4. Pitting corrosion.
5. Sulphide tress corrosion cracking (e.g. of components in wet H2S) and chloride stress
corrosion cracking (depending on concentration, pressure, and temperature).
e. Materials for sour (H2S) service shall conform to ISO 15156 (NACE MR0175) or, if specified
for refinery service, NACE MR0103.
6.11. Viscous Service
a. Viscous service is a term that generally identifies a wide range of fluids with pronounced
thickness and adhesive properties. Fluids include high viscosity oils (lube and heavy fuel
oil) and non‐Newtonian fluids such as waxy crude, gels and pastes. Valve operating
forces/torques may be increased.
b. Special attention should be given to check valves in which sluggish response may cause
operating difficulties and even hazardous conditions.
6.12. Vacuum Service
Vacuum service is a term used to identify systems in which the pressure is permanently or
intermittently below atmospheric.
a. Valves in vacuum service should be capable of sealing in both directions with regard to
glands, body joints, etc.
b. Systems that have the potential to create an unwanted vacuum (e.g. condensing vapours,
tanks, etc.) should normally be fitted with a vacuum breaker valve that admits air
automatically whenever a vacuum occurs.
6.13. High Temperature Service
This is a relative term with different definitions in different contexts.
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a. Temperatures between 120°C and 200°C (248°F and 392°F) (High temperature in
exploration and production applications). Care should be taken in the selection of
polymer and elastomer seals and seats particularly towards the high temperature end of
the range in which most grades are unusable and where valve pressure ratings may be
reduced. 200°C (392°F) is the effective limit of PTFE.
b. Temperatures above 200°C (392°F) and below 400°C (752°F). The only polymer or
elastomer materials that can be used are PEEK and Kalrez and then only at the lower end
of the range. Valve seat sealing should normally be hard faced metal to metal and
graphite stem etc. seals are the norm.
c. Temperatures above 400°C (752°F). For high temperature (generally above 400°C (752°F))
e.g. power station steam services, creep resisting steels must be chosen e.g. 2 ¼% Cr
1% Mo or ½% Cr, ½% Mo, ¼% V. Seats and disks require hard facing with alloys of cobalt,
chromium, and tungsten and a difference between the hardness of the disk and seat is
recommended to avoid galling. Stem seals are normally graphite except in situations in
which this is likely to oxydise (at temperatures above 450°C (842°F) if there is access to air
or oxygen.
6.14. Low Temperature Service (0°C to –50°C (32°F to –58°F))
6.14.1. Impact Testing
a. At temperatures between 0°C and –29°C (32°F and –20°F) consideration should be given
to charpy impact testing ferritic, martensitic, and duplex alloys in order to demonstrate
adequate toughness at the minimum design temperature or below. At temperatures
below
–29°C (–20°F) these materials should always be tested.
The piping design code, ASME B31.3, allows untested carbon and alloy steels to be used
down to –29°C (–20°F) and, historically, there have been no problems arising from this.
The following points should be considered when making a decision:
1. Will the plant be depressurized/shut‐down or at operating pressure when the low
temperature occurs?
2. Is the source of raw materials for pressure boundary parts one which has historically
been shown to be able to provide non‐brittle materials without testing?
b. Impact testing should always form part of welding procedure qualifications if impact
testing of the material to be joined is required or, for ferritic and duplex materials, if the
minimum design temperature is below 0°C (32°F).
c. If valves will be put into service in the EEA the particular requirements of the European
Pressure Equipment Directive regarding demonstration of adequate toughness must be
met.
EN material grades for pressure parts incorporate impact testing as a standard
requirement.
d. The following is a guide to the minimum Charpy V‐notch impact energy values that should
be expected from carbon and alloy steel material:
1. Average (Joules) = [min. specified yield (or 0,2% proof) strength (MN/m2)/10].
2. Individual (Joules) = 0,75 x Average.
e. If materials are to be welded the average impact energy value should be increased by
10 Joules
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f. Most non‐ferrous materials such as copper, copper alloys, aluminium, and nickel alloys
may be used for low temperature service and need not be tested. 2 ½% nickel steels may
be used down to –57°C (–71°F), lower temperatures being obtained with increased nickel
content
g. Austenitic stainless steels retain acceptable properties even under cryogenic conditions
and need not be tested.
h. Duplex stainless steels generally exhibit relatively high toughness and the following
minimum impact energy values are recommended.
1. Average = 60 Joules (43 ft‐lb).
2. Minimum = 50 Joules (36 ft‐lb).
6.14.2. Cast Iron
Cast iron should not normally be used for low temperature service. If this is unavoidable (e.g.
gearbox cases at low ambient temperature) only nodular (SG) grades of iron should be used
which incorporate impact testing in the material specification.
6.14.3. Elastomers
a. The practice of specifying a minimum system design temperature equal to the impact test
temperature of the piping material, frequently adopted by process engineers, should be
avoided. The object should be to specify the highest minimum temperature consistent
with safe operation.
Definition of valve minimum design temperatures needs the maximum possible
refinement when elastomer sealing materials are involved, including consideration of
whether the condition is transient (which usually does not affect the seals) or long term.
b. When a choice has to be made between explosive decompression resistance and low
temperature resistance in gas service it is usually safest to go for decompression
resistance except if low temperatures are persistent or permanent.
Elastomer sealing materials present a particular problem at low temperatures, especially
in gas service where selection is complicated by the need for resistance to explosive
decompression (e.d.).
6.15. Cryogenic Service (below –50°C (–58°F))
a. Valves for cryogenic applications should comply with and be type tested to BS 6364 or an
equivalent standard.
b. Carbon, low alloy, and duplex steels should not be used.
c. Non‐metallic materials should be restricted to PTFE and graphite
There are very few non‐metallic materials that can be used, PTFE and graphite being the
most common. The only elastomer that is usable below –50°C (–58°F) is silicone rubber
and this has poor mechanical properties.
d. Depending on the service fluid, valves should be degreased and assembled in clean
conditions.
See clause 8.5.
6.16. Anhydrous Ammonia Service
a. Copper and copper based materials should not be used in this service.
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b. Steels should have a maximum yield strength of 350 N/mm2 (36 ksi) (i.e. low strength
steel) and welds in steel components should be stress relieved.
6.17. Chloride Service
a. The chloride content of test water for stainless steel valves should be limited to 30 ppm ‐
lower if evaporation and concentration is likely – and pH should be controlled between 6
and 8,5. If it is known that the service temperature will not exceed 50°C (120°F) chloride
content may be increased to 200 ppm max.
Stainless steels may be susceptible to stress corrosion cracking in chloride containing
environments at temperatures above 50°C (120°F) depending on the concentration and
stress level. The chloride limit on test water is seldom a problem in practice –
manufacturers in soft water areas easily meet it using tap water and manufacturers in
hard water areas would not meet even a much higher limit without use of water
treatment.
b. Austenitic and martensitic stainless steel in seawater service should be cathodically
protected.
6.18. Sour (wet H2S) Service
a. This service can cause sulphide stress corrosion cracking of metallic materials, particularly
if surface hardness is not strictly limited. Materials for sour service shall comply with
ISO 15156 (NACE MR0175) or, if specified for refining service, NACE MR0103. This limits
the hardness of all steels, requires austenitic steels to be solution annealed, proscribes
the use of certain materials for pressure retaining boundary parts (including valve stems)
and provides special requirements for bolting, welding, etc.
Estimating the degree of sourness can be a complex process, particularly in the case of
gas‐oil mixtures.
b. ASTM A564/A564M, Grade 630 (17/4 PH) precipitation hardening stainless steel) should
not be specified or used for new valve stems or shafts. Valves with 17/4 PH SS stems
already in service or in stock may continue in use where experience has been good and
where it can be confirmed that the sourness of the service has not recently increased.
c. Valve body‐bonnet bolting need not meet the requirements of ISO/NACE in cases where
the material could not be subjected to pressurized process fluid. If any leakage of sour
product is not able to drain away or evaporate (e.g. insulated valves) bolting should be in
accordance with the standard.
The imposition of a hardness limitation also results in reduced strength. More or larger
bolts may be required.
6.19. Hydrogen Service
a. Carbon steel may be used for hydrogen service up to a maximum temperature of 230°C
(446°F). The material should be selected in accordance with API RP 941 (Nelson Curves).
The choice depends upon the mixture of free hydrogen and other fluids at particular
hydrogen partial pressures and temperature).
b. Particular attention should be paid to gland etc. sealing.
Because of the searching nature of hydrogen high integrity/low emission arrangements
will usually be necessary.
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6.20. Hydrofluoric Acid (HFA) Service
Valves should be restricted to those types which have been demonstrated in service or by test
to handle this service successfully. Generally, valve types which do not provide opportunities
for the accumulation of solid matter are preferred.
This service occurs in refinery alkylation plants. The substance is toxic (see above). If HFA
comes into contact with water and carbon steel a scale is formed (iron fluoride) which can
block pipes and valve cavities and adhere to the metallic sealing surfaces of valve gates and
seats. For this reason HFA alkylation service represents one of the most difficult for valves.
Since, in practice, it is often difficult to keep all water out of the system, sleeved plug valves
are frequently chosen for this service because they exclude the process fluid from the sealing
surfaces and have a plug cleaning/scraping action during operation. All alkylation processes are
operated under licence from the technology owners who place strict controls on
recommended valve vendors. This may limit the freedom of the operator to experiment with
alternatives.
6.21. Wet CO2 and Chlorine Service
When choosing materials for wet CO2 or wet chlorine service, specialist advice should be
sought.
Wet CO2 usually requires a fully corrosion resistant material. This can be achieved either by
using valves made from solid alloy or by cladding carbon steel with a layer of corrosion
resistant material.
6.22. Oxygen Service
a. For oxygen service, valves should be thoroughly degreased, cleaned, and assembled in
clean conditions.
b. Bronze or Monel body and trim materials are recommended to prevent sparking and
ignition as a result of high energy mechanical impact.
High energy shocks may occur in liquid oxygen systems dislodging debris from valve seats.
7. Valve Function and Description
7.1. Isolation (Block) Valves
7.1.1. General
a. Valves intended for starting and stopping flow or for isolation of equipment should
generally be selected to provide:
1. Low resistance to flow (low pressure drop) e.g. by means of a straight through flow
configuration which may also facilitate line clearing.
2. Bi‐directional sealing i.e. providing good shut off when the flow or pressure
differential is from either direction.
b. If flow is not necessary (e.g. isolation of instrument piping) valve types such as needle and
globe, having a high resistance to flow, may be used. These valve types may be used to
provide crude flow control. Such valves should not be used in fouling or solidifying
service.
The most common types of block valves include:
 Gate valves – wedge/parallel slab/parallel expanding/parallel slide.
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 Ball valves – floating ball/trunnion mounted; metal/soft seats.
 Butterfly valves – double or triple offset/rubber lined.
 Plug valves – lubricated balanced/sleeved, lined/expanding/lift.
 Diaphragm valves – weir/full flow/pinch.
 Globe valves – straight/angle/Y pattern/needle/piston/stop and check.
 All find application in process or utility service.
7.1.2. Isolation Efficiency
a. Soft seated valves should normally be selected only for clean service.
b. Hard metal seated valves should normally be selected if the service is other than clean.
Soft seated block valves, such as ball valves, lined plug valves, soft seated gate valves, and
butterfly valves can provide a good tight shut off on gas or liquid when new, but sealing
performance of some types may deteriorate rapidly in service which is other than clean.
Metal seated valves may also give tight shut off on liquid when new, but it is usually wise
to allow for a small amount of leakage on test and on gas service. Sealing efficiency in
service may vary with pressure, temperature, working fluid, etc., but sealing performance
of hard coated metal seated types do not usually deteriorate dramatically. For
dirty/abrasive service or high pressures/temperatures they are usually the only option.
Lined plug valves and some elastomer seated butterfly valves can also perform well in
dirty service, but triple offset butterfly valves having (relatively soft) metal seal rings
usually do not. Butterfly valves vary greatly in design with varying degrees of leak
tightness. Types having double or triple offset disk can provide good isolation capability.
However, since seat sealing faces are continuously exposed in the valve open position,
most types are vulnerable to damage from objects in the flow and this usually affects
shut‐off integrity.
Metal to metal lubricated taper plug valves have good isolation characteristics provided
that materials are selected to avoid corrosion and sealant is injected as per
manufacturer’s instructions, e.g. at plant turnarounds or after a number of operations.
Hard seated options are available for use in dirty/abrasive service.
c. For high temperature service (> 200°C (390°F)) only metal seated valves should be used.
d. For steam service, parallel slide valves are the preferred option in which high
temperature swings occur after valve closure, at battery limits, or as isolating valves in
which equipment or plant may be taken out of service. Wedge gate valves may be used as
an alternative for general isolation duty or if good, low pressure leak tightness is required.
Parallel slide valves close on position, not by application of force, so the load on the stem
does not increase when temperature changes occur after closure. Wedge gate valves can
be jammed further into the seat in such circumstances so that they become difficult to
open.
It is important to understand the difference between those valve types which shut off by
application of a high closing force/torque and those which shut off because the obturator
has achieved a particular position (see Table 7). In the latter case, increasing the shut‐off
torque does not affect sealing efficiency and may cause damage.
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Table 7 – Method to Achieve Valve Shut Off
Valve type Shut off by:
Torque/force Position
Gate (wedge, expanding) √
Gate (slab, parallel slide) √
Ball (floating and trunnion mounted) √
Ball (Orbit, Konosphera, Klyde) √
Butterfly √
Plug (sleeved, lubricated balanced) √
Plug (expanding and wedge (lift) type) √
Globe √
Diaphragm/Pinch √

7.1.3. Reduced Bore Valves
a. Reduced bore or venturi pattern valves should be selected when minimum weight, cost,
and operating time are required.
Pressure drop through the valve can be up to twice that of a full bore valve but is
generally negligible in relation to the whole piping system, particularly in gas or vapour
service.
b. The seat (throat) diameter of reduced bore valves should not be less than shown in
Table 8:
Table 8 – Minimum Bore Diameter of Reduced Bore Ball Valves
DN (NPS) < 80 (3) 80 to 300 (3 to 12) 350 to 600 (14 to24) > 600 (30)

Minimum bore By agreement One line size less than Two line sizes less than By agreement
DN (NPS) DN (NPS)

c. In addition, the seat (throat) diameter of reduced bore ball valves up to DN 400 (NPS 16)
should not be less than the value specified in ISO 17292 for single reduced bore valves.
Double reduced bore ball valves should not be used.
d. If reduced bore valves are used, the following additional criteria should be satisfied:
1. The increased pressure drop is considered in the design of the piping.
2. The reduced section modulus is considered in the piping flexibility design.
3. Not to be used in horizontal lines which are sloped for continuous draining.
4. Drains are installed at all additional low points caused by the installation of reduced
bore valves.
5. Not to be used in erosive applications such as sandy service, slurries, or fluidized
solids without an analysis of the effects of erosion.
6. Not to be used in severe fouling, solidifying, or coking services.
7. Not to be used in lines specified to be mechanically cleaned or “pigged”.
8. Not to be used as block valves associated with pressure relief devices and flare pipe
headers.
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7.1.4. Gate Valves
7.1.4.1. General
Gate valves are used for on/off operation on hydrocarbon, general process, and utilities
service for all temperature ranges. They have a straight through configuration.
Gate valve types are:
 Wedge.
 Expanding Parallel (internal wedge)*.
 Parallel Slab*.
 Parallel Slide+.
 Knife‐edge.
 * Usually provided as “through conduit” which offers an uninterrupted pipe bore
in the fully open position.
 + Also available in “through conduit” version.
a. Extended bonnets are available (and should be specified) for cryogenic service.
b. Gate valves should not be used:
1. In horizontal lines transporting heavy or abrasive slurries in which sediment may
become trapped in the pocket below the valve seat, preventing closure.
Reverse acting through conduit and knife‐edged types are unaffected by this.
2. For throttling duties as the valve is very inefficient at controlling flow.
Full flow persists until the valve is 80% closed and very high velocities can be
generated. Erosion of seats and gate, etc. may cause leakage.
7.1.4.2. Operating Arrangements
Hand operated gate valves usually have the following stem arrangements:
 Inside screw, non‐rising stem.
 Outside screw, rising stem.
a. An outside screw, rising stem valve should be the normal first choice as it is easier to
maintain, allowing access for lubrication of the thread. In marine environments the rising
stem and threads should be protected against corrosion.
b. If headroom is limited, an inside screw, non‐rising stem type valve may be specified. The
stem thread is within the body and is exposed to the line fluid.
c. Internal screw designs should not be specified:
1. If frequent operation is likely;
2. For horizontal pipes in which the valve stem is also horizontal;
3. For service having significant solids content;
4. For corrosive or searching fluids;
5. For dry gas service.
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d. For critical applications of internal screw designs, evidence of adequate cycle life in the
proposed operating conditions should be obtained.
e. Gear operated gate valves can take many handwheel turns to open/close and the vendor
should be asked to advise the number of turns required. If this would lead to
unacceptably long operating time, consideration should be given to the provision of a
pneumatic turning device or an electric motor actuator (see clause 4.11.
7.1.4.3. Wedge Gate Valve (See Figure 3)
Figure 3 – Wedge Gate Valve (Outside Screw)

This is the most common type of gate valve. Closure is obtained by driving a taper wedge gate
between two similar taper wedge seats.
Steel wedge gate valves are classified by wedge type: plain solid wedge, flexible solid wedge
(having a groove cut around the circumference, see Figure 4) and split wedge (two separate
halves). A flexible solid wedge may more easily accommodate misaligned seats and minimise
galling of sealing surfaces, but the degree of flexibility is extremely limited in small sizes. A
plain solid wedge may be more difficult to grind to an accurate fit. Seats are always fixed. Solid
and flexible wedge gate valves are good general service block valves offering a good sealing
capability with low pressure drop. A 100% shut‐off capability cannot always be relied upon
however, and slight leakage may occur with variations in temperature and pressure after being
in service for some time.
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Figure 4 – Flexible Wedge

a. Standard steel wedge gate valves should normally be specified with outside screw and
yoke, rising stem, non‐rising handwheel, and bolted bonnet.
b. Valves less than DN 50 (NPS 2) should normally have solid wedges and larger valves for
general service should normally have flexible wedges. Split wedges should be reserved for
steam applications in which good low differential pressure sealing is required and
comparable applications in which a parallel slide valve cannot be used.
Wedge gate valves are prone to ‘thermal wedging’ when subjected to temperature
changes after closure resulting in high “break‐out” forces. In these and similar conditions,
where the valve body may deform following a change in process conditions, a split wedge
type valve may be preferred. The two‐piece gate can adjust to changes in seat angle thus
maintaining a better seal. Break‐out forces are equally high, however.
c. Split wedge gate valves in liquid or condensing service which are used in situations in
which heat (process, fire, etc.) may be applied to a closed valve should be provided with a
means of relieving pressure built up in the body cavity. If this involves making the valve
uni‐directional, the flow direction shall be clearly marked.
The same problem could theoretically occur with solid or split wedge gate valves, but, in
this case, distortion of the body at high pressure usually causes venting to occur across
the seats and into the pipe.
d. Services with abrasive particles or applications in which wire drawing is possible require
hard faced wedges and seats.
Wedge gate valves may have seating problems on dirty service due to material collecting
on seats or in the body cavity of the valve, but may offer a better life on such service than
soft seated ball valves. Slab gate types are a better choice for such services because the
gate cleans the seat and there is less chance of solids entering body cavities.
Some special rubber seated designs of wedge gates have good sealing characteristics
when used on applications containing solids, but have limited pressure and temperature
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range. Other soft seat materials may give improved shut‐off capability but are usually
damaged by hard particles and are not suitable for dirty service.
e. Slab or expanding gate valves are preferred for high pressure gas service.
A wedge gate valve does not shut off against high pressure gas as efficiently as a slab or
expanding gate valve.
f. If large wedge gate valves are mounted with stems horizontal in a horizontal pipe, gate
guides should have a minimum length of 50% of the valve DN (NPS). If flexible or solid
wedge gate valves are installed below the horizontal, the valve bonnet should be
provided with a drain. Split‐wedge and double‐disc gate valves should only ever be
installed with the valve stem vertical.
It is essential to provide adequate support of the gate if unacceptable stem deflection,
galling, and/or stem packing leakage is to be avoided.
g. Cast iron valves should not be used except for underground water services where freezing
is not a possibility.
h. Class 150 stainless steel wedge gate valves are sometimes specified in accordance with
API Std 603 which allows reduced wall thickness on the grounds that the material does
not corrode. API 603 valves should not be used if the specified corrosion allowance of the
connecting pipe exceeds 0,7 mm (0,03 in) or for pressure ratings greater than Class 150.
Gate valves < DN 50 (NPS 2) are normally provided with reduced (sometimes called
conventional or standard) port in accordance with the minimum diameters specified in
the reference standard e.g. ISO 15761. Full port valves may be available at increased
cost/delivery. These valves are also available with extended body outlets which can be
used instead of gate valve‐plus‐pipe nipple assemblies.
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7.1.4.4. Parallel Expanding Gate Valve (See Figure 5)
Figure 5 – Parallel Expanding Gate Valve

This valve has a split gate with parallel sealing faces, inclined internal surfaces, and parallel
seats. The two gate halves are forced out against the seats at point of closure, providing a tight
seal without the assistance of fluid pressure. Seats may be fixed or floating. Valves are
normally of through conduit design, but may also be available without a conduit. They are
heavier than comparable wedge or slab gate valves.
a. When ordering, it is essential to be clear about the functionality required – gates which
seal against the seats in the closed position only or gates which seal against the seats in
the open and closed positions; unidirectional or bi‐directional sealing.
Designs are available which close off the valve cavity in the open position (double
expanding gate) so that the body cavity is sealed off from the pipe in both open and
closed positions. These valves can be prone to inadvertent gate expansion during opening
and some mechanism is required to prevent this happening. Some designs may have a
preferred sealing direction.
b. Expanding gate valves are not recommended for frequent operation in sandy/abrasive
service. Designs with electroless nickel plated (ENP) gates are suitable for clean service
only.
If gate and seat faces are tungsten carbide coated, the design has reasonable tolerance to
dirty service. However, the expanding gate valve is not as good as the slab gate valve in
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this respect and the expanding action can tend to trap hard particles between gate and
seat.
c. Internal screw designs should not be specified where frequent operation is likely.
Expanding gate valves are usually of external screw, rising stem design, but may also be
obtained in internal screw versions.
d. Expanding gate valves should not be used on steam service.
The increased differential pressure resulting from condensate forming in the body cavity
after closure may result in leakage and operating forces may increase as a result of
thermal changes after closure (as for wedge gate design).
e. In liquid or condensing service, an external thermal relief valve (isolated by a locked open
block valve) and set between 1,1 x and 1,33 x valve rated pressure should be provided to
prevent body cavity overpressure.
Extremely high pressures can be generated if liquid is trapped in the body cavity of a
closed valve in the event of a fire. The block valve allows periodic inspection and set point
testing of the relief valve.
7.1.4.5. Slab Gate Valve (See Figure 6)
Figure 6 – Slab Gate Valve (Outside Screw)

This valve has a single parallel faced slab gate, which slides over floating seats. Sealing is by
differential pressure. The gate design is always of the through conduit type incorporating an
aperture the same diameter as the valve bore. When the gate is in the fully open position it
allows free and uninterrupted flow. Valves may have rising stem or be of non‐rising stem,
internal screw type (See Figure 7). They can be obtained with a reduced bore, and are available
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in reverse acting version in which the gate rises to close the valve (commonly for actuated
designs). This allows some of the closing force to be provided by the pressure inside the valve
body acting over the sealed area of the stem, a feature which is particularly advantageous in
HIPPS applications.
Figure 7 – Slab Gate Valve (Internal Screw)

The floating seats are pressure energised onto the gate. Operating forces can be predicted
much more accurately than is the case for wedge or expanding gate valves (or trunnion
mounted ball valves) and are generally lower. This is an advantage when sizing actuators.
The basic design is suitable for use on a wide range of applications e.g. well head isolation,
process piping, storage tanks, and pipeline service.
a. When ordering, it is important to be clear about the sealing functionality required or
being offered ‐ “downstream sealing” or “upstream + downstream sealing”. (See Figure 8
& See Figure 9.)
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Figure 8 – Downstream Sealing Slab Gate Valve
Figure 9 – Upstream and Downstream Sealing Slab Gate Valve

The latter design may be used to provide double isolation in which the gate is free to float on
the end of the stem, but operating forces are higher than for comparable downstream only
sealing types. Christmas tree gate valves are most often downstream sealing only, but pipeline
and piping valves are frequently “upstream + downstream sealing” (e.g. O‐ring seals are used
between seat and body).
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b. Valves having tungsten carbide coated gates and seats should be specified for dirty or
abrasive service. Designs with electroless nickel plated (ENP) gates or incorporating
polymer seat ring inserts are suitable for clean service only.
c. Flat sided, fabricated designs are economical in terms of space and cost, but it is
recommended that their use should normally be restricted to the lower pressure ratings
( Class 600) unless the design is justified by finite element analysis.
7.1.4.6. Parallel Slide Valves (See Figure 10)
Figure 10 – Parallel Slide Gate Valve

a. Recommended for steam isolation, feed water isolation, and blowdown applications (they
should be used in tandem with a sacrificial globe valve).
The gate design of parallel slide valves comprises two parallel faced sliding discs
maintained in close contact with fixed seats by a spring. Effective closure is obtained by
differential pressure of fluid forcing the downstream disc against the mating seat.
Because of this, the valve does not provide tight shut‐off at low or zero differential
pressure. On opening, the discs slide over the seat faces completely clear of the bore
giving full flow through the valve and through conduit versions incorporating an eye piece
are available.
Sealing capability and operability are virtually unaffected by wide temperature variations.
Parallel slide gate valves are always of external screw, rising stem design.
Operating forces can be predicted much more accurately than is the case for wedge gate
valves and are generally lower. This is an advantage when sizing actuators.
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b. Parallel slide gate valves (like split wedge and expanding gate valves) in liquid or
condensing service and which are used in situations in which heat (process, fire, etc.) may
be applied to a closed valve should be provided with a means of relieving pressure built
up in the body cavity. If this involves making the valve uni‐directional, the flow direction
shall be clearly marked.
c. If small (< DN 50 (NPS 2)) parallel slide valves are used on liquid systems, similar measures
should be taken to relieve cavity overpressure regardless of heat considerations.
Parallel slide valve stems continue to be inserted into the body cavity after a seat seal has
been made. In small size valves this can result in high pressures being generated owing to
the piston effect. The required operating force also increases.
d. Drilling of discs to obtain cavity relief is not acceptable.
7.1.4.7. Venturi Design Gate Valve (See Figure 11)
Figure 11 – Venturi Pattern Gate Valve

This is the name sometimes given to reduced bore gate valves (particularly parallel slide
type).
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7.1.4.8. Knife‐edge Gate Valve (See Figure 12)
Figure 12 – Knife Edge Gate Valve

Knife gate valves should not be used on hazardous service or at other than low pressure.
This valve has a bevel or knife‐edged single piece parallel sided gate, and is designed to handle
slurries, solids, etc. liable to obstruct a wedge gate. The knife‐edge pushes aside or cuts
through solids in the flow. Valves generally have rectangular bodies and are sometimes sealed
around the gate. The valve is generally designed to manufacturer’s standards. A stainless steel
bonnetless version is addressed in MSS SP‐81.
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7.1.4.9. Rotary Disk Gate Valve (See Figure 13)
Figure 13 – Rotary Disk Gate Valve

This is a quarter turn valve based either on the parallel slide gate type or the slab gate type.
The valve functions in the same way as these designs except that the gate or disk moves
through a 90 degree arc instead of in a linear fashion.
The design based on the parallel slide usually has a single disk with fixed seats and is
downstream seating. The slab gate version has pressure energised seats and can be either
downstream or upstream plus downstream seating. Both designs rely on pressure differential
to effect a seal between the gate and seat. Sizes tend to be limited by the diameter of the
cylindrical pressure retaining shell necessary to accommodate the lever arm and disk.
Gate seat faces are usually carbide coated and all designs are recommended for dirty service.
The single disk type in particular is excellent with abrasive slurries or scaling service.
Small diameter versions are made for subsea control/dosing applications and there is a version
with multiple holes drilled through the seat which is intended for flow control applications.
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7.1.4.10. FCCU Gate Valve (Slide Valve) (See Figure 14)
Figure 14 – FCCU Gate Valve

A specialised design of gate valve for use at high temperatures and low pressures on FCCU gas
service containing catalyst fines. Always of fabricated construction with rectangular body
section. Two types available: hot wall – the body is designed to withstand the service
temperature and cold wall – the body is internally insulated with ceramic, etc.
Stem sealing is a major issue because of the difference in diameter between the stem inside
and outside the valve as a result of temperature differential.
If valves are provided with split packing arrangements, these should meet the general
requirements specified elsewhere in this guidance.
7.1.5. Ball Valves
7.1.5.1. General
Ball valves are a low torque quarter turn valve, with low resistance to flow, suitable for many
on‐off utility and process services. They have a straight through configuration. They have a
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good control characteristic (equal percentage), but is not generally used for throttling
applications in their standard form because of the potential for seat damage and cavitation
(high pressure recovery). Designs include floating ball and trunnion mounted ball types. Most
designs are double seated, but there are some special single seated designs e.g. eccentric ball
(Orbit) types.
a. The majority of valves have soft seat inserts and elastomer or polymer seals. Such valves
are recommended for clean service only and are unsuitable for dirty/abrasive service or
high temperatures.
Soft seated ball valves are excellent for clean service, but are easily damaged by hard
particles which can become embedded in seat ring inserts and score the plating of balls.
b. Hard metal seated designs are suitable for abrasive and scaling service and versions
having graphite stem, etc. seals can be used at elevated temperature. In small particle
slurry service specific measures should be taken to exclude solid material from seat
pockets, trunnion bearings, etc.
If the fluid is dirty or hard particles are present, hard faced balls and seats are necessary
(slab gate valves may be preferred for some of these services). Solids can also become
trapped in the seat cavities and trunnion bearings of both soft and metal seated valves
causing jamming unless precautions are taken to exclude them (e.g. shrouded seats,
vented O‐ring). For some services, design features such as purge connections, heat
tracing, and special scraper seats may be essential to ensure satisfactory operation of
metal seated ball valves.
c. Reduced opening valves should normally be specified for lines which do not have to pass
pigs and if the increased velocity and pressure drop can be accommodated. They are not
recommended for fluids containing solids in which the resulting high velocity could cause
erosion. Minimum bore size determines size, weight, and cost, so competitive offers of
reduced bore valves should always be compared on this attribute.
d. Levers should be mounted such that in the open position, the lever is parallel to the pipe
axis. Because smaller valves are lever operated (fast open/close), the possibility of
accidental operation should be considered.
Latching mechanisms are available to prevent this, but may be position sensitive.
e. If “water hammer” would be unacceptable on liquid systems, valves should be gear
operated.
7.1.5.2. Body Design
There are three basic body designs:
 End or side entry (ball fitted through body ends).
 Top entry.
 All welded design.
All may be obtained in full opening (full bore) or reduced opening (reduced bore) versions.
End entry valves may comprise a single piece body (usually small, low pressure designs with a
threaded seat retainer (See Figure 15) or a split body. Split‐body valves can be two or three
piece (See Figure 16).
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Figure 15 – Floating Ball Valve (Single Piece Body)
Figure 16 – Floating Ball Valve (Three Piece Body)

a. The removal of the central section of three piece valves is only recommended in small
sizes/low pressures.
It is often possible to remove the central section of small, three piece body valves from
the line leaving body connectors attached to mating pipework. This can be useful if weld
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ends are used. The body connectors usually retain the ball seals so the removal and
replacement of the body could affect seal loading. In the case of larger end entry designs
the whole body assembly has to be removed as a single item.
b. If larger size (e.g. > DN 150 (NPS 6)) end entry valves are manufactured to order, at least
one valve of each unique size and rating should be hydro‐tested with blank flanges or
welded end caps so as to load the body joints. Bolting torque for other valves should then
be confirmed to be identical.
It is important to ensure that the joints of end entry valves are correctly made up with
adequate bolt load since they have to transmit pipe bending moments, etc. Hydrotesting
in a test fixture which reacts hydraulic end load in tie bars (common practice) ensures
that no longitudinal load is applied to the main body joints.
Top entry designs (See Figure 17) have the advantage of only a single leak path to the
environment which is not subject to piping loads and offer the possibility of in‐situ
maintenance. In practice, in‐situ maintenance may be limited by the valve location,
weight of ball, availability of lifting, etc. equipment and removal of the complete valve is
often necessary.
Figure 17 – Top Entry Trunnion Mounted Ball Valve

c. Hard metal seated designs having all welded bodies should normally be avoided because
of the risk of experiencing seat sealing problems during FAT which may necessitate
cutting open the welds.
All welded body valves have the fewest potential leak paths to the environment, but
usually have to be returned to the manufacturer for maintenance.
7.1.5.3. Ball Support
There are two methods used to support the ball:‐seat supported (or floating ball) and trunnion
mounted.
a. Seat supported (floating ball) type (See Figure 15 & Figure 16 above)
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The ball is supported between the two seats in the valve body. The differential pressure
urges the ball onto the downstream seat, compressing the seal and shutting off fluid flow.
1. Seat supported valves are recommended for use in clean service in the following
maximum sizes and ratings:
a) Class 150, full bore: DN 200 (NPS 8).
b) Class 300, full bore: DN 150 (NPS 6).
c) Class 600 and higher ratings: DN 50 (NPS 2).
d) Reduced bore floating ball valves may be used up to one line size larger.
Larger sizes and higher pressures result in very high seat loads and operating
torques.
2. Hard metal seated floating ball valves are available and recommended for use in
high temperature service only (i.e. if the operating temperature precludes the use of
elastomer or polymer sealing materials in trunnion mounted valves).
3. Valves having pre‐compressed seats should have features to allow relief of the body
cavity pressure.
b. Trunnion supported (trunnion mounted) type (See Figure 17 above & Figure 18)
Figure 18 – End Entry Trunnion Mounted Ball Valve

The ball is mounted on trunnions supported in body bearings above and below the ball. Sealing
is achieved by a floating (spring loaded) seat, sealed against the body, which is urged against
the ball by differential pressure. This design is upstream sealing and provides automatic cavity
relief. It can be fitted with “double piston” seats (see below) which provide an additional seal
on the downstream seat when a pressure differential exists between the body cavity and the
downstream pipe.
Body cavity overpressure resulting from heating of trapped liquids is automatically relieved via
the seats.
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Trunnion supported designs are readily available in DN 50 (NPS 2) and larger sizes and are
becoming more common in sizes less than DN 50 (NPS 2). They have lower operating torque
requirements than seat supported types. Smaller sizes may only be available to special order.
7.1.5.4. Double Piston Seat Trunnion Ball Valves (See Figures 19, 20a, and 20b)
Figure 19 – Single Piston Seat ‐ Pressure Differential from Pipe to Body Cavity
Do
Ds
Pressure
Sealing Force = 0.785 P (Do2-Ds2)

Figure 20a – Double Piston Seat ‐ (Pressure Differential from Pipe to Body Cavity)
Do
Ds
Pressure Di
Sealing Force = 0.785 P (Do2-Ds2)

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Figure 20b – Double Piston Seat ‐ (Pressure Differential from Body Cavity to Pipe)
Pressure P
Do
Ds
Di
Sealing Force = 0.785 P (Ds2-Di2)

The design relies on the difference in annular area between outer and inner seat to body seals
and the seat to ball seal which is located diametrically between them. This limits the freedom
available to the designer so the normal seating function (particularly of metal seated ball
valves) may be compromised.
a. A double piston seat is recommended to be fitted to one side only (“downstream” seat) in
liquid or condensing service and high pressure gas service. In this case the valve should be
marked as required by ISO 14313 to indicate the directionality.
When this feature is provided on both seats the automatic cavity pressure relief feature is
negated and external pressure relief must be provided on liquid and condensing service in
fire hazard areas.
b. Designs which rely on a single, large section, O‐ring to provide the differential annular
areas should be avoided in gas service where the large size O‐ring is vulnerable to
explosive decompression damage. Arrangements involving two back‐to‐back lip seals with
the open ends facing each other should also be avoided as they can trap high pressure
fluid between the seals.
c. Double piston seats present a difficult design/manufacturing problem at high pressure
and are not recommended above Class 1500 rating.
7.1.5.5. Valve Trim Materials
a. Unplated valve balls should be stainless steel (normally 316 grade). Chrome plated carbon
steel balls and stems should not be used because of the danger of pitting corrosion
caused by test water, etc. Electroless nickel (ENP) plated carbon steel balls (and stems, if
integral with the ball) may be used for non‐corrosive service or if water may be present
for only a limited period (e.g. line test water). If valves are being refurbished, a
proprietary ENP containing chrome carbide particles may be used to increase wear
resistance (Hychrome).
b. The manufacturer should normally be allowed to choose the soft seat insert material.
Three materials are commonly used:
 At low pressure – virgin PTFE.
 At medium pressure – filled PTFE or nylon.
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 At high pressure – PEEK.
c. Virgin PTFE should never be used at high pressure and PEEK should never be used at low
pressure. Nylon should not be used if there is water present in the working fluid or if
prolonged exposure to test water is likely followed by service at a temperature above
70°C (158°F).
Nylon is hygroscopic and, if then exposed to elevated temperatures, becomes brittle.
d. Valves incorporating soft seals should be fully rated up to their maximum temperature
limit.
Pressure/temperature ratings of soft seated valves are limited. The same is true of all ball
valves incorporating soft seals. Some standards (e.g. ISO 17292) allow the manufacturer
to reduce maximum operating pressures below those in the ASME B16.34 rating tables.
e. Metal seated ball valves require the use of hard coatings. If operating temperatures are
below 150°C (302°F) the coating should normally be tungsten carbide although other
carbides (e.g. chrome carbide) are sometimes used for specific applications.
Carbide coating can be used at higher temperatures, but the epoxy filler that is commonly
applied to it may not be suitable.
f. At elevated temperatures (e.g. in refinery applications) alloys from the Stellite or
Colmonoy range should be chosen (with a suitable differential hardness between ball and
seat to prevent galling or seizing).
g. Metal seated ball valves should always be chosen for dirty or abrasive service.
h. For high temperature service (> 200°C (392°F), metal to metal seats and graphite
stem/body seals should be specified. Trunnion mounted designs are normally not
suitable.
i. Brass or bronze materials for bushings or other wetted parts are not acceptable.
7.1.5.6. Other Ball Valve Designs
There are a number of special ball valve designs, some made by only a single manufacturer,
which have design features making them suitable for particular applications.
 “Orbit” design (Figure 21)
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Figure 21 – Eccentric (Orbit) Ball Valve

 This is a single (downstream) seated valve which has a rising stem and incorporates a cam
mechanism which, when opening, jacks the ball off the seat before turning through
90 degrees and jacks it back on again at the end of closure. Tight shut‐off is achieved by
application of mechanical force and is not dependent on differential pressure. This design
can cope well with dirty service given appropriate material selection and versions suitable
for high temperature are available. It is particularly suited for very frequent operation and
either a resilient seat or a metal seat may be specified.
 The single seat should theoretically make the valve suitable for high pressure gas blow‐
down applications, but there has been experience of vibration damage on this service.
 “Konosphera” design
 This design works on the same principle as a triple offset butterfly valve and uses a similar
seal ring retained in the ball. It has the advantage over the butterfly valve of a clear flow
path in the open position. It is a single (downstream) seated valve in which shut‐off is
achieved by application of mechanical force and is not dependent on differential pressure.
In standard form it is not suitable for dirty service, but versions with appropriate materials
are available. Versions suitable for high temperature are available. The single seat makes
the valve particularly suitable for high pressure gas blow‐down applications.
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 “Klyde” design
 This uses a complex offset profile ball and seat design to provide a “wedging action”
closure on two seats simultaneously (making the design suitable for single valve double
block isolation). Success seems to be dependent on materials and capability in dirty
service has not yet been adequately demonstrated.
7.1.5.7. Welding Ends
Soft seated socket or butt weld end valves for sizes less than DN 50 (NPS 2) should be provided
with pipe nipples (pups) welded in place (and, if necessary, heat treated) by the manufacturer
before valve assembly. The pups should have a minimum length of 150 mm (6 in). Larger weld
end valves should be provided with pipe pups having a minimum length equal to the DN or
150 mm (6 in), whichever is shorter, and a maximum length of 500 mm (20 in).
7.1.5.8. Short Pattern Valves
If Class 150 short pattern ball valves in sizes DN 300 (NPS 12) and DN 400 (NPS 16) are
specified, the ball may protrude beyond the body end flange faces when the valve is closed.
Such valves cannot be used where spading is envisaged, cannot be easily removed when in the
closed position, and should be avoided.
7.1.5.9. Fire Hazard
Ball valves for use in fire hazard areas, including those used on fire water service, should be a
fire type tested design and fitted with an anti‐static device. Note that, during and after a fire,
valves may leak to some extent. The fire type test requirement should not apply to buried and
subsea valves where there is advantage in avoiding the graphite “fire seals” which, in
combination with water (e.g. from hydrotesting), can cause corrosion of adjacent carbon steel
components.
7.1.5.10. Rapid/Large Temperature Changes
If metal seated ball valves (particularly of large size) are subject to large and rapid temperature
changes after closing, the manufacturer should be asked to make proposals (thermal analysis
plus strain analysis, testing, etc) for demonstrating continued sealing capability. This is likely to
be a difficult and time‐consuming exercise.
Components may not have reached thermal equilibrium and the resulting distortion can lead
to leakage.
7.1.5.11. Lined Ball Valves
a. Lined valves cannot pass a fire type test and should not be used in hazardous service.
b. Lined ball valves shall not be used in abrasive services such as aluminium chloride.
Polymer or elastomer linings are sometimes used in carbon steel valves to provide corrosion
resistance in lieu of expensive alloys.
7.1.6. Butterfly Valves
7.1.6.1. General
A low torque, quarter turn, rotary action valve with a straight through flow configuration in
which the disk is turned in axial trunnion bearings. The disk is exposed to the flow in the open
position. Butterfly valves can be obtained with flanges, weld ends, or in wafer pattern, the
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latter being very economical of expensive material. Seating arrangements may be soft (use of
body lining, elastomer or polymer inserts, etc.) or metal to metal.
a. Valve and actuator position stops should be set with care.
Since butterfly valves are torque seated they are very sensitive to errors/variations in the
setting of actuator end stops, air supplies, etc. If actuator stops are fully backed off, the
maximum actuator output torque is applied at every closure.
b. Butterfly valves should not be specified in small sizes or for high pressures (> Cl 600).
The increasing intrusion of the disc in the flow path as size reduces or pressure increases
results in high pressure drop.
c. Application requirements should be made clear when ordering since, although butterfly
valves are generally suitable for bi‐directional sealing, they always have a preferred
sealing direction.
Butterfly valves have the following disadvantages:
 The line cannot be pigged.
 They create higher pressure drop than full bore gate or ball valves.
 They have to be withdrawn from the line for maintenance.
7.1.6.2. Butterfly Valve Types
There are three basic designs:
a. Concentric disk, lined type
The disk seals against a ridge in the elastomer or polymer lining and offers tight shut‐off
(API 609 Type A) (Figure 22). The valve stem is generally mounted through the vertical
axis of the disk. For tight closure the disk/seat interface has to be suitably designed,
particularly if the stem penetrates the lining.
Figure 22 – Butterfly valve (concentric disk, lined)

1. Suitable for isolation or control service.
Page 73 of 165
When used for control, butterfly valves exhibit high pressure recovery downstream
and are thus susceptible to generating cavitation in liquid service.
2. Not recommended above Class 150 Rating and approx. 120C (248C) (dependent on
resilient lining material).
3. Should not be used on hydrocarbon service or in hazardous areas.
Because the valve cannot be supplied with fire type test certification.
4. Should normally be restricted to undemanding water service.
5. Lined valves should not be used in corrosion resistant alloy piping systems.
Lined valves are economical for corrosive services, but prone to damage of the lining
(especially around the shaft penetrations) leading to consequent rapid corrosion of
the body.
6. Rubber linings should always be specified as vulcanised to the body.
7. Iron valves should not be used for process duties, hazardous service, or if freezing is
a possibility.
Conventional lined butterfly valves are supplied with ductile iron or steel bodies.
8. Lined wafer type butterfly valves in which the resilient seat is extended to serve as a
flange gasket should only be installed between weld neck or socket weld pipe
flanges.
Slip‐on or threaded flanges may not provide an adequate seal.
9. Lined valves should not be specified for sticky fluid services, but may be specified on
sandy or abrasive services in proven designs.
10. Larger size valves should be equipped with self‐locking gearing.
Distribution of static fluid pressure on the disk during closure may produce a strong
positive closing torque.
b. Double offset (API 609 Type B) (Figure 23).
Page 74 of 165
Figure 23 – Double Offset Butterfly Valve

These have a shaft which is offset from the plane of the seat in two directions and
are normally provided with a resilient seat ring (elastomer or polymer) or,
sometimes, a metal seat ring (e.g. modified metal O‐ring).
1. Recommended for use in Class 150, to Class 600 Rating.
At higher ratings they become impractical because of the space taken up by the disk
in the open position.
2. Recommended for isolation or control in clean service.
Some designs employing an elastomer seat insert also perform very well on dirty
service and where liquids carry solids in suspension. Test experience has been
variable and caution is necessary in selection for this duty.
Differential pressure is usually equivalent to the full flange rating except if restricted
by resilient seat material. Capable of tight shut‐off with resilient seats – metal seated
designs usually have some seat leakage in gas service. Normally available with fire
type test certification. Many designs are suitable for cryogenic service.
c. Triple offset
The shaft is offset as for double offset designs and the disk seat contact axis is then
further offset (API 609 Type B). The design claims to virtually eliminate sliding
contact between disk and seat. A common feature of all designs is a laminated seal
ring (usually consisting of alternate thin graphite and metal sheets) mechanically
retained on the disk or in the body. Available with fire type test certification. Offers
leak tight sealing on clean service.
1. Recommended for isolation or control in clean service.
Page 75 of 165
Seat rings generally do not employ abrasion resistant material and tests have shown
that erosion of the seating faces can occur at high velocities in abrasive service (e.g.
when valve is almost closed) leading to seat leakage which exacerbates the erosion.
The relatively soft seal rings are vulnerable to mechanical impact damage from
debris in the flow. For these reasons triple offset designs are not recommended for
dirty service.
2. Recommended for elevated or low temperature application.
Valves are all metal with graphite seals.
3. Recommended for use in Class 150 to Class 600 Rating.
At higher ratings they become impractical because of the space taken up by the disk
in the open position).
7.1.6.3. Specification
a. Successful butterfly valve application requires close attention to the operating conditions
and the following should always be specified:
1. Process fluid specific gravity, viscosity, any solids content, composition (gas service).
2. Flow rate.
3. Max/min temperature.
4. Pressure ‐ upstream, downstream, and maximum differential in each direction
(Consider the possibility of either partial reduction or total loss of differential
pressure due to any abnormal conditions.).
5. Maximum permissible pressure drop or required Cv.
6. Piping moments (flanged valves).
If process compatibility dictates the use of different materials (particularly lower strength
materials) than were used in the original design, shut off differential pressure, etc. may
be reduced.
b. Butterfly valve shafts should be “blow out proof” without relying on the means of
attachment to the disk. Shaft retention should also not rely on the presence of the valve
operator (hand lever, gear operator, or actuator).
Ideally it should also not rely on the presence of the packing gland or gland plate, but this
is often difficult to arrange. Larger sizes frequently employ a two‐piece stem design and it
is particularly important to be aware of the anti‐blow out arrangements in this case.
c. If wafer butterfly valves are specified for double isolation service, the installation should
consist of two valves with a spool piece and bleed valve between.
Acceptable arrangements are also available incorporating two valve disks in a single
flanged body.
d. Valves in which the gasket contact area is reduced by counterbored or countersunk holes
for retaining rings or screws, used to secure seat ring assemblies in the valve body, are
not recommended. If specified, they should be used only with the gasket manufacturer’s
recommended gasket, contact area, and surface finish. Spiral wound gaskets should not
be used.
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e. If valves are intended to be used with flat sheet gaskets, retaining rings which encroach
on the gasket sealing area should not be allowed to protrude beyond the surrounding
body gasket contact surface.
There is a potentially dangerous situation with the retaining ring protrusion allowed by
API 609.
f. On liquid service, manually operated valves located such that rapid closure could produce
“water hammer” should be gear operated.
g. The seat energising rings of rubber lined valves should be confirmed to be compatible
with the process fluid
Rubber is permeable so energising rings can be affected by the working fluid.
7.1.6.4. “Dead end” service
a. In dead end service (where it is required to dismantle pipe and leave the valve at the end
of a pressurised line), bi‐directional butterfly valves should be mounted so that the
preferred sealing direction is isolating the “dead end”.
b. Valves having seat retainers, etc. which impinge on the flange sealing gasket face should
not be installed with the seat retainer on the low pressure side.
c. Wafer‐type valves should not be used in dead‐end service since they do not permit
installation of a blind adjacent to the valve.
d. Lug type valves with tapped holes could be used, but should not be (see note below re.
effect of corrosion).
7.1.6.5. Wafer type butterfly valves
Butterfly valves are available in wafer style for mounting between flanges using the flange
bolting and make extremely economical use of expensive material.
a. Wafer style valves are not recommended for line sizes DN 50 (NPS 2) and below.
b. If future replacement by other valve types may be a requirement, flanged butterfly valves
should be selected having an overall length equivalent to that of a gate or ball valve (long
pattern).
Once selected, wafer butterfly valves cannot be replaced by valves of other types without
pipework modifications.
c. The user/purchaser should ensure the disk, when fully or partly open, will not foul
adjacent valves, fittings, or connected pipework.
d. Short pattern valves should not be specified for lined pipe applications.
Fouling is unavoidable with some short pattern valve ratings/sizes.
e. If used in process or fire water systems where there is a fire risk, valves should be through
drilled lug style in order to protect flange bolting during a fire.
Body designs are either lug type (incorporating through drilled or tapped holes) or
standard flangeless (designed to fit inside the bolt circle).
f. If butterfly valves with exposed bolts are used on such services a light gauge sheet
stainless steel shroud shall be wrapped around the valve and exposed bolts.
g. Bolting should be thermally compatible with the valve body material and connected
flanges.
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h. Lugged wafer valves with tapped holes in the lugs and with bolts inserted through from
each adjacent pipe flange are not recommended.
If the bolt threads corrode, the valve cannot be removed from the piping system.
i. Wafer butterfly valves should not be used in the following services:
1. Service containing 25 percent or greater volume of free hydrogen.
2. Liquids above their auto‐ignition temperature.
3. Steam service.
4. Temperatures above 260°C (500°F).
5. As the first block valve against storage tanks or vessels containing hazardous
material.
6. Reciprocating compressor or pump service.
Valves procured to different standards may not be interchangeable because of
differing face‐to‐face dimensions.
7.1.7. Plug Valves
7.1.7.1. General
Plug valves have quarter turn operation. They are extremely compact and can be attractive if
weight, space, and cost must be minimised. Plugs are tapered or parallel and are suitable for
most on‐off process and utility services. The plug valve also has a good control characteristic
that can be utilised in applications requiring limited throttling such as bypass, pressure
balancing, etc. They have straight through configurations usually with reduced flow area. Only
full bore, round port valves can be pigged. Plug types are taper (solid) and parallel (usually
split). Most types have temperature limitations.
a. Valves with parallel solid plugs are available, but should not normally be specified.
Methods of stem operation are either direct (wrench or lever) or indirect (a gear
mechanism and handwheel). If a wrench‐actuated valve is selected, the wrench is usually
supplied only if specified in the purchase order.
b. If used on liquid service, manually operated valves should be gear operated if rapid
closure could produce water hammer.
c. Plug valves should be shipped in the open position.
There are six types of interest:
 Pressure balanced, lubricated type (e.g. Serck Audco, Christensens, Nordstrom, etc.)
which usually rely on injection of sealant to provide a bubble tight seal.
 Sleeved and lined type (e.g. Durco, Tuflin, etc.) which utilise a PTFE sleeve or lining.
 Semi‐ balanced type incorporating a thrust bearing and active seats (Texsteam).
 Expanding plug valve (General Valve, etc.).
 Lifting wedge plug type (Stockham, Goodwin, etc.).
 Eccentric plug valve.
Page 78 of 165
7.1.7.2. Body Patterns (Figure 24)
Figure 24 – Plug Valve Patterns (Round Opening; Regular; Venturi)

Plug valves are made in five body patterns, with port shapes and areas as follows:
a. Round opening pattern
Full bore round ports in both body and plug.
b. Regular pattern
Approximately 60% of pipe area. Seat ports of rectangular or trapezoidal shape (actual
area varies between manufacturers).
c. Venturi pattern
Much reduced area seat ports of round or rectangular or trapezoidal shape
approximating to a venturi to aid pressure recovery. Less expensive, with lower operating
torque requirements than a regular pattern valve.
Flow resistance of venturi pattern valves should be checked, particularly on liquid and
multi‐phase systems, and velocity should be checked if erosion is a possibility.
d. Short pattern
Much reduced area seat ports of rectangular or trapezoidal shape, with face‐to‐face
dimension corresponding to wedge gate valves. Only available in Class 150 and 300
ratings.
Not recommended in larger sizes on flow applications because the short length results in
abrupt change of throat shape between the flanges and plug.
e. Double plug pattern
Versions with two pressure balanced plugs in a single body are available providing a
double isolation function and some of these (higher pressure ratings) occupy the same
face to face length as a standard ball, plug, or gate valve. However, this is at the expense
of a much reduced flow passage (though not as much as a venture port valve).
1. Flow resistance should be checked, particularly on liquid systems.
2. Because of the variety of types and overall lengths it is important to check the
selected supplier’s catalogue for face‐to‐face/end‐to‐end dimensions and port areas
(which vary between manufacturers for a given type).
Page 79 of 165
7.1.7.3. Pressure Balanced, Lubricated Plug Valves (Figure 25 & Figure 26)
Figure 25 – Lubricated Taper Plug Valve
Figure 26 – Pressure Balanced Plug Valve

Pressure balanced, lubricated taper plug valves are pressure balanced across the majority of
the plug cross sectional area to reduce operating torque. Sealant is injected under pressure
between the plug face and body seat to reduce friction, provide port sealing, and to permit
Page 80 of 165
sealant jacking action to unseat the plug. They can provide an efficient and economical means
of isolation, particularly on gas service combined with throttling capability and, in standard
form, make a good choice for valve bypass and pig trap pressurisation/blowdown applications
in which corrosion is unlikely. Hard faced versions (tungsten carbide, satellite, etc.) are less
reliant on lubricant and can be a good choice for dirty service such as production manifold
diverter service and produced water. Hard‐faced plug valves are also a good choice for sand
separation systems.
The following points should be noted:
a. Most manufacturers use a low friction treatment on the plug surface to reduce friction.
b. They require occasional injection of sealant. Ideally, inject before operation or, as a
minimum, during plant turnaround. If it is intended not to lubricate valves, the supplier
should be advised so he can take account of the increased operating torque.
c. The sealant should be compatible with but resistant to the process fluid.
Otherwise sealant may be washed from the plug face and may contaminate the process
stream. Sealants generally cover a wide range of process applications and only one or two
will be required at each site.
d. The operating temperature range should be determined by the sealant.
e. Each lubricated plug valve order should fully specify the service fluid(s) and operating
pressure/temperature.
Based on this data, the valve supplier assumes full responsibility for the selection and
performance of the sealant.
Some searching process fluids may dissolve the sealant from the plug causing the torque
to rise. Galling is normally prevented due to differential hardness between the plug and
body surfaces and also because of low friction impregnation of the plug surface.
Manufacturer’s recommendation should be sought for sealant selection.
Page 81 of 165
7.1.7.4. Sleeved and Lined Plug Valves (Figure 27)
Figure 27 – Sleeved Plug Valve

Sleeved plug valves are of the tapered design and incorporate a polymeric sleeve (usually
PTFE) in the body. Normally only available up to Class 600.
Lined plug valves are of the tapered design and are fully lined (plug and body) for chemical
resistance.
a. Regular operation (or exercising) is recommended.
The operating torque tends to increase in service because of bedding‐in of the plug.
b. Recommended for use in caustic, chlorine, and similar services.
They generally have excellent leakage performance, both down the line and to
atmosphere.
c. Valves for chlorine service should incorporate a drilling to vent the plug and any body
cavity to the upstream port.
On dirty service the seats are normally wiped clean and there are no cavities for trapping
solids. These valves have been shown to be capable of acceptable performance where
abrasives are present and the sleeves can sustain some damage before, eventually,
leakage occurs. However, dirty service may increase the already high operating torque.
d. Sleeved plug valves should always have a positive method of locking the sleeve into the
body such as raised locking ribs.
The method of fitting or keying in the PTFE sleeve is important to prevent creep of the
sleeve and to maintain a low operating torque. Some designs use a steel stiffening core to
reduce creep and stabilise torque.
Fire tested glands can be obtained for sleeved valves although a fire tested valve cannot
seal down the line once the sleeve is damaged. Nevertheless, plug valve sleeves take
longer to suffer damage than ball valve soft seals.
e. Sleeved or lined plug valves should be fitted with an anti‐static device.
Page 82 of 165
7.1.7.5. Semi‐Balanced, Lubricated Type (Texsteam, etc.)
In this design a thrust bearing is used to reduce operating torque and piston type seats are
incorporated whose sealing surfaces are shaped to match the plug which has a circular port.
They are available in a limited range of sizes and pressure ratings. Plugs are normally plated
and seats are nickel alloy. The design has been shown to cope well with abrasive service in
which operation is relatively frequent and re‐lubrication limited (e.g. manifold diverter valves).
7.1.7.6. Expanding Plug Valve (Figure 28)
Figure 28 – Expanding Plug Valve

Expanding plug valves incorporate a split parallel plug with an internal wedge mechanism
which is used to force the plug halves against the seats at the end of closure and to release
them on commencement of opening. Soft seal rings are usually employed and the design is
capable of excellent sealing performance.
a. These valves should be avoided in gas service at pressures above 70 bar (1 000 psi)
because seal section sizes are large and elastomer seals are at high risk of suffering
explosive decompression, regardless of formulation.
b. Expanding plug valves provide double block isolation in a single body.
Page 83 of 165
7.1.7.7. Wedge (or Lift) Plug Valves (Figure 29)
Figure 29 – Wedge Plug Valve

Wedge (or lift) plug valves have a taper plug and utilise an operating mechanism whereby the
plug is lifted from the seat before turning open or closed, the object being to reduce operating
torque whilst maintaining good sealing capability. These valves are frequently used on
solidifying service in combination with a steam purge of the valve body cavity and cope well
with abrasive fluids. Soft seated lift type plug valves may be considered for tight shut‐off
applications.
7.1.7.8. Eccentric Plug Valves
Eccentric plug valves incorporate a parallel sided half plug and utilise a cam action to drive it
onto the downstream seat. The plug is usually coated with elastomer or polymer material.
Designs are limited to low pressure ratings and lined versions are available. Modifications of
the design are used in control applications.
7.1.7.9. Other Designs
Parallel plug valves are available which rely on lubrication to seal and protect the seats. These
are prone to through seat leakage and have no practical application for isolation service in the
oil and gas industry.
Multiple port plug valves are available for diverter service. These may simplify piping layout,
reduce the number of valves required, and eliminate elbows or tees. They are normally of the
parallel or parallel expanding type, but pressure balanced taper types are also available.
Multiple port valves can only provide shut off when the operating pressure holds the plug
against the downstream port and they should not be relied upon to provide good isolation.
4‐way valves, in particular, are intended for directional control only.
Page 84 of 165
7.1.8. Diaphragm Valves
7.1.8.1. General
Valves that can be used for both block and control functions. The closure member is a resilient
diaphragm seating in the valve body. The diaphragm also provides the joint between the body
and bonnet and often the stem seal as well. Diaphragm valves are either manually operated by
a handwheel closing device or by fluid pressure, normally air.
Applications include chemical plant on/off service or flow control of most low pressure gases
and liquids including slurries, viscous fluids, and fluids which are chemically aggressive. They
are supplied with various types of diaphragms and can be lined. In the latter case, the lining
usually serves as the flange end gasket. Diaphragms are subject to wear and fatigue so
frequent maintenance may be required for regularly used valves. Operating
pressure/temperature is limited by the diaphragm material.
a. A “travel stop” should be specified as an accessory, particularly if temperatures exceed
80°C (175°F).
This serves to prevent “overclosing” and thereby prolongs diaphragm life.
b. For flammable, corrosive, or toxic service a special bonnet should be specified having a
secondary stem seal to prevent leakage in the event of diaphragm failure. A bonnet vent
port should be specified to provide a safe method of checking diaphragm integrity,
including when the valve is under pressure.
If the diaphragm serves as the environmental seal, any leak may have serious
consequences and may also affect the operating screw thread.
7.1.8.2. Specification
a. If ordering diaphragm valves the purchaser should list:
1. The process fluid.
2. Its concentration (if applicable) and special characteristics to which attention must
be directed.
3. Operating pressure and temperature.
4. Whether a secondary stem seal is required.
b. If used in an atmospherically corrosive environment or subjected to corrosive spillage, a
protective external coating should be specified.
c. Diaphragm valves should not normally be used on hydrocarbon service.
Standard valves are normally supplied with ductile iron bodies which are not normally
acceptable for hazardous petrochemical duties. Steel bodies are available, however.
7.1.8.3. Body Configurations
The standard body configurations are:
a. Weir type valve (Figure 30)
Page 85 of 165
Figure 30 – Weir Type Diaphragm Valve

Tight shut‐off is obtained with comparatively low operating force and short diaphragm
movement giving longer diaphragm life and reduced maintenance. Suitable for flow control
although control is poor at very low flow rates. Wide choice of polymer and elastomer
diaphragm materials.
Not suitable for slurries or viscous liquids.
b. Straight‐through type valve (Figure 31)
Page 86 of 165
Figure 31 – Straight Pattern Diaphragm Valve

Suitable for viscous fluids, thick slurries, and fluids containing deposits.
Has a longer diaphragm movement, which decreases diaphragm life and increases
maintenance. Requires a more flexible diaphragm which limits material choice to elastomer.
7.1.9. Globe Valves
7.1.9.1. General
Globe valves are used as a block valve if resistance to flow is not critical and a positive closing
action is required e.g. they are useful for frequent on‐off operation on gas or steam service.
They may also be used for limited flow regulation or throttling duty in which case an integral
stem and plug should normally be specified to avoid vibration and instability.
a. For severe throttling service or if close control is required, conventional control valves
with a hand operator should be used.
Globe valves have a tortuous flow path which results in a higher resistance to flow and
low pressure recovery compared with other valves.
b. The configuration of the flow path is normally only suitable for uni‐directional flow and
globe valves should be mounted in the line such that flow is in a direction from beneath
the disk.
c. High un‐balanced forces may prevent opening against reverse pressure differential so, if
this is important, the requirement should be specified.
Page 87 of 165
7.1.9.2. Body Designs
Body types are:
 Standard (Figure 32).
Figure 32 – Standard (straight) pattern globe valve

 Oblique (Y) pattern (Figure 33).
Figure 33 – Oblique Pattern Globe Valve
Page 88 of 165
 Angle pattern (Figure 34).
Figure 34 – Angle Pattern Globe Valve

all of which can be provided in needle versions for simple flow regulation service. The oblique
and angle type have much lower flow resistance than the straight‐through globe (typically 1/3
to ¼) and, usually, increased cost.
Oblique (Y pattern) type valves have a relatively straight flow path and, with hard‐faced trim,
are suitable for on‐off or throttling duty on abrasive slurry or highly viscous services.
Conventional globe valves are not recommended for these services. They are also useful in
small sizes with screwed and seal welded bonnets for general purposes in steam, condensate
and boiler feedwater service.
Angle type valves, when fitted at a change in direction of piping, save one bend or elbow and
have the advantage of a smaller pressure drop than the straight through type Note that:
 The 90 degrees bend in process piping may subject the valve to considerable
bending stress at operating temperature.
 The handwheel may be placed in only one position with respect to the piping.
7.1.9.3. Disk Variations
Disk types available are:
a. Types having a flat seat/disk interface (metal‐to‐metal seat or with a soft seal ring
incorporated).
A soft seal limits the maximum allowable temperature.
This type is not suitable for flow control applications.
Page 89 of 165
b. Types in which the disk has a tapered or spherical seating surface and provides narrow
line contact against a conical seat.
The narrow contact area tends to break down hard deposits that may form on the seat.
This type is recommended if crude flow control may be required.
c. Needle type having a long tapered plug type disk (See Figure 35).
Figure 35 – Needle Pattern Globe Valve

This type is recommended for fine flow control.
7.1.9.4. Stem Variations
a. Only outside screw and yoke versions should be considered.
Valves are available with a rotating and rising stem (rising handwheel) or with rising, non‐
rotating stem (non‐rising handwheel).
b. The backseat of valves of the rotating and rising stem type should be mechanically locked
or welded in place to prevent rotation.
Page 90 of 165
7.1.10. Pinch Valves (Figure 36)
Figure 36 – Pinch Valve

Pinch valves have a straight through configuration and are basically a reinforced elastomer
sleeve or tube retained in a housing. The sleeve is pinched together for closure and the
material used for this determines the pressure/temperature rating.
The sleeve is generally encased in a metal body which is protected from the process fluid by
the sleeve. The valve is suitable for both pneumatic and hydraulic actuation.
a. Pinch valves may be used for flow control and can have good control characteristics, but,
when used in this way, tight shut‐off cannot be guaranteed. Pinch valves may also be
used for vacuum service subject to the manufacturer’s approval.
b. Full service details should be provided to enable the manufacturer to select an
appropriate sleeve material.
Pinch valves are suitable for use with abrasive slurries, fluids with suspended particles,
powders or corrosive chemicals. They are sometimes used on water deluge systems
because of their fast opening capability.
Valves are easily maintained by occasional replacement of the sleeve. Note that, as with
diaphragm valves, the sleeve often forms the only barrier to the environment.
There are no international or industry standards covering this valve type and valves are
normally supplied to manufacturer’s standards.
Page 91 of 165
7.1.11. Flush Bottom & Sampling Valves (Figure 37)
Figure 37 – Flush Bottom Valve

Flush bottom and sampling valves are small bore piston type valves manufactured in a
Y pattern and designed to vent liquid or slurry from the bottom of vessels or to draw off
samples of fluids from process streams. They are arranged so that, in the closed position, the
obturator is flush with the inside surface of the vessel, etc. and the valves are normally
screwed into a half coupling or threadolet type fitting welded to a vessel or pipe.
a. They should be used for drain and sampling in slurry or liquid + solids services, i.e. where
a conventional valving arrangement is not suitable because of the risk of plugging.
These valves are suitable for use with liquids or slurries because the piston takes up the
whole interior of the valve in the closed position so that sediment cannot accumulate and
clog the valve. Because they are flush bottomed they create a minimum of turbulence.
The valve may have a disk and seat, or be of seatless design with a piston. Disk type valves
may not seat properly when used with liquids containing solids in suspension.
The seat in a disk type valve is part of the vessel outlet nozzle and the valve must be
provided before the vessel is fabricated.
b. Piston type may be selected for either flush bottom or penetrating operation.
If heavy sediment may be deposited in the vessel, the piston penetrates the deposit,
allowing the vessel to drain when the valve is next opened. The piston travels through a
seal (usually PTFE) that may allow leakage or extrude inwards unless the gland is adjusted
correctly.
Page 92 of 165
A flush bottom valve allows removal of precipitate that may have bridged the vessel
outlet and, if fitted to a dished end, allows complete draining of the vessel.
c. Operation may be manual or remotely controlled.
Because operation of the valve requires long piston travel, flush bottom valves are slow
to open and close. The valve requires a considerable vertical distance under the vessel
bottom for installation and operation.
7.1.12. Iris Valve
A valve in which the closure member moves towards the valve bore, mainly used for
controlling powder media. There are several designs:
 A flexible cylinder is rotated at one end, closure being effected by closing of the
neck midway along the cylinder.
 The closure member is in the form of flat petals hinged and rotated to close (like
a camera diaphragm).
 The petals are arranged like a cone and hinged to close together; this design is
used for quick shut off on hydraulic systems if leakage is allowable.
7.1.13. Float Operated Valves
Float operated valves are used for liquid level control in non‐pressurised containers.
a. Valves may be to BS 1212 Parts 1, 2, 3 or to manufacturer’s standards.
b. Valves to manufacturer’s standard may be either in‐line or angle type and range from
small threaded connection valves to flanged types up to DN 450 (NPS 18).
These are pressure balanced to equalise the hydraulic forces on the moving element and
give greater sensitivity to changes in water level throughout the inlet pressure range.
Valves to BS 1212 are small bore, (DN 10 to 50 (NPS 3/8 to 2)) with a threaded male end
containing an orifice sized to accommodate various conditions of pressure and flow.
Orifice sizing information is provided.
Valves to BS 1212 Parts 2 and 3 have the outlet positioned above the body, rather than
below as in Part 1, to enable the attachment of a discharge assembly to prevent back
siphonage of the fluid.
c. Surface turbulence should be prevented by installing a separate float tank, or baffle plate.
Turbulence can cause oscillatory action of the valve.
d. Float operated valves should always be backed up by level alarms and a secondary means
of preventing overfilling because of low reliability.
7.2. Valve Types for Prevention of Flow Reversal (Check)
Note
The obturator (closure member) of swing check valves is variously described as a “clapper”,
“plate” or “disk”. For the sake of consistency and the avoidance of confusion, it is referred to
here as a “disk”
Page 93 of 165
7.2.1. General
Check valves permit flow in one direction and prevent flow in the reverse direction. This is
achieved through linear or rotary (angular) motion of a closure member that is kept open by
the kinetic energy of the flowing fluid. When the flow is reduced towards zero or reversed the
valve is automatically closed against its seat by gravity, the effect of supplementary springs,
back pressure or combinations of these effects. Check valves are intended to prevent gross
back flow of fluid and should not be relied on to provide effective isolation.
Check valves do not normally have shafts which breach the pressure containment except
where this is necessary to provide mechanical override, position indication, or external
damping or disk balancing. These features are usually only available on large swing check
valves for critical applications.
a. Shafts which penetrate the pressure containment should normally be avoided.
b. Check valves other than diaphragm type should not be used in slurry service.
7.2.2. Check Valve Types
Characteristics vary considerably and should be considered when selecting valves for particular
applications.
Designs may be broadly categorised as follows:
 Lift check (linear motion of the obturator in direction transverse to pipe axis.
 Swing check (angular motion of the obturator).
 Axial flow nozzle check (linear motion of the obturator along the pipe axis).
 Plate check (linear motion of flexible metal or polymer plate along the pipe axis).
 Diaphragm check (flexing of a membrane).
There are a number of variations in design of the most common types e.g.
 Lift check – disk, piston, and ball types.
 Swing check – standard, tilting disk, and duo‐disk types.
Other commonly occurring variations are:
 Wafer check (for installation between flanges – duo disk and single disk types).
 Screw‐down stop and check (globe and swing types with provision for manual closure).
 Foot valve (pump suction duty).
Page 94 of 165
7.2.3. Lift Check (See Figure 38, Figure 39, & Figure 40)
Figure 38 – Lift Check Valve (Ball Type)
Figure 39 – Lift Check Valve (Disk Type)
Page 95 of 165
Figure 40 – Lift Check Valve (Piston Type)

A lift check valve utilises linear motion of a disk, piston or ball moving transverse to the pipe
axis. It either relies on gravity to effect closure or incorporates springs which bias the obturator
towards the closed position. The piston type incorporates a piston and cylinder which provide
a damping effect during operation and in some designs the degree of damping is adjustable. All
designs cause a relatively high pressure drop although oblique (Y) pattern designs are available
with much reduced flow resistance at increased cost. Note that ball type check valves are
available in axial flow configuration in small sizes.
a. Lift check valves should be selected for applications which could result in surge problems
for other types of valves.
Closure response is potentially fast due to the short travel and the low inertia of the
obturator. This makes the valve suitable for reciprocating pump outlets and comparable
applications.
b. The use of lift check valves with union bonnets should be limited to portions of piping
systems in which pipe unions are allowed.
c. Piston and disk types should be avoided on dirty or viscous service and reserved for clean
liquids and non‐condensing gases.
Free movement of the obturator may be difficult to achieve in these services and slow
response or jamming is likely as a result of blocking of clearances. Ball checks are less
affected due to freer guiding of the ball.
d. Ball checks with metal ball should not be used on gas or vapour service because of the
potential for ball/seat damage as a result of irregular flow.
e. Ball checks should not be used in sizes above DN 50 (NPS 2). Piston type can be used in
larger sizes where pulsing flow is present (e.g. at the outlet of reciprocating pumps).
The most frequent application of lift check valves is in sizes less than or equal to DN 50
(NPS 2).
f. Ball check valves should not be used with widely varying pressures, pulsing flow, and
frequent flow reversals.
Page 96 of 165
7.2.4. Screw‐Down Stop and Check (See Figure 41)
Figure 41 – Screw‐Down Stop and Check Valve

This is a variant of the lift check in which the disc is held closed by a valve stem which can be
retracted to permit free movement of the disc. Generally used in steam generation using
multiple boilers, in which a valve is installed between each boiler and the main steam header.
7.2.5. Swing Check ‐ Conventional Type (See Figure 42)
Figure 42 – Swing Check Valve
Page 97 of 165
A check valve in which the mechanism incorporates a disk that swings on a hinge pin or shaft.
The bearing assemblies for the hinge pin and disc are shrouded from the flow stream and thus
dirty and viscous fluids are less able to obtain ingress and hinder rotation of the closure
member.
a. Swing check valves should be used in sizes above DN 50 (NPS 2).
Weight and travel of the disc may become excessive in very large sizes at high pressures
and special design may be required to ensure satisfactory operation.
b. The two‐piece stem design valve in which the shaft penetrates the body has the potential
to blow the shaft out and should be designed so as to be blowout proof.
c. Swing check valves may be specified for horizontal or vertical upward flow (but see
“Application Guidance” below) on low velocity or highly viscous fluids.
d. Swing check valves are unsuitable for frequent flow reversal, applications with wide
velocity variations, and applications with pulsating flow. If installed in a system liable to
sudden flow reversal, a counterbalance weight or dashpot should be specified to prevent
slamming.
A counterbalance weight may also be required if the valve has to open with a minimum
pressure differential. Full closure is sometimes supplemented by additional weighting of
the disc or by an external weighted lever arm or spring. This may result in excessive
closing force (slamming) unless a damper is also fitted.
Some sophisticated designs (used for e.g. offshore riser protection) are available which
have been shown to be able to withstand rapid flow reversal and slamming. Externally
mounted weights or dashpots introduce the additional complication of a gland to seal the
extension arm.
e. Balance weights, spring loaded cylinders, and oil‐filled dashpots should not normally be
specified and should only be fitted after careful analysis and discussion with the
manufacturer.
Closure response of swing check valves is generally slower than that of lift check valves.
This is due to the long travel of the disk, the inertia of the disk and hinge arm and the
varying moment arm of the disk centre of mass.
f. Whenever possible the angle between the seat and the fully open position of the disk
should be restricted to 65/70 degrees.
Improved operating characteristics result from reducing the travel by inclining the seat
and limiting the rotation of the disk. Rotational inertia can be reduced by locating the
hinge axis at the edge of the disk, but this also reduces the closing moment.
Resistance to flow depends on the angle of opening at operating conditions.
g. If pigging is a requirement, special variants of the conventional valve, incorporating
shaped disks, should be used.
h. Although widely used, swing check valves are generally best suited to gravity flow and
pumped (liquid) systems where flow velocities are relatively low.
Page 98 of 165
7.2.6. Swing Check ‐ Tilting Disk Type (See Figure 43)
Figure 43 – Tilted Disk Swing Check Valve

Tilting disk check valves incorporate a disk that rotates eccentrically on a shaft mounted above
the horizontal axis of the pipe. They are a variant of the conventional type and have a faster
response and reduced inertia. Closure at the instant of flow reversal is more nearly attained
than with the conventional design. Tilting disk valves are suitable for use in viscous service and
have less pressure drop at low velocities and more pressure drop at high velocities than a
swing type valve.
Tilting disk check valves should not be used if pigging is a requirement.
If slamming is considered probable, both the tilting disc check valve and the duo disk wafer‐
type improve on the performance of a conventional swing check. Nevertheless there may be
some conditions in which it is necessary to slow down the closure by fitting an external
dashpot, etc. In such circumstances an axial flow check would be preferable.
Page 99 of 165
7.2.7. Swing Check ‐ Duo‐Disk Type (See Figure 44)
Figure 44 – Duo Disk Wafer Check Valve

These valves provide a fast response due to a short path of travel of the half disc centre of
gravity, the low inertia resulting from the light weight, short moment arm of the half disc, and
the use of closing springs.
a. Duo‐disk check valves are recommended in preference to conventional swing checks in
which high flow velocities occur e.g. in gas service.
b. Duo‐disk check valves depend on internal spring loading for closure and are therefore the
most suitable type of check valve for location in vertical pipes with upward flow.
Duo‐disk valves tend to have an increasing resistance to flow as the size decreases and
the pressure rating increases owing to the obstruction of the body centre web and the
thickness of the half plates which reduces the area of flow. However, designs are
available up to API 6A 10 000 rating.
Originally, all these valves were provided with openings in the body through which the
hinge pin, etc. was inserted and which were usually sealed by screwed plugs. If this type is
supplied the recommendations contained in this guidance for screwed connections
should be observed. Nowadays designs are available (retainerless design) in which the
half disks and hinge pin are inserted from one end, avoiding the need for holes in the
body.
c. If retainerless design is supplied, a check should be made to ensure there are no
unacceptable interruptions of the gasket sealing face.
7.2.8. Swing Check – Wafer Style (See Figure 44)
a. Both single plate and dual plate swing check valves are available in wafer style for
mounting between flanges using the flange bolting and they make extremely economical
use of expensive material.
The valve has to be removed from the line for maintenance or repair.
b. These valves are not recommended for line sizes DN 50 (NPS 2) and below.
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c. Valve installation design should ensure that the plates do not foul adjacent valves or
connected pipework.
d. Single disk wafer check valves are not recommended because disk opening is usually
severely restricted resulting in high pressure drop. Single disk wafer checks should never
be used on low flow or low pressure gas services in which the disk position may oscillate.
e. If used in process or fire water systems in which there is a fire risk, wafer checks should
be through drilled lug style in order to protect flange bolting during a fire.
Body designs are either lug type (incorporating through drilled or tapped holes) or
standard flangeless (designed to fit inside the bolt circle).
f. Bolting should be thermally compatible with the valve body material and connected
flanges. If wafer check valves with exposed bolts are used on such services a light gauge
stainless steel shroud should be wrapped around the valve and exposed bolts to provide
fire protection.
g. Wafer valves with tapped holes in the lugs and with machine bolts inserted through from
each adjacent pipe flange are not recommended.
If the bolt threads corrode, the valve cannot be removed from the piping system.
h. Wafer checks should not be used in the following services:
1. Service containing 25 percent or greater volume of free hydrogen.
2. Liquids above their auto‐ignition temperature.
3. Steam service.
4. Temperatures above 260°C (500°F).
5. As the first block valve against storage tanks or vessels containing hazardous
material.
6. Reciprocating compressor or pump service.
7.2.9. Swing Check Valve Stability
Generally, swing check valves should be avoided if unstable conditions are likely, e.g. wide
velocity variations, pulsing flow, and frequent flow reversals. Under certain conditions fretting
of hinge pins and even mechanical failure may occur.
Stable operation (avoiding rapid fluctuations in movement of the disk) can be a problem with
swing check valves. Stability of conventional and tilting disc swing check valves may be
improved by fitting an external damping device (dashpot) via an external shaft extension
through the body with the additional complication of a gland. A damping device is sometimes
required to prevent shock loading (water hammer) during seating of the closure. Split disc
check valves are more difficult to damp since external methods cannot be employed to control
the floating action of the split discs.
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7.2.10. Diaphragm Check (See Figure 45)
Figure 45 – Diaphragm Check Valve

Diaphragm checks provide stable operation with pressure variations, pulsing flow, and
frequent flow reversals and location may be in either horizontal or vertical lines.
Closure is provided by a flexible membrane supported by a metal frame or cage. The
membrane imposes temperature, pressure, fatigue, and fluid compatibility limitations so care
is required in material selection.
Small sizes are usually of the cone type and larger sizes are typically of the nozzle type.
Although less commonly used than conventional lift or swing check valves, the diaphragm
check valve has a number of useful characteristics such as: full closure, fast closure response,
and the ability to handle viscous or abrasive fluids and slurries more reliably than other types.
7.2.11. Axial Flow (Nozzle) Check (See Figure 46)
Figure 46 – Axial Flow (Nozzle) Check Valve

These valves can be characterised as a lift check disposed axially along the pipe axis.
Page 102 of 165

a. Recommended for preventing excessive pressure surge and providing stability if wide
pressure variations, pulsing flow, and frequent flow reversals are likely.
Axial flow checks have a short disk travel, low inertia, spring assisted closure, and are
extremely responsive to changes in flow.
This design is typically selected for onerous duties and uses the venturi principle in the
design of flow passages through the body resulting in the least flow resistance of any
check valve type. Sliding parts are largely shrouded from the flowing process fluid by the
central housing. The valve can be mounted either horizontally or vertically and is available
in a wide range of sizes and pressure ratings.
b. Axial flow nozzle checks are recommended for use in compressor discharge lines subject
to pulsating or low flow conditions in which a tilting disk type valve may ‘chatter’, but are
not recommended for reciprocating pump applications.
The valve body is usually made from a casting and is available with flanged or weld ends.
There are no penetrations of the pressure containment.
7.2.12. Plate Check Valves (See Figure 47)
Figure 47 – Plate Check Valve

Plate check valves use flexible metallic or polymer plates or membranes and are normally
fitted to compressors. This type of valve provides a very fast closing response and is
particularly suited to pulsing flow with compressible fluids. The frequency of flow pulsations
may require special consideration of design to avoid plate flutter.
Generally limited to applications in which there is a low differential pressure across the valve.
Suitable for mounting either horizontally or vertically.
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7.2.13. Foot Valves (See Figure 48)
Figure 48 – Foot Valve

These are generally installed at the suction inlet of a pump to maintain prime. The valve may
be fitted with a strainer to keep dirt and other foreign matter from entering the pump suction.
7.2.14. Application Guidance
7.2.14.1. Pigging
a. Only special designs of swing type check valves with contoured disks and (normally) seat
faces at right angles to the flow should be selected for services which are required to pass
pigs.
b. These designs should be avoided if pigging is not a requirement.
They do not have optimum dynamic characteristics.
c. If intelligent pigging is expected some means of mechanically lifting the disk should be
necessary.
7.2.14.2. Dynamic Response
The more closely the position of the valve closure member follows a declining forward flow
rate and prevents back‐flow the less likely it is to cause a high pressure surge (e.g. “water
hammer”) as a result of closure after a reverse flow has been established. Surge can result in
damage to the valve, piping system, and ancillaries, e.g. pump and compressors.
a. Swing check valves which facilitate pigging are also most susceptible to inducing pressure
surge. If pigging is not a requirement and high pressure drop cannot be tolerated, the
following alternatives, listed in the order of their “anti‐slam” performance, should be
considered:
1. Axial flow, nozzle check.
2. Dual plate check.
3. Tilting disk check.
4. Swing check with seat inclined to vertical and a maximum angle between disk and
seat of 65/70 degrees.
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b. If low pressure drop is not required piston type check valves may be used.
Valve types with a short travel and low inertia of the obturator, supplemented by spring
loading, provide the most rapid response and lowest surge potential.
A valve that closes at a mean velocity equal to or less than the normal flow velocity
should avoid excessive pressure surge.
c. Pressure surge effects should be considered when normal fluid velocities exceed 4,5 m/s
(15 ft/sec) for liquids or 27,5 m/s (90 ft/sec) for gases and whenever operating pressures
are close to the design pressure of the piping system. Note that:
1. Longer closing times may be acceptable under certain conditions, e.g. on single
pump systems for long pipelines in which the terminal back pressure and maximum
elevation are low.
2. Shorter closing times may be necessary on parallel pumping systems to prevent back
flow into a failed pump.
Supplementary loading can improve the response of some valves (See Figure 49).
Figure 49 – Swing Check with Supplementary Loading

Pressure shocks may still occur if:
 Loss of pressure at the valve inlet produces flashing of the decelerating fluid
downstream from the valve.
 A valve some distance downstream from the check valve is closed suddenly.
7.2.14.3. Unstable and Pulsating Flow
Rapid fluctuation in movement of the disk can result from large variations in pressure or from
smaller variations caused by pulsing flow and can lead to valve chatter, excessive wear, and
poor reliability.
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a. Standard swing checks should be avoided if wide velocity variations, pulsating flow, and
frequent flow reversal are likely.
Under severe conditions fretting at the hinge pin and even mechanical failure may occur
with all these valve types.
b. Tilting disk and duo‐disk valves are better at coping with unstable flows.
c. Axial flow nozzle check designs are better still and should always be used at compressor
outlets unless there are pressing reasons for doing otherwise. However, they are not
normally suitable for fitting downstream of reciprocating pumps. For this and other
applications involving pulsating flow piston type lift checks are particularly suitable and
can be obtained with adjustable damping.
d. In all cases the characteristics of check valves in compressor piping systems should be
compatible with the compressor manufacturer’s requirements.
Stability of conventional and tilting disc swing check valves may be improved by fitting an
external damping device (dashpot) via a shaft extension sealed by a gland. This may also
prevent surge (water hammer). Damping may also be a requirement in systems in which
extremely rapid flow reversals could occur, e.g. catastrophic rupture of gas piping
systems.
Duo disc check valves cannot normally be damped since external methods cannot be
employed.
7.2.14.4. Frequent Flow Reversal
Numerous flow reversals may have an adverse affect on wear and reliability of valve
components and manufacturers should be advised if this is likely to be the case.
7.2.14.5. Installation
a. Check valves should be mounted at least three pipe diameters downstream of such pipe
fittings.
Check valves are extremely sensitive to upstream piping features and elbows, valves, etc.
located immediately upstream can have a disastrous effect on performance.
b. A vertical location adversely affects the response of most types of check valves and
should be avoided if possible.
c. Lift type and swing type check valves should ideally never be fitted in vertical pipes. If
swing check or tilting disk designs are so installed the design should prevent the disk
reaching a “stalled” position when fully open. It should be recognised that in the fully
open vertical position the disk/hinge arm has a very small closing moment, further
reducing response unless supplementary loading is used with the possible complication of
damping. Any lift check valves mounted in vertical pipes should be provided with springs.
Duo‐disk check valves are more suited to vertical applications.
d. No check valve should be mounted in a pipe with flow vertically downward except axial
flow nozzle type and duo disk type and then only with the full knowledge and agreement
of the manufacturer.
e. In cases where a vertical location is contemplated, the supplier should be fully appraised
and asked to confirm that the obturator will not remain open to permit reverse flow.
f. Lift check valves in horizontal pipes should always be mounted with their bonnet axis in
the vertical plane.
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7.2.14.6. Sizing
a. Check valves should ideally be selected such that under normal flow conditions they are
fully open against the stop and the user should advise the manufacturer of the minimum
flow velocity at which the valve is required to be fully open. If swing check valves are used
in pigged pipelines this is not usually possible. In such cases design should ensure that
hinge pin and bearing design is adequate for the constant movement which may result.
For critical applications the manufacturer should be asked to advise the flow velocity
necessary to keep the valve fully open and to predict the position of the valve disk under
normal and minimum flow conditions.
Swing check valve failures often result from sizing for a larger than normal flow such that,
during most of the operating life, the valve disc is not fully opened against the stop. This
results in instability and mechanical damage.
b. Applications in gas or steam lines or in liquid lines with low or unsteady flow should be
fully described in the purchase specification so that the manufacturer can evaluate the
suitability of the valve design.
7.2.14.7. Flow Resistance (Pressure Drop)
Resistance to flow varies widely in different designs and also generally increases
disproportionately with smaller valve sizes and higher pressures (because disks have to be
thicker and occupy more of the flow path). Typical flow resistance coefficients for DN 150
(NPS 6) valves are as follows:
 Swing type 1,0.
 Axial flow type 1,4.
 Oblique pattern lift type 2,0.
 Piston type 7,0.
7.2.14.8. Shut‐Off
If differential pressure in the shut‐off direction is very low, it may be necessary to consider
supplementary loading. This can be achieved in some designs by additional weighting (e.g.
external in the case of swing checks) or stronger spring loading.
8. Special Valve Applications
This clause considers the particular requirements of special valve applications and functions.
The general recommendations/advice contained in other clauses of this guidance can be
assumed to apply.
8.1. Shut‐down valves
8.1.1. Emergency Shut‐Down (ESD) Valves
ESD valves are required to contain and protect sections of a plant in the event of an emergency
such as a fire. Standard types of valve intended for ESD service must achieve the highest
degree of functional reliability and pressure boundary integrity and may be affected by
legislation in some countries.
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The chief requirement is that the valve can be relied upon to close when asked to do so under
any likely conditions of operation. To demonstrate this, periodic tests involving full or partial
closure of the valve are required. Tight shut‐off is generally a secondary consideration.
Valve types are commonly trunnion mounted ball or slab type gate valves fitted with a fail
closed actuator. Slab gate valves can utilize internal pressure and the piston effect of the valve
stem to assist closure with consequent reduction in actuator size.
a. Trunnion mounted ball or slab type gate valves should be the first choices for dirty service
(if the height of the latter can be accommodated and if operating temperatures allow the
use of elastomer and polymer seals).
b. Floating (seat supported) ball valves should not be used for ESD service except if metal
seated versions are necessary in high temperature (> 200°C (392°F), low pressure service.
In such cases a metal seated, graphite sealed butterfly valve may provide an alternative
choice.
Operating torque of floating ball valves (particularly metal seated type) is high and can
increase markedly if valve condition deteriorates.
c. Soft seated ball valves may be used in clean service, but if sand, pipescale, or corrosion
product is likely or the valves have to pass pigs, hard coated metal seated valves should
be selected.
A high degree of seat leak tightness in service is not generally required and, although the
“as constructed” leak rate of metal seated valves is usually worse than that of soft seated
valves, it is likely to be maintained without significant deterioration in adverse conditions.
d. If soft seated valves can be justified, it is advisable to provide protection during line
flushing, etc. operations (see 4.2).
e. ESD ball valves should not normally be fitted with seat sealant injection facilities since this
feature is ineffective (and usually unnecessary) in the case of metal seated valves and can
never be used post ESD in the case of soft seated valves. Such facilities may be useful for
solvent flushing of soft seated valves in service where experience has shown this to be
beneficial.
If drain and vent connections are provided, it may be worth fitting them with valving since
this permits the valve cavity to be accessed with the system pressurised should the need
arise (e.g. for hot oil flushing to get a jammed seat to move).
f. Ball valves having double sealing piston type seats may be used to provide two seals in
series. If ESD valves have a preferred isolation direction it is recommended that only the
“downstream” seat should have this feature. Double piston seats are not recommended
at pressure ratings above Class 1500.
This gives some additional security whilst preserving automatic venting of cavity
overpressure.
g. Balanced, lubricated plug valves may be used if periodic relubrication can be guaranteed
and are particularly suited to gas service applications where maximum compactness is
required.
h. Sleeved plug valves should not be used for ESD applications because of the tendency for
operating torque to increase.
i. Double or triple offset butterfly valves may also be used in clean gas or liquid service up
to Class 600 (PN 100) rating. In high temperature service metal seated, graphite sealed
versions may be the best choice.
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j. Expanding type gate valves and wedge type gate valves should not be used in shut‐down
service.
High operating force requirements at the beginning and end of the operating stroke make
these valve types unsuitable for shut down service.
8.1.2. Emergency Shut‐Down Valve Actuators
The actuator and associated control system have a major influence on the performance of ESD
valves and should be chosen with care.
a. ESD valve actuators should normally be fail‐safe hydraulic type or, for smaller size, low
pressure applications in which their greatly increased size can be accommodated, fail‐safe
pneumatic type.
b. ESD valve actuators in hazardous areas shall be protected against fire and blast to ensure
that during a limited fire they can function as required.
1. Protection may be provided by screens, casings, or the application of intumescent
coatings.
2. Access requirements (for maintenance, testing, etc.) should be considered during
selection.
c. In high temperature service applications it may be necessary to mount actuators on
extended spools or yokes or to provide extended valve bonnets to ensure an acceptable
operating temperature.
8.1.3. Actuator Safely Factor
Actuators of slab type gate valves and butterfly valves should be capable of applying a
torque/force of at least 1,5 times the maximum requirement advised by the manufacturer
(and recorded during factory acceptance tests) throughout the open/close cycle. For ball and
plug valves this actuator margin should be increased to a factor of 2.
The force required to operate a slab type gate valve can be accurately predicted if the
coefficient of friction between the gate and seat is known. Test on double and triple offset
butterfly valves have shown that torque does not increase significantly during operational life.
Operating forces of ball and plug valves are less easy to predict and more likely to increase in
service.
8.1.4. High Integrity Pressure Protection System (HIPPS) Valves
These valves are used as the final part of an instrumented system intended to prevent an
unacceptably high pressure occurring in downstream equipment. They are always arranged to
fail closed and spring/hydraulic actuators are usually the only practical alternative for
operation.
a. In general, closure times should be maximised or, if times have to be short, tests should
be undertaken (see 8.1.5 below).
Required closure speed depends on the closed‐in volume downstream and the working
fluid (e.g. if there is a high volume, gas filled system downstream, valve closure speed
need not be fast).
b. HIPPS applications have the following characteristics:
1. High pressure always available at time of emergency closure (Note: may not be true
of test closures);
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2. Low differential pressure during closure;
3. High differential pressure after closure;
4. Requirement for periodic closure (or partial closure) and seat leakage testing;
5. (Occasionally) fast closure.
The first two make for particularly benign operating conditions and the temptation to
specify an unnecessarily high differential pressure during closure should be resisted.
c. Hard metal seated, slab type gate valves should be the first choice for this application if
pipe size is less than DN 400 (NPS 15).
Designers of slab type gate valves can utilise the high internal pressure to close the valve
by designing the valve stem as a piston. This means that the closure spring is only
necessary during operations at very low or zero pressure and increases reliability of
closure.
d. Hard metal seated slab type gate valves and trunnion mounted ball valves should be
selected if pigging is required.
e. If pigging is not a requirement (the usual case) consideration should be given to
specifying:
1. Reduced bore gate or ball valves.
This reduces weight, cost, closure time, and operating forces.
2. Axial flow block valves (e.g. Mokveld type).
Obturator travel is only about ¼ to 1/3 that of ball or gate valves and there is no
sliding contact between obturator and seat so closure times can be extremely short.
8.1.5. Speed of Operation
a. Fast operation is not required by most shut down applications and should be avoided if
possible. As a general rule of thumb the operating time of ball and slab gate valves should
equal or exceed DN/25 (NPS) in seconds; i.e. a DN 250 (NPS 10) valve should not close
faster than 10 seconds.
b. Instantaneous velocities occurring at particular points in the closing stroke may be higher
than this, depending on the actuator type.
Pneumatic actuators are particularly prone to acceleration during the opening stroke
when the valve ball/gate breaks out of the seat.
c. If faster closure than specified in (a above) is required and a manufacturer does not have
directly comparable and thoroughly tested experience of the
material/load/speed/operating environment combination proposed then pin and disk
abrasion testing should be commissioned from an appropriate laboratory.
There is a direct inverse relationship between obturator to seat contact pressure and
closing speed. This is particularly important in the case of HIPPS service in which high
pressure differential may be combined with fast closure. If contact pressure or closing
speed, or the combination of the two becomes excessive, breakdown of the carbide, etc.
surfaces occurs – sometimes during a single operation.
d. Fast closure times also mean that some form of hydraulic damping is necessary at the end
of travel. This should ideally be arranged as an integral part of the piston/cylinder design.
e. Contact load/operating speed combinations arising during factory acceptance testing of a
valve should not exceed those which will occur in service.
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The limitations of test arrangements can sometimes impose conditions which are more
onerous than those which will be encountered in service.
8.1.6. Testing
a. Shutdown valves should be periodically closure tested.
1. The frequency of testing, to some extent, determines the level of reliability that can
be claimed, but it is necessary to balance the desire for high reliability against the
detrimental effects (wear, etc.) of too high a closure test frequency.
2. A test frequency of 2 times per year is usually defendable and frequencies greater
than 4 times per year should be avoided.
Partial closure testing can be advantageous in that it demonstrates that all parts of the
control and actuation system are functioning correctly without interrupting production.
Test facilities are easy to incorporate into actuator control systems at the design stage
and there are also commercially available add‐on devices for valves already in service. It is
still necessary to carry out a complete closure from time to time in order to demonstrate
that this can be achieved and to facilitate seat leak testing.
b. System design should make provision for periodic seat leak tests of HIPPS valves and
import/export pipeline isolation valves to support a safety case or meet regulatory
requirements. There are only two possible methods:
1. Monitoring pressure decay from or pressure rise in a known closed volume over
time.
2. Acoustic leak detection.
The former method assumes that all other isolations (such as block valves) of the closed
volume are 100% effective. Acoustic leak testing is less accurate (order of magnitude), but
extremely quick in comparison and very useful for establishing trends.
Ideally, initial readings should be performed in conjunction with a pressure decay type
test. (See clause 4 for more details).
Acceptable leak rates vary widely. For a HIPPS valve protecting a small volume on liquid
service, a high degree of closure tightness is necessary whilst a similar system protecting
a long gas pipeline has much greater tolerance of through seat leakage. In the case of
emergency shut‐down valves protecting facilities it is often possible to tolerate a
significant through seat leakage that is usually limited only by the need to limit the hazard
(e.g. fire) to the magnitude assumed in the safety assessment.
8.2. Automatic Blow Down Valves
8.2.1. Requirements
Gas blow‐down duty requires that the valve:
a. Be quick opening type.
b. Be normally closed and fail open.
c. Open against a differential pressure equal to the normal system operating pressure.
d. Withstand sonic velocity across the seat during opening.
e. Be mechanically robust and insensitive to vibration.
If there are two restriction orifices in series during the early stages of valve opening, flow
velocities may be supersonic.
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8.2.2. Valve Types
a. At relatively low pressures (e.g. up to Class 600), standard ball valves (soft or metal seat
according to fluid conditions) and metal seated butterfly valves may be specified, but in
high pressure service a single seated valve design such as an axial flow (e.g. Mokveld, FCT)
type or a balanced, lubricated plug valve should be specified. If a trunnion mounted ball
valve is selected the downstream seat ring should be omitted.
During opening of a trunnion mounted ball valve against a high differential gas pressure, a
continuous, high differential pressure is applied across the downstream seat to body seal
in the opposite direction to that in which it is designed to work with resulting permanent
damage (This is likely to occur even if lip seals are provided with support rings). For the
same reason, if top entry ball valves are provided with two part seat rings to facilitate
removal, the seals between these can be blown inwards into the pipe bore.
Unpredictable dynamic effects can occur resulting in severe physical damage to metallic
components such as the valve ball and seat. This has been experienced with both
trunnion mounted designs (two seats in series) and “Orbit” type ball valves (single seat,
but articulated mechanical joint between ball and stem).
b. If there is no controlling orifice in the downstream pipe or high pressure drops could exist
across the valve for long periods, a control valve having a low noise trim should be
specified. In this case, the degree of seat tightness that can be obtained and maintained
should be ascertained as it may be necessary to fit a fail open actuated block valve in
series to achieve the required shut‐off.
8.3. Flow Diversion
8.3.1. Multi‐Port Valves
a. Special, multi‐port designs of globe, plug, and ball valves are available which allow the
diversion of a common source to two different outlets or crossover switching of flow
streams (See Figure 50 & Figure 51). The multiple port arrangement may be such that one
channel closes before another begins to open, preventing mixture of fluids or loss of
pressure. Alternatively, some valves have greater port width so that in turning the plug, a
new channel begins to open before the former channel is completely closed. This
alternative may be used where it is necessary to carry out switching operation without
stopping the flow at any time.
Page 112 of 165

Figure 50 – Diverter Globe Valve
Figure 51 – 4‐way Diverter Expanding Plug Valve
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b. In some cases these designs can provide good isolation as well but this should not
normally be relied upon except where the manufacturer includes good isolation as a
principal design feature.
c. Common applications include:
1. Spared pressure relief valve isolation
2. Meter loop switching
3. Coker plant switching
d. Requirements will vary widely depending on the nature of the service and normal
selection procedures should be used for materials, seals, hard coatings, etc.
8.3.2. Single Valves
a. In theory, any appropriate block valve can be used where individual valves are used to
achieve flow direction switching. In practice the operation may have to be carried out
according to a careful sequence to avoid process problems or valve problems (such as
may result from repeated opening against high differential pressure).
b. If fast operating times are necessary, quarter turn designs (ball and plug) should be
chosen with trim appropriate to the service. If operating times need not be fast, gate
valves may also be selected.
c. Frequent operation is often a characteristic of diverter service so diverter valves should
not be relied upon as the sole means of isolation if intervention is envisaged. In the case
of oil and gas production/test manifolds, a switching valve in the flowline to each
separator should be supplemented with a separate high integrity block valve located in
the common flowline from the well to be operated only when intervention is required.
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8.4. Bellows Sealed Valves (See Figure 52)
Figure 52 – Bellows Seal Gate Valve

a. Bellows sealed valves should be used if escape of any fluid to the atmosphere is
undesirable for health, safety, or economic reasons.
1. A bellows provides the primary sealing of the stem during opening and closing, but a
packed gland or other appropriate stem seal should always be provided for
secondary sealing in case of bellows failure.
2. The bellows is housed in an extended bonnet that may be welded or bolted to the
valve body.
3. The bellows should be welded to the valve stem at its lower end and sealed to the
valve bonnet at its upper end.
b. Bellows should be used in linear action valves of the gate and globe design DN 150
(NPS 6) and smaller, but may also be applied to special ball valve designs.
Bellows fail as a result of fatigue (operating and pressure cycles) and, as a general rule,
the longer the bellows for a given valve size, the longer the expected life. In practice,
manufacturing tolerances, etc. mean that bellows cycles to failure conform to a standard
distribution so a good margin is needed (ideally a factor of 2 times) between the required
number of cycles and the demonstrated cyclic life of a small number of tested bellows
samples.
c. Bellows seal gate and globe valves should be procured in accordance with ISO 15761
which includes minimum requirements for bellows life and a type qualification test.
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8.5. Valves for Cryogenic Service
a. Valves for cryogenic applications (below –50°C (–58°F)) should be type qualification
tested in accordance with BS 6364 or an acceptable alternative and should normally be
provided with extended bonnets (See Figure 53).
Figure 53 – Cryogenic Globe Valve

Valve types normally employed are gate, globe, ball, or butterfly manufactured in
austenitic stainless steel, Monel, bronze, or cupro‐nickel.
The extended bonnet allows a reasonable temperature gradient up to the stem seal and
handwheel or actuator and allows a liquefied gas to reach a vaporising temperature.
Seats and seals are normally manufactured in KEL‐F, PTFE, and similar materials and need
careful selection for temperatures below –65°C (–85°F).
b. Soft seated floating ball valves or other valves having a closed body cavity should be
required to demonstrate automatic relief of cavity overpressure caused by thermal
expansion of fluids or should be fitted with external relief valves.
c. Valves should normally be installed with stems at not more than π/4 radians (45 degrees)
to the vertical to maintain a low thermal conductivity vapour lock in the bonnet.
d. Valves for cryogenic service should be cleaned to a high standard (free of moisture and
grease) and assembled in clean conditions.
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e. Bronze stem bushing, polymer or hard faced seats, special coatings, and solid film
lubricants should be specified to prevent galling.
Cryogenic liquids are generally non‐lubricating and therefore galling may occur between
relatively soft metal mating parts.
f. Guidance on valves that are subject to sub‐zero, but not cryogenic, conditions (i.e. down
to –50°C (–58°F) is provided in EEMUA Publication 192.
8.6. Vacuum Service Valves
a. If valves may be subject to vacuum this should be made clear to the supplier at time of
procurement.
Many valves in pressurised service may be subjected to vacuum occasionally e.g. during
certain commissioning operations such as vacuum drying of piping systems.
b. Stem seals or packing should be capable of sealing atmospheric pressure in the reverse
direction and bellows stem seals may be specified if the cycle life is compatible with the
application. Secondary stem packing should be specified in such cases.
Valves specified to shut off against vacuum are usually soft seated types such as ball
valves, butterfly valves, or soft seated wedge gate valves.
8.7. Deluge Service Valves
These valves are used on firewater deluge service. Proprietary deluge valves using rubber
diaphragms, sleeves, etc. are preferred to process control valves for this service because:
a. They operate virtually instantaneously. A process control valve can require several
seconds to operate.
b. They fail safe (open) despite damage to the pneumatic detection or actuation system.
This may not be true in the case of process control valves.
c. Process control valves are liable to seize when they stand inactive for extended periods of
time as in deluge service. Proprietary deluge valves are designed to avoid this problem.
d. For any given line size, the deluge valve saves space and weight when compared with
actuated process valves.
8.8. Excess Flow and Slam‐Shut Valves (See Figure 54 & Figure 55)
Figure 54 – Excess Flow Valve
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Figure 55 – Slam Shut Valve

a. Excess flow valves or slam‐shut valves should be installed where fluid dumping from a
ruptured line would be unacceptable.
Excess flow valves are designed to close automatically when the flow through them
exceeds a specified rate. They usually incorporate a spring‐loaded valve disk that only
closes if the forward flow of fluid through the valve generates sufficient force, or
differential pressure, to overcome the power of the spring holding it open. Each valve is
uniquely specified to close at a particular flow rate so careful identification is essential.
b. The effect of piping, fittings, and valves downstream of the valve should be taken into
account when evaluating flow.
c. The valve should be installed as near as possible to the protected vessels/tanks to avoid
water hammer/surge on closure.
d. Valves should be selected with a closing flow rate of at least 10% to 15% greater than the
anticipated normal flow otherwise they may chatter or slug closed when surges occur in
the line.
e. The closure speed of larger sized valves may be reduced by the addition of a dashpot that
utilises the working fluid. This is recommended only on large liquid lines, to avoid
hydraulic shock.
Rupture in small‐bore piping downstream of such a valve may not provide sufficient flow
to close it.
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f. Slam‐shut valves do not respond automatically to changes in flow and require an external
control system to provide a closing signal.
A slam‐shut valve can be thought of as a check valve used in reverse and whose disk is
normally held fully open. The valve disk is usually held open mechanically against a spring.
When a closure signal is received, the mechanical detent is removed (e.g. by operation of
a solenoid valve) and the valve closes under the influence of the spring and the flowing
fluid. These valves are frequently used in low pressure gas distribution systems.
8.9. Dosing Valves
A dosing valve either rotates continuously or reciprocates through π radians (180 degrees) in
order to deliver a measured quantity of a substance (usually a powder e.g. catalyst) from a
storage vessel to a conveyor or into a process.
Modified ball valves incorporating a solid ball with a pocket can be used. It is often necessary
to pack the valve cavity with moulded polymer to prevent hold up of powder which could be
released and affect the dose. Abrasive powders present a particular challenge.
Another design consists of a spindle or hub to which are attached a number of blades. Rotation
of the spindle causes the product to enter the space between the blades on one side of the
valve and be delivered at the opposite side.
Valves are always actuated or motorised and are not intended to be liquid or gas tight.
8.10. Valves Associated with Pig Launchers/Receivers
a. Valves associated with pig launchers/receivers shall be in accordance with the general
requirements of this guidance.
b. Pig launcher/receiver primary pipeline isolation valves shall ball valves type.
c. Pig launcher auxiliary valves shall ball valves type.
8.11. Subsea Applications
8.11.1. Valve Selection
The general principles of this guidance should apply to subsea valve selection.
a. Avoidance of maintenance and unscheduled intervention is paramount and for this
reason only the most robust, reliable, and wear resistant valve types should be
considered. Soft seated valves should be avoided except in very specific applications (see
below). Seals should be long life, maintenance free and not subject to degradation by the
process.
b. In the light of experience to date, hard coated, metal seated slab gate, or trunnion
mounted ball valves should normally be chosen.
Gate valves have the advantage of (usually) lower through seat leakage and easy to
predict operating forces whilst the rotary action of ball valve stems offers a lower risk of
leakage to the environment.
c. With ball valves there is also a choice of body pattern.
1. Top entry and all welded designs should be chosen if it is intended to lay valves with
the pipe or if externally applied forces and moments during operation will be high.
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2. End entry bolted body designs should normally be reserved for applications in which
externally applied loads are low or if the consequences of environmental leakage are
not severe.
d. Valve selection should always take into account the particular process conditions and
mode of operation and there are instances in which the use of soft seated ball valves may
be justified.
Valves provided to facilitate tie‐ins are often required to seal only until after the tie‐in is
made after which they function as a piece of pipe. Welded body, soft seated valves
supplied (and left) in the closed position may be most suitable for this service.
e. In the case of check valves, axial flow nozzle type, duo‐disk type, conventional or tilting
disk swing type, and piston lift type are all possible.
1. Only axial flow type and duo disk type should be mounted in vertical pipe sections
(and only with upwards flow).
2. If conventional swing checks are to be vertically mounted, valve opening should be
restricted and tests or CFD analysis used to confirm that closure occurs before
backflow commences.
3. If pigging is a requirement, full opening swing checks are the only possibility and
these should not be mounted in vertical pipe sections.
f. If ROV opening or position indication is required, check valves should be provided with a
shaft extending out through the pressure boundary and this has to be sealed. Such
arrangements should therefore be avoided if possible.
See clause 9 for general information on check valves.
g. Subsea applications of small auxiliary valves such as ball, needle globe, rotating disk, etc.
types should always use designs specifically intended and type qualification tested for
subsea use. Integral block and bleed arrangements should be specified in accordance with
ASME which addresses subsea application.
h. If standard type valves (e.g. floating ball valves) are used for temporary subsea duty (e.g.
during the deployment of subsea structures), the proposed design should be reviewed to
confirm that:
1. Environmental seals have the necessary reverse sealing capability.
2. Material selection is appropriate for the operating conditions (e.g. untreated
seawater) and that cathodic protection arrangements are fully understood.
3. Graphite seals in contact with seawater and carbon steel or 13% chrome stainless
steel are avoided.
8.11.2. Design
a. Valves equal to or greater than DN 50 (NPS 2) of Class 150 to Class 2500 rating should
meet EN ISO 14723 QL1 taking into consideration pipe loads (during operation and
installation, e.g. pipelay), operating forces, etc. and, if design is in accordance with a
vessel code, an increased design pressure to permit safe application of the hydrostatic
shell test pressure.
b. In addition, in the interests of conservatism, valve bodies having nominal sizes less than
or equal to DN 300 (NPS 12) and a rating less than or equal to Class 2500 should also
meet the minimum wall thickness requirements of ASME B16.34 for the specified rating,
nominal size, and material.
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EN ISO 14723 allows design to pressure vessel codes that may not provide adequate
limitation of deflections/strains in the valve shell to guarantee efficient valve function.
c. If the method of analysis used (e.g. finite element) is sufficiently detailed to give
confidence that deflections are acceptably restricted this requirement may be waived.
d. Weld end. compact connector and compact flange valves greater than Class 900 rating
and greater than DN 250 (NPS 10) size may be designed to an intermediate ASME rating if
this is advantageous. It is essential that such limitations of pressure or temperature be
marked on the valve nameplate.
This can reduce weight and cost. Normally flanged valves should not be designed to an
intermediate rating because of the danger of their being transferred to a different
application requiring a valve having the full flange rating but this is an unlikely eventuality
in subsea application.
e. Valves of higher rating than ASME Class 2500 should normally meet API Spec 17D and
API 6A except that, in the case of austenitic, superaustenitic, duplex, and superduplex
steel shells, the design allowable stress intensity should be the lower of 2/3 Sy at design
temperature or 1/3 Su at design temperature.
This is in accordance with vessel design codes and is intended to prevent unacceptably
high local stresses which can cause uncontrolled low temperature creep of these
materials.
f. Integral block and bleed manifolds should meet EEMUA Publication 182 and includes
appropriate requirements for subsea application.
g. Body joints and stem sealing arrangements should incorporate seals designed to exclude
seawater at the applicable hydrostatic pressure. The use of gland packings that may
require periodic adjustment should be prohibited.
h. In high cycle applications fatigue should be considered.
i. Graphite “fire” seals should be avoided.
Subsea valves are not required to be fire safe/fire type tested and these seals can often
lead to corrosion.
j. Valves that do not automatically relieve body cavity overpressure should not be fitted
with pressure relief arrangements.
There is normally no need for subsea valves to be able to relieve cavity overpressure since
the conditions in which this can arise are not normally present, i.e. no source of
uncontrolled heating.
8.11.3. Operation
a. Lever and handwheel operating forces of hand operated valves should be restricted to
less than the values permitted for topsides valves to allow for diver operation. The design
of levers and handwheels should take into account the restrictions associated with diver
operation.
b. ROV interfaces should be in accordance with one of the standard arrangements specified
in ISO 13628‐4 and valve suppliers should be asked to advise:
1. The normal maximum operating torque/force required.
2. The ROV input torque/force that would result in permanent deformation or other
damage to the drive train.
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8.11.4. Materials
a. Material selection should be in accordance with EEMUA Publication 194.
External material selection for subsea valves, actuators, gearboxes, and their subsidiary
components is critical because of the effects of cathodic protection systems, crevice
corrosion, and other galvanic mechanisms.
b. Materials, including bolting and other fasteners, in contact with seawater and potentially
exposed to a cathodic protection (CP) system should be subject to a hardness limitation
of 34 HRC.
Steel materials that are harder than this are vulnerable to embrittlement by free
hydrogen produced by the CP.
c. Large surface area austenitic stainless steel components and all duplex stainless steels
should be painted to prevent drain on the CP system and hydrogen embrittlement
respectively.
d. If the product is corrosive, overlaid alloy steel valves are preferred to duplex or
superduplex stainless steel. If duplex or superduplex valves are unavoidable, hot isostatic
pressings are preferred to castings and forgings.
Because of the potential for “cold creep”, microporosity of castings, and inadequate heat
treatment of forgings in duplex and superduplex material.
e. Gate and ball valves having piston type seats should have their seat pockets, seal
housings, and flange face seal areas overlaid with corrosion resistant alloy regardless of
service.
To ensure functionality throughout the service life and prevent corrosion occurring before
entering service.
f. Carbon, low alloy and duplex stainless steels for pressure containing parts in valves with a
specified design temperature below 0°C (32°F) should be impact tested at or below the
minimum design temperature to demonstrate acceptable ductility.
The consequences of brittle failure in subsea applications could be environmentally and
financially disastrous.
g. Gearbox and actuator housing materials should preferably be steel. If ductile iron is
permitted it should be subject to impact testing.
Spheroidal graphite cast iron specifications are available that incorporate impact test
requirements.
h. Threads of fasteners should not be coated and the underside of nuts should not be sealed
with O‐rings etc.
8.11.5. Testing
a. All parts of the valve and actuator/gearbox assembly, including fasteners, brackets, etc.
should be shown to preserve electrical continuity. Resistance between any two points/
components should not exceed 10 ohms when measured using a 12 volt maximum d.c.
power source.
Any break in continuity results in rapid galvanic corrosion.
b. Hand and ROV operated valves should be shown to be capable of operation against the
design differential pressure whilst meeting the specified operating force restrictions.
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c. In critical applications, provision should be made for primary seals to be individually
tested during FAT e.g. by monitoring leakage via a temporary port that is then plugged
and sealed (preferably by welding). In all cases individual seal tests should be conducted
on at least a type test basis.
8.11.6. Qualification Type Testing
a. One sample of each unique type, size, and rating of subsea valve and actuator and one
sample of each unique type, size, and material of seal intended for subsea service should
be shown to have been subjected to appropriate qualification type testing. As a minimum
this should include:
1. Sealing and functionality;
2. Hyperbaric testing;
3. Endurance testing;
4. In the case of gear operators and actuators testing in accordance with API Spec 17D.
b. In addition, testing in accordance with API Spec 17D and ISO 10423 (API 6A) Appendix F
PR2 may be appropriate.
c. If these tests do not provide adequate confidence of acceptable field life performance,
additional requirements should be considered (e.g. additional endurance cycles, thermal
cycles, etc.).
d. Previously conducted tests may be considered in lieu.
e. A sample of each unique type, size, and rating should be subjected to a hyperbaric test in
accordance with an agreed procedure or should be shown to have previously passed such
a test. Test pressure should be at least 1,1 times the hydrostatic pressure at design depth.
f. If valve stems or bonnets are sealed with a multiple (redundant) seal arrangement or
incorporate a seawater exclusion seal, qualification tests should be conducted on each
seal whilst mounted in a valve or suitable test fixture to demonstrate acceptable function
of each separate sealing component.
g. If a seal could be subjected to reverse pressurisation in a non‐preferred direction (e.g. if a
relief/check valve etc. is fitted to relieve production fluid to sea) this should be simulated
at a pressure equal to or greater than 1,5 times the design hydrostatic pressure. If the
seal passes fluid when tested in the reverse direction this is permissible provided:
1. It seals again when re‐tested in the normal direction and
2. There is no permanent, visible damage.
Serious problems have been experienced as a result of hydrostatic pressure being applied
behind valve stem seals via a check/vent valve.
h. Gearboxes and actuators should be endurance type tested through an appropriate
number of cycles.
8.11.7. Maintenance
Subsea valve applications should normally aim to avoid any maintenance through the life of
field. However, if valves are likely to experience particularly severe operating conditions or
their function is critical to continued operation, consideration should be given to making them
retrievable or locating them in assemblies that are themselves retrievable.
It is common in deep water service to use chokes that incorporate a retrievable insert
containing all the functional parts of the valve and there are valve designs of ball and check
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valve available offering a similar facility. One such check valve design also has a rotating sleeve
that prevents water ingress to the pipeline during this operation.
8.11.8. Deep Water Applications
The actual differential pressure conditions experienced by individual seals should always be
established and, if possible, tested before deployment.
The effects of external hydrostatic pressure, low internal pressure, and atmospheric pressure
trapped between multiple seals may not be obvious.
“Deep” water applications are generally considered to be those in which access by diver is
impossible i.e. 300 m (1 000 ft) or greater depth. Since installation and any intervention has to
be by means of ROV with support vessels, etc. this is extremely costly.
9. Seals, Packings, and Gaskets
9.1. Introduction
Seals, gland packings, and gaskets are crucial parts of a valve since they determine its integrity
with respect to the environment and, in some designs, its shut‐off capability.
Specification and selection of seal type and material is extremely important, fundamentally
affects valve performance, and requires attention to detail.
a. Seals should generally be one of the following types:
1. Elastomer O‐ring.
2. Polymer lip seal (spring energised for low pressure sealing).
3. Proprietary seal designs.
4. Packed gland.
5. Chevron arrangement.
6. Diaphragm.
7. Thrust seal.
8. Metal gasket.
9. Pressure seal.
10. Metal bellows.
11. Combinations of the above.
b. Figure 56 shows O‐ring, lip seal, chevron packing, and woven packing rings.
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Figure 56 – Seal Types
9.2. Elastomer O‐Rings
9.2.1. General
Elastomer O‐rings are the most common type of seals used in ball valves, particularly at low
and medium pressures (Class 600 or lower ratings). They are also used (along with other
elastomer based seals such as S seals and Glyde rings) in ball valves, slab type gate valves, and
expanding type gate valves for higher pressure ratings.
a. Diametral clearances should be minimised if extrusion is to be avoided and, at pressure
ratings above Class 600, rigid plastic backing rings (filled PTFE or PEEK) having scarf cut
joints should be specified.
b. The required elastomer formulation depends on the process, etc. conditions, but NBR
(nitrile) or FKM (viton) materials should be selected for most conditions in hydrocarbon
service.
The intolerance of viton to concentrated methanol is alleviated by as little as 2% dilution
with water.
c. The unnecessarily conservative practice of specifying the minimum design temperature of
a gas application as being equal to the pipe or valve material impact test temperature
(e.g. –46°C (–51°F) or the lowest transient temperature expected to occur across a closing
ESD valve causes problems for seal material selection and should be avoided. A more
accurate assessment of minimum temperature (and its duration) is necessary.
The upper temperature limits of most oil and gas processing applications present no
problems for common elastomers, but lower temperature limits in gas service may. It is
often impossible to find an elastomer that can accommodate the low temperature whilst
still offering adequate resistance to explosive decompression damage in gas service.
9.2.2. Explosive Decompression
This phenomenon results from high pressure gas permeating the elastomer and failing to
escape when pressure is reduced leading to internal cracking that eventually reaches the
surface of the seal causing leakage. This phenomenon does not occur if liquids are present.
Sensitivity depends on the gas composition (e.g. high CO2 is undesirable), the operating
pressure and temperature, the degree of constraint (more is good – polymer back‐up rings are
useful for this purpose), and the decompression rate. Materials appear to be most sensitive to
rapid pressure reductions occurring below 70 bar (1 000 psi) when pressures have previously
Page 125 of 165

been higher. At operating pressures below 70 bar (1 000 psi) neither NBR (nitrile) nor FKM
(viton) materials are likely to experience damage provided they are sufficiently hard.
a. Special formulations are available for use at pressures above 70 bar (1 000 psi). These
have a relatively high hardness (90 + durometer) and include a filler to reduce gas
permeability. They should normally be used with high strength polymer back‐up rings as
noted above.
b. O‐ring or other elastomer seal section diameters should not exceed approx. 6 mm (1/4 in)
in gas service.
It is very difficult to prevent explosive decompression damage above this size, regardless
of material formulation, because manufacturing defects in the seal act as crack initiators.
c. If such seals are contemplated, specialist advice should be sought; alternatively, polymer
lip seals, etc should be used.
d. Excessive conservatism should be avoided when determining minimum design
temperatures on gas service (see above).
Explosive decompression resistance and low temperature tolerance are frequently
mutually exclusive properties, so when trying to achieve a balance it is usually preferable
to err towards the former at the expense of the latter. This is because material
manufacturer’s specifications are usually conservative and because transient exposure to
temperatures below this limit is rarely detrimental.
9.3. Polymer Lip Seals
Reinforced lip seals consisting of an outer sheath of polymer (e.g., PTFE) with an internal metal
spring are self energised (by the spring) at very low pressures and pressure energised at higher
pressures. Lip seals generally require closer machining tolerances and a better surface finish
than O‐rings and need greater care and cleanliness during assembly as they are intolerant of
minor scratches etc. The polymers most commonly used are PTFE and PEEK, sometimes with a
filler (e.g. glass, carbon) for additional strength/temperature resistance. Both materials are
inert to most production and dosing chemicals, can be used from cryogenic temperatures to
approx. 200°C (392°F), and are unaffected by explosive decompression in gas service.
Lip seals may temporarily leak during temperature changes if these occur relatively quickly.
If there is a possibility that a lip seal may be subjected to a differential pressure in the reverse
direction it should be provided with a PEEK or metal support ring to prevent crushing.
9.4. Proprietary Seal Designs
These are mostly intended for dynamic applications and usually comprise mixtures of polymer
(used on the dynamic surface to limit friction) and elastomer (used to energise the seal) (e.g.
D ring). Other designs allow the use of elastomers at higher pressure by incorporating anti‐
extrusion features etc. (e.g. T seals).
9.5. Gland Packings
Compression packings for block valves consist of deformable materials such as exfoliated
graphite and carbon or polymer filament/yarn woven into a braid. The material is typically in
square or rectangular section, supplied in a continuous coil from which individual rings can be
cut or as separate die‐formed ring elements. The latter are preferred since density can be
more carefully controlled. Compression by the gland follower urges the packing against the
valve stem and stuffing box wall to provide a seal.
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a. Excessively long packing chambers should be avoided. If they cannot be avoided (e.g.
existing valves), replacement of superfluous packing by a rigid spacer should be
considered.
This is because the sealing pressure within a packing chamber diminishes as distance from
the gland follower increases.
b. If sealing integrity is of prime importance (e.g. toxic service) the use of packing sets
comprising specially shaped packing rings employing an element of pressure energisation,
sets containing variable density rings, or techniques such as live (spring) loading may be
necessary.
Gland packings suffer from relaxation of the load over time leading eventually to leakage
in service and these techniques can reduce the phenomenon.
c. Valve stem finish, straightness, and run‐out along with packing chamber finish, gland and
stem clearances all affect sealing efficiency and should be carefully controlled.
d. Split packings incorporating a lantern ring should be avoided.
Valves packed with flexible graphite do not require a lantern ring and users intending to
specify such an arrangement in order to facilitate later injection of emergency gland
sealant should consider whether the specification of a high integrity design of one piece
packing would be more likely to result in greater overall integrity.
e. If an intermediate lantern ring is provided, the primary packing set should be the lower of
the two and the upper packing set should be of minimum length (no more than a single
graphite ring with anti‐extrusion rings).
f. Gland packings should not be replaced with the stem on the back seat and the valve
under pressure.
9.6. Chevron Seals/Packings
Chevron type seals are less commonly found in block valves than either O‐rings or lip seals.
Chevron packings are frequently used for control valves because of the need to minimize
operating friction. They comprise V shaped rings of PTFE or mixtures of PTFE and other
polymers such as PEEK that are preloaded by the gland and pressure energised by the process
media (sometimes elastomer rings are also included). The set has to be compressed a specific
amount in order to provide the initial, low differential pressure seal and there may be a need
for periodic adjustment as the PTFE “flows”. Such sealing arrangements are less demanding of
tight tolerances than lip seals and are slightly less susceptible to minor damage during
assembly (because of the multiple rings).
9.7. Diaphragm Seals
These consist of a sheet of elastomer, polymer, or, sometimes, metal that is sealed to the valve
body at its outer edge and in contact with the valve stem at its centre thus permitting linear
motion whilst maintaining a seal. They are most commonly used in diaphragm block valves and
pressure regulating valves and also form a part of the most common type of control valve
actuator.
If diaphragm valves are used on any service where it is important to retain the process fluid
they should be provided with a secondary stem seal.
Diaphragm seals of diaphragm valves are used to isolate the valve stem from the process
medium and also provide the body/bonnet gasket. It is important to realise that, unless a
secondary seal (e.g., O‐ring) is provided on the stem, diaphragm rupture results in leakage to
atmosphere.
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9.8. Thrust Seals
Thrust seals should only be used with ball valves of small size and should be avoided in high
pressure gas service (> Class 600).
Thrust seals are packing rings or washers of reinforced polymeric materials mounted between
shoulders in the bonnet and on the valve stem. They are usually reliant on internal pressure to
maintain a seal and are prone to extrusion at high pressure.
9.9. Metal Seals/Gaskets
a. Metal seals may be used to seal static joints in the form of ring type gaskets, pressure
energised gaskets (e.g. Techlok, Graylok type), filled, spiral wound gaskets, or proprietary
corrugated gaskets. In addition, flat, graphite sheet gaskets should always incorporate a
stainless steel sheet to provide strength.
b. Ring type joints should be used for gate, globe and check valves at Class 1500 and higher
ratings and may be used down to Class 600 rating. Generally, the groove surface of ring
type joints should be harder than the gasket.
For Class 600 and Class 900 they are not essential and may add considerably to the
weight and required bolt load of the joint.
c. Spiral wound, graphite filled gaskets should be used for valves up to Class 900 rating in
which temperatures above 200°C (392°F) have to be accommodated.
d. For Class 150 rating, flat sheet graphite/metal gaskets may be used. These may also be
suitable for Class 300 rating.
Pressure energized gaskets of the Techlok, etc. type tend not to leak with increasing
internal pressure but continue to seal until catastrophic failure occurs.
Metal O‐rings can be used as static seals but may also be used in dynamic (or semi‐
dynamic) arrangements.
The most common form of dynamic metal seal is a form of lip seal (used as stem seals in
subsea valves but rarely elsewhere because of their high cost). The material is usually
silver plated nickel alloy and the mating surface is usually carbide coated to preclude
galling.
In all cases of metallic seals and gaskets, material selections and combinations are critical
if corrosion is to be avoided and this is particularly true if joints are made‐up subsea. The
potential for galvanic corrosion can often be reduced by overlay of gasket grooves.
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9.10. Pressure Seal Joint (See Figure 57)
Figure 57 – Pressure Seal Joint

Valves containing pressure seal joints should be subjected to a low pressure (6 bar (90 psi))
test after assembly and hydrotest.
In this design the load which internal pressure exerts on the valve bonnet is transferred to the
valve body by means of a segmented ring located in a groove around the inside of the body
neck. This obviates the need for large bolted joint and, for this reason can save weight and cost
when applied to high pressure designs. Sealing is achieved by means of a retained, triangular
shaped gasket (usually graphite or plated soft iron) that is pre‐loaded by jacking the bonnet up
against the body during assembly. Lip seals are also sometimes used.
Low pressure sealing is often a problem.
9.11. Metal Bellows
This is used in the same way as the diaphragm seal, being joined to the valve stem at one end
and to the valve body/bonnet joint at the other and is used in services in which zero stem
leakage is required. Bellows life for a given valve size and type is proportional to bellows length
and bellows valves larger than DN 100 (NPS 4) are rare.
a. Bellows sealed valves should be required to undergo fatigue type qualification testing.
b. Bellows sealed valves should always be specified with a secondary stem seal that can be
used in the event of bellows rupture.
10. Materials
10.1. Pressure Boundary (Shell) Materials
10.1.1. General
a. For non‐corrosive duties from –50°C (–58°F) to 400°C (752°F) carbon steel should
normally be specified for the pressure retaining boundary.
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b. For high temperature applications (> 400°C (752°F)) creep resisting grades of alloy steel
should be specified.
c. For low temperature application (down to –50°C (–58°F)) impact tested grades of carbon
steel should preferably be specified (test temperature equal to or less than the minimum
design temperature).
d. For cryogenic applications (< –50°C (–58°F)) austenitic stainless steels, nickel alloys, or
aluminium alloys (all of which retain ductility at very low temperature) are necessary.
e. For corrosive service, overlaid carbon or alloy steel, stainless steel (martensitic, duplex, or
austenitic), nickel alloys, plastics, or other special materials are required. Alternatively,
lined valves may be used in certain corrosive applications.
f. Cast iron should only be used for valves in underground water or sewerage service.
g. In reaching a decision about whether or not to require impact testing the following
factors should be considered:
1. History and performance of proposed materials supplier.
2. Operating conditions (pressurised/not pressurised at low temperature).
3. Wall thickness (thicker sections are more susceptible to brittle behaviour at a given
temperature – see EEMUA Publication 153).
4. Local legislation (e.g. PED in European applications).
Piping design code ASME B31.3 allows use of non‐impact tested grades down to
–29°C (–20°F) and, historically, there have been no known problems with this. If
sources of materials are well established, it should be safe to continue this practice.
If sources of materials are untried and unproven purchasers are advised to be more
cautious.
h. Valve body materials should be compatible with the pipe material. If a particular material
or grade is required this should be specified.
i. If sour service is specified, valve parts in contact with the process fluid and bolting
materials of insulated valves, etc. (see clause 6.18.c) should meet ISO 15156
(NACE MR0175) or NACE MR0103, if specified for refinery service.
j. Austenitic stainless steel, including Alloy 20, should be supplied in the solution annealed
condition.
k. “Free cutting” (e.g. resulpherised) steels should not be used for pressure boundary parts,
parts in contact with the process fluid, or parts that are welded.
l. Parts forged from rectangular block billet should attain a minimum 20% size reduction.
This provides acceptable structure and properties.
m. Duplex and superduplex forged materials should not be used if section thickness is
greater than 80 mm (3 in).
Because of the difficulty of ensuring uniform heat treatment.
n. The minimum nitrogen content of 22% Chromium duplex stainless steel should be 0,12%.
Duplex forgings and bar in particular should be subject to a metallographic examination in
accordance with ASTM E562 to demonstrate that the ferrite content of two samples per
heat treatment batch is between 40% and 60% and that the microstructure does not
contain grain boundary carbides or undesirable intermetallic phases.
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With duplex stainless steel castings and forgings it is important to ensure that an
acceptable microstructure has been achieved after heat treatment.
o. Table 9 provides a list if commonly used valve shell materials with typical applications.
10.1.2. Alternative Product Forms, etc.
a. If steel castings are specified, forgings can usually be substituted.
b. If forgings are specified, substitution of castings or plates is not normally permitted.
c. If forgings or castings are specified, substitution of welded construction valves should be
subject to purchaser approval.
d. Hot isostatic pressing (HIPing) provides better integrity than castings and a better
microstructure than either castings or forgings. It is recommended as the best option for
duplex or superaustenitic stainless steels if constraints of size and complexity do not
prevent its use.
e. Type 316 stainless steel valves are usually acceptable in place of Type 304 stainless steel,
but any substitutions should be subject to purchaser approval.
Table 9 – Typical Specifications (ASTM) and Applications of Valve Shell Materials
Material Typical Specifications Typical Application

Forgings Castings
Carbon Steel ASTM A105/ ASTM A216/ Non corrosive process hydrocarbons, produced water, slurries,
A105M A216M Gr. WCB de‐aerated sea water, air, steam.
Low Temperature ASTM A350/ ASTM A352/ As above but for service between 0 C (32 F) and
Carbon Steel A350M Gr. LF2 A352M Gr. LCB, LCC –50 C (–58 F) if toughness must be demonstrated.
(Impact Tested)
Chrome‐Moly Alloy ASTM A182/ ASTM A217 High temperature steam and process. Good resistance to
Steel A182M sulphur and hydrogen, good mechanical properties at elevated
1 ¼ Cr. ‐ ½ Mo. Gr. F11 Gr. WC6 temperatures (creep resistant).
2 ¼ Cr. ‐ 1 Mo. Gr. F22 Gr. WC9
5 Cr ‐ ½ Mo Gr. F5 Gr. C5
Austenitic Stainless ASTM A182/ ASTM A351/ Corrosive service, low temperature service, services requiring
Steel A182M Gr. F304, A351M Gr. CF8, cleanliness. Unsuitable for sea water service. Not to be used if
Type 304 F304L CF3 chlorides exceed 30 ppm.
Stainless Steel ASTM A182 ASTM A351/ Highly corrosive service. Not recommended for sea water. Not
Type 316 Gr. F316, F316L A351M Gr. CF8M, to be used where chlorides exceed 30 ppm.
CF3M
13% Chrome ASTM A182/ ASTM A217 CA15 Corrosive hydrocarbon service (e.g. wet gas + C02).
Stainless Steel A182M Gr. F6 Not recommended for sea water. Pressure‐temperature ratings
not included in ASME B16.34
Duplex Stainless ASTM A182/A182M Corrosive hydrocarbon service.
Steel (22% Cr.) Gr. F51
Super Duplex ASTM A182/ ASTM A890/ Sea water service, very corrosive hydrocarbon service.
Stainless Steel A182M Gr. F55 A890M Gr. 5A Extreme sour service.
(25% Cr.)
Bronze ‐ ASTM B62 Black sewage, brine, fire water, air, steam, water. Leaded
bronze has poor resistance to sea water.
Nickel Aluminium ‐ Sea water, black sewage, brine, fire water. Good for high
Bronze velocities. Unsuitable for sulfide polluted water.
Titanium ASTM B348 Gr. 2 Sodium hypochlorite and ferritic chloride solutions. Seawater.
Page 131 of 165

Material Typical Specifications Typical Application

Forgings Castings
Grey Cast Iron ASTM A126 Class B May be used for underground water service, but should
otherwise be avoided. Should not be used if freezing may
occur. Do not use for hydrocarbons or hazardous service.
Spheroidal Graphite ASTM A395/ As grey cast iron but with increased ductility. May be used at
(ductile) Cast Iron A395M higher pressures and temperatures. Useful for gearbox
housings, etc.
Monel 400 (nickel‐ ASTM B164 Class A ASTM A494/ Sea water, brackish water, brine. Good resistance to all acids
copper alloy) A494M or except oxidising types.
A744‐M‐35‐1
Hastelloy Alloy C ASTM A494/ Hypochlorites, acetic acid chlorine, hydrogen.
(Cr‐Mo alloy) A494M or A744‐
CW‐12M
Thermoplastics Land locations or inside modules only if no fire hazard. Low
UPBV pressure water and utility services only.
PVDF
PP
ABS
Glass Filled Epoxy As above plus fire water, etc. if valves have been fire type
tested.
10.2. Material Composition of Welding End Valves
10.2.1. General
The chemical composition (by ladle analysis) of valve bodies with butt weld or socket weld
ends should be restricted as follows:
10.2.2. Carbon and Carbon‐Manganese Steels
a. Carbon content: 0,25% max. (by weight).
b. Sulphur content: 0,035% max. (by weight).
c. Phosphorous content: 0,035% max. (by weight).
d. Carbon equivalent (CE): 0,43% max. (by weight).
Where CE = C + (Mn/6) + (Cr + Mo + V)/5 + (Ni + Cu)/15.
If necessary, in order to achieve minimum specified strengths, it may be permissible to
increase the specified maximum manganese content, as given in the referenced
specification, up to a maximum of 1,6% provided the maximum permitted CE is not
exceeded.
10.2.3. Chromium‐Molybdenum Steels
a. Steels with 2% Cr and less:
Carbon content: 0,20% max. by weight (forgings and castings).
b. Steels with more than 2% Cr:
Carbon content: 0,15% max. by weight.
c. Residual elements:
1. Copper 0,30% max.
2. Nickel 0,40% max.
3. Tungsten 0,10% max.
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4. Tin 0,03% max.
10.2.4. Austenitic Stainless Steel
a. Grades 304 and 316 should be restricted to a carbon content of 0,03% max. by weight.
Ideally, mechanical properties of the “normal” carbon grade should also be met.
b. Alternatively, a stabilised grade (e.g. 321) may be used.
This is in order to avoid corrosion resulting from the sensitisation of the material.
10.2.5. Monel
Monel should be of a weldable composition. Weld bend tests should be carried out and the
results included in test qualification records.
10.3. Metallic Valve Trim Materials (Obturator/Seat/Stem)
a. Materials used for valve trim should be suitable for exposure to the process fluid, any
treatment chemicals, and to the proposed test conditions.
b. Materials should be selected to avoid galvanic action between dissimilar materials.
c. Seating components of metal seated valves should be faced with (or manufactured from)
a hard material (e.g. tungsten carbide, satellite, etc.), to withstand wear, abrasion and
erosion.
Performance of hard facings may depend on the suitability of the substrate material
particularly at low temperatures.
d. Materials for valve stems should be chosen with a view to avoiding galling when in
contact with glands, trunnion bearings, etc.
Plating or hard facing is sometimes necessary to achieve this.
e. If duplex and superduplex stainless steel is used for trim components, the requirements
of 10.1.1 above apply.
f. If alloy 718 (UNS N07718) is used for trim components, it should be procured in
accordance with API Spec 6A718.
This material can suffer from microstructural problems associated with the formation of
excessive amounts of delta phase. This can be controlled by limiting the niobium content,
control of the heat treatment, and forging process. API 6A718 includes microstructural
checks and reference micrographs, heat treatment procedures, and the appropriate alloy
chemistry limits.
g. Trim material combinations for wedge gate etc. valves should be selected from the
alternatives listed in the Reference Standard having regard to service conditions and
required operating characteristics. If trim materials are not listed in the standard or if
unusual service conditions exist, selection should take into account previous experience
and the manufacturer’s recommendations.
h. In the case of wedge gate, globe, and check valves, the seating surface trim selections of
Table 10are usually acceptable. Typical applications of valve trim are listed in Table 11.
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Table 10 – ISO 10434 Seating Surface Trim Selection
Service Trim Trim Description

Combination
Number
Dirty/abrasive. 5 Hard faced with Stellite
Steam (above 3 bar (40 psig)). etc.
Hydrogen.
Gas service, in which high integrity is required.
Duties in which there is risk of wire drawing, seizure,
galling, or high rates of wear.
Class 1500 rating and above.
Isolation of hazardous fluids.
Wet H2S. 10 316 austenitic stainless
Cyanides. steel
HFA. 9 (or 6) Monel (or Monel & 13%
HCl. Cr.)
Amine 10 (7) 316 Austenitic stainless
steel (or 13% Cr.)
Water. 1 (7) 13% Cr.
Instrument air. (5 and 8 also
Inert gas. acceptable)
Caustic.
Clean hydrocarbon liquid and non‐critical
hydrocarbon gas service.
i. Hardness differential between seating surfaces should be 50 HB minimum except if both
seating surfaces are satellite pr carbide coated. The seat shall have the harder surface.
j. 17Cr‐4Ni precipitation hardening stainless steel (e.g. ASTM A564/A564M, Grade 630)
should not be used for new valve stems in sour service which are required to comply with
ISO 15156 (NACE MR0175). If used for other parts in sour service the material should
comply with ISO 15156 or, where appropriate for refinery service, NACE MR0103
including hardness limitations.
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Table 11 – Typical Application of Metallic Trim Materials
Material Notes
13% Chrome Steel* General service, gases, oil, steam. Note: Stems may be subject to
graphitic attack if graphite packing not efficiently inhibited.
13% Chrome with Nickel Alloy Facing* General service, steam, water, air, gas, fuel oil non‐lubricating, non‐
corrosive low viscosity oils.
13% Chrome Steel, Hard Faced with General services, steam wire drawing applications, gas, oil and oil
Stellite, Colmonoy, etc. vapour.
Abrasion Resistant Trim (e.g. Tungsten Dirty/abrasive service etc. (including ”front end” oil and gas
Carbide, Carbide + stellite,) production) or critical valves where commissioning/ line clearing
conditions are onerous.
Austenitic Stainless Steel 18‐10‐2* Corrosive service, cryogenic service.
17/4 PH Stainless Steel* Corrosive service where high strength required. Not to be used for
stems in sour service.
Bronze Cold,/hot water, marine applications and low temp. service.
Nickel Aluminium bronze Sea water, brine, firewater unsuitable for sulfide polluted water.
Duplex Stainless Steel* Corrosive service.
Super Duplex Stainless Steel* Sea water, very corrosive service.
Hastelloy Alloy C Hypochlorites, chlorine, hydrogen sulphide, sea water, brine.
Nickel alloy (Monel and Inconel) Corrosive Services.
Titanium Sodium Hypochlorite, sea water.
Electroless Nickel Plating Used for ball valves on clean service.
* If used for obturator or seats, needs hard facing for dirty/abrasive service.
10.4. Bolting
a. Material for bolts, studs, screws, nuts and other fasteners should be selected to be
compatible with the flange materials and conditions of service.
b. Bolt materials for attachment of valves to piping flanges are normally determined by the
piping specification sheet. If wafer style valves are proposed, studs, etc. may be long and
should be selected to ensure that the coefficient of linear thermal expansion of the bolt
material is not greater than that of the valve body and pipe flanges.
Otherwise flange bolt load is reduced when the joint is heated.
c. For sour service, ‘M’ grade restricted hardness bolting should be selected if contact with
the working fluid under pressure is expected (e.g. insulated joints in the event of leakage).
Bolts and nuts should meet the hardness requirements of ISO 15156 (or NACE MR0103 if
specified).
d. Restricted hardness (< 34 HRC) should be specified for buried or subsea valves to avoid
hydrogen embrittlement from the cathodic protection.
“M” grade bolting also has a reduced tensile strength, leading to a need for more bolts
and larger, heavier flanges. If “normal” grade bolting can be confirmed to meet the above
hardness restriction there is an advantage in using this.
e. For low temperature applications, impact tested alloy steel material (“L” grade) should be
specified if impact testing of the valve shell materials is required. Bolting for valves to be
used within EEA countries must meet the relevant Essential Requirements of the
European Pressure Directive (PED).
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For cryogenic service, austenitic stainless steel is frequently used but it should be
remembered that this material is much weaker than alloy steel, so bolt load may be
restricted if a direct substitution is made without redesign of the joint.
f. Bolts for use on offshore applications should be hot dip galvanised. PTFE coating is not
recommended since it has limited effectiveness. Rupture of the PTFE coating results in
accelerated corrosion of the bolting unless it is applied on top of plating.
g. Bolting for subsea applications should not be coated or plated.
10.5. Plating
a. Plating such as electroless nickel (ENP) may be used if necessary to provide limited
wear/erosion resistance and to prevent galling of parts in sliding contact.
Plating alone is rarely effective in abrasive service and overlaid or sprayed coatings (e.g.
tungsten carbide) are generally preferred.
b. Plating should not be used as primary means of providing corrosion resistance.
Plating is usually porous to some extent (particularly chrome plating).
c. If pitting corrosion is to be avoided (in corrosive service), the base material should be
corrosion resistant (e.g. stainless steel) or a non‐porous foundation layer should be
applied first. If service is non‐corrosive ENP is recommended to protect carbon steel trim
from corrosion during hydrotesting.
Valves with (e.g.) carbon steel balls may be susceptible to corrosion as a result of
prolonged exposure to test water even if the service is benign (e.g. dry gas), but ENP is
usually effective in preventing this.
d. Only established sources having a good history of supply should be used for ENP.
The quality of ENP is extremely dependent on the controls that the plater applies and the
care he takes over the process (bath cleanliness etc.).
e. There should be a written procedure specifying the following:
1. Surface preparation;
2. Plating thickness (between 25 µm and 75 µm (0,001 in to 0,003 in));
Greater thickness provides improved wear resistance and reduced porosity at the
expense of a rougher surface finish.
3. Crack/porosity detection;
4. Adhesion strength;
5. Phosphorous content (8% to 11%);
6. A limit on elements other than nickel or phosphorous;
7. Organic bath stabilization (i.e. as opposed to stabilisation using lead, sulphur, or
cadmium);
8. Heat treatment;
10.6. Hard Coating
Hard coatings generally take two forms:
Page 136 of 165

 Fusion welded coatings of cobalt or nickel based alloys.
 Sprayed‐on thin coatings of metallic/ceramic particles in a matrix of cobalt, nickel and
chrome alloys (“cermets”).
Application of fusion welded coatings of the “Stellite” (cobalt based) or “Colmonoy” (nickel
based) type should be covered by qualified welding procedures that should include hardness
checks and surface iron content analysis to determine the degree of dilution at the finished
machined thickness.
These alloy ranges encompass materials that are suitable for all operating temperatures
including into the creep range. Hardness of different alloys varies and some differential is
desirable in the case of sliding contact.
These materials are sometimes used in solid cast form e.g. for small valve disks and plugs.
The most common cermet coating is tungsten carbide although chrome carbide is also used in
high wear applications. The usual method of application is by the HVOF process. The coating is
always porous to some extent and so is usually filled with phenolic resin or similar prior to
finishing. This limits elevated temperature application to 200°C (392°F) or less. Cermets are
very much harder and more wear resistant than fusion welded “stellite” type coatings and can
withstand dirty and abrasive service well.
These materials are also used in solid sintered form – usually in choke valves and control
valves. In solid form they are brittle and have low resistance to tensile forces.
10.7. Ceramics
There are a limited number of engineering ceramics that may be used to provide wear and
erosion resistance. These are usually provided as solid trim components, bearing sleeves, etc.
Ceramics should be avoided (or protected) if significant solid objects may be present in the
flow (e.g. as a result of mechanical failure upstream) as they are usually brittle and therefore
vulnerable to damage by impact.
The most wear/erosion resistant grades such as silicon carbide are the most brittle, but
partially stabilized zirconium exhibits greatly increased toughness at the expense of some
reduction in erosion resistance.
10.8. Elastomers (Rubber) and Polymers (Plastic)
a. Materials should be confirmed to be compatible with all anticipated operating, test, and
dosing fluids.
This is a particularly important consideration if buying valves for stock that may then be
used on multiple applications. Chemical resistance charts for non‐metallic materials are
available from material manufacturers and in the general literature.
b. If the chemical resistance of a non‐metallic material is in doubt, specialist advice should
be sought.
c. Soft seated valves should be provided with a polymer or elastomer seat insert.
Acceptable polymers are PTFE (typically Class 150 and Class 300 only), filled PTFE, Nylon,
and PEEK. The most usual elastomers are NBR and FKM in the form of a trapped O‐ring. If
a seat insert is elastomer this should be a specially shaped section to prevent “rolling”
during valve operation.
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Some materials may be subject to swelling if used with particular fluids (e.g. nitrile rubber
is not suitable in de‐ionised water, nylon may swell if exposed to water (including
extended exposure to test water) and later become brittle if used at temperatures above
70°C (158°F)).
d. Most valve manufacturers publish pressure/temperature rating curves for their valves
and these should be consulted. It is recommended that valves having reduced pressure
ratings below the upper temperature limit be avoided.
Maximum and minimum operating temperatures are limited if non‐metallic materials are
used for seats, seals, linings, gaskets, or valve bodies. For example Virgin PTFE is normally
limited to a maximum operating temperature of 200°C (392°F) although this may be
increased marginally by the use of a suitable filler such as glass. Some valve standards
(e.g. ISO 17292) allow pressure ratings to be reduced at elevated temperatures such that
they no longer conform to the standard ASME Class rating.
e. Valves having pressure boundaries made from thermoplastic material should only be
used in building services and similar applications. Valves having pressure boundaries
made from reinforced thermosetting material and having standard pressure temperature
ratings may be used on chemicals, utility and fire water applications, including offshore.
Valves constructed entirely out of plastic (or having principal parts made from plastic) are
now available. Ball and butterfly types are most common. There are two basic material
types: valves made from thermoplastic materials such as ABS, PVDF and valves made
from filled epoxy (thermosetting). The former are only suitable for very low pressure
service on innocuous utilities in which there is no fire hazard or if failure in a fire is of no
consequence. Filled epoxy valves usually incorporate steel stems/shafts and can be a
good choice for corrosive chemicals, seawater, or firewater as they offer weight and cost
savings compared to corrosion resistant alloys.
f. If a fire hazard exists, appropriate fire type test certification should be insisted upon.
g. In the case of novel applications, specialist advice should be sought.
Table 12 – General Application Data for Non‐Metallic Materials
Material Application
Chlorinated Polyethylene Good resistance to acids and solvents. If softening can be tolerated can be used to 90°C (194°F).
(Penton)
Chloroprene Rubber Suitable for some process services, good oil resistance with some grades. Good resistant to
(Neoprene) sunlight and weather. Suffers from compression set when hot. Not the most useful elastomer for
hydrocarbon service.
Chlorosulphonated Similar to neoprene but with higher temperature capability. Good resistance to chemical attack
Polyethylene (Hypalon) (e.g. acids, alkalis, oxidizing agents, mineral and vegetable oils), poor resistance to aromatic and
chlorinated hydrocarbons
Ebonite Good chemical resistance. Most grades soften above 70°C (158°F). Becomes brittle at low
temperatures.
Epichlorohydrin (ECO) Good oil and methanol resistance. Poor resistance to acids and aromatic hydrocarbons.
Ethylene Propylene (EPDM) Good mechanical properties, good resistance to phosphate ester based hydraulic fluids and
minerals. Good hot water and weather resistance. Not suitable for hydrocarbon service. Good
temperature range.
Fluoroelastomer FKM (Viton) Water and hydrocarbon process service. Suitable for sour service. Good resistance to some acids,
petrol and solvents. Should not be used with esters and keytones. Poor flexibility at low
temperatures. Viton A has poor methanol resistance, Viton B & GF are unaffected by methanol
diluted by at least 2% water and are the most useful grades for hydrocarbon service. GLT Grade
will go down to –40°C (–40°F). Filled, e.d. resistant grades available.
Page 138 of 165

Material Application
Fluoroelastomer FEPM Not suitable for use at low or room temperature. Good resistance to amine based corrosion
(Aflas) inhibitors at high temperature.
Fluorosilicone Good H2S and methanol resistance. Reasonable resistance to acids and aromatic compounds.
Hydrogenated Nitrile Rubber Usable at lower temperatures than Viton. Suitable for sour service applications. e.d. resistant
(HNBR) grades available.
Natural Rubber Suitable for cold water and some chemical and abrasive service. Has low resistance to solvents,
oils and sunlight
Nitrile Rubber (NBR) Good general service material, good resistant to oil, solvents (but not aromatics) and chemicals,
L.P. hydrocarbon gas. Subject to swelling when used with de‐ionised water. Not to be used for
sour service. Poor resistance to sunlight and weather. Not to be used on gas service above
Class 600 rating.
Nylon (Polyamide) Insoluble in hydrocarbons, good resistance to alkalis but attacked by mineral acid; absorbs water
and swells (hydrolysis). Should not be used above 70°C (158°F) if there is/has been exposure to
water or methanol.
Low coefficient of friction. Most commonly used grade for valves is Nylon 6. Grades 11 and 12
slightly less prone to hydrolysis.
Perfluoroelastomer (Kalrez, Excellent resistance to aggressive chemicals with an extended upper temperature limit. Attacked
etc.) by refrigerants. Not normally available in e.d. resistant grades. Expensive.
Polyethylene Good resistance to mineral acids, alkalis and solvents. Suffers embrittlement when subject to
polar solvents, esters, alcohols and keytones.
Polypropylene Good resistant to chemical attack, similar to polyethylene but not so subject to stress cracking.
Polyurethane Excellent resistance to oils, solvents, fats, grease, petrol, ozone sunlight and weather. Good
properties at low temperatures. Some reduction in properties at high temperatures, susceptible
to hydrolysis should not be used with hot water, acid or methanol. Swells on contact with
keytones, esters, aromatics.
Polyetheretherketone PEEK Rigid, hard polymer with high degree of chemical inertia. Good wear resistance for a polymer.
Can be used in steam and hot water service. Higher coefficient of friction than PTFE but not
prone to cold flow.
Polytetrafluoroethylene PTFE Excellent for most process services. Virtually inert. Max temperature limit 200°C (392°F).
Strength may be increased by adding fillers such as glass and carbon. Max. allowable
temperature depends on seal/valve design. Very low coefficient of friction, subject to creep and
cold flow under moderate loads.
Polytrifluorochloroethylene Similar chemical resistance to PTFE but harder and stronger. Lower operating temperature range
(PTCFE)
Silicone Rubber Poor physical properties, lack of resistance to chemical attack. Not resistant to acids or alkalis.
Aromatic and chlorinated solvents and petrol cause swelling. Best low temperature resistance of
any elastomer.
Note that:
1. Most elastomers are subject to swelling when used with de‐ionised water (particularly nitrile rubber).
2. Viton and neoprene elastomers should not be considered for hot water applications because they are susceptible to
blistering, but may be used for hot oil application.
3. EPDM (peroxide cured) may be considered for hot water applications up to 130°C (267°F).
4. Hydrocarbon gas service above 70 bar (1 000 psig) requires elastomer compounds that have been demonstrated to be
resistant to explosive decompression.
10.9. Graphite Packing and Seals
a. The packing material for general service block valves should be low to medium density,
high purity graphite incorporating a non‐metallic, inorganic, phosphorous based,
passivating, corrosion inhibitor to prevent graphitic attack of 13% Cr. steel valve stems in
the presence of water.
b. The corrosion inhibitor should be impregnated before die forming.
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c. Density of compressed rings before assembly should not normally exceed 1,6 gm/cc
(100 lb/ft3).
d. Braided anti‐extrusion rings should be provided at the top and bottom of the set.
e. Graphite should not be used with chemical oxidizers or if the packing is exposed to air at
temperatures above 450°C (842°F).
f. Other graphite seals (e.g. fire seals in ball valves) should be passivated as required above.
10.10. Asbestos Replacement Materials
a. Asbestos packing should not be used.
b. The use of so called ‘asbestos replacement’ materials, e.g. in the limited number of cases
in which graphite is not appropriate, should be restricted to those applications in which
tests have shown that the required performance is attained.
10.11. Material Temperature Limitations
The maximum and minimum operating temperatures given in Table 13, Table 14, and Table 15
below are a general guide only for non‐corrosive conditions. The corrosive nature or condition
of the fluid may restrict the allowable operating temperature range and service life of the
material. In case of doubt a materials specialist should be consulted.
Table 13 – Temperature limits of valve shell materials
Materials Temperature
Minimum Maximum
°C °F °C °F
3 3
Carbon Steel (non‐impact tested) –29 –20 425 797
Carbon Steel (impact tested e.g. LLC/LF2 –50 –58 343 650
3 3 1,2
Chromium Moly (1 ¼ Cr, ½ Mo) –29 –20 593 1 1001,2
3 3 1
Chromium Moly (5 Cr, ½ Mo) –29 –20 593 1 1001
Stainless Steel Type 304 –196 –321 538 1 000
Stainless Steel Type 316 –196 –321 538 1 000
Bronze –196 –321 260 500
Aluminium Bronze –196 –321 260 500
4 4
Titanium –30 –22 315 600
Grey Cast Iron 5 41 204 400
5 5
Spheroidal Graphite Cast Iron 5 41 343 650
Monel 400 –196 –321 425 797
Hastelloy C –196 –321 425 797
13% Chrome Steel (impact tested) –50 –58 600 1 112
Duplex Stainless Steel (impact tested) –50 –58 315 600
Notes:
1. Class 150 flanged valves 540°C (1 000°F) max.
2. Scaling may occur above 565°C (1 050°F).
3. ASME materials only, used in conjunction with ASME B31.3 Piping Code.
4. Particular grades can go lower.
5. Or lower, with impact tests.
All temperature limits may have to be modified to suit trim and sealing materials.

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Table 14 – Temperature Limits of Metallic Trim Materials
Materials – Metallic Temperature
Minimum Maximum
°C °F °C °F
Aluminium Bronze –196 –321 260 500
Austenitic Stainless Steel (with or without hard facing) –196 –321 450 842
Bronze –196 –321 288 550
13% Chromium Steel –50 –58 600 1 112
13% Chromium with Hard Facing (depending on facing –50 –58 450 to 842 to
material) 600 1 112
Duplex Stainless Steel –50 –58 315 600
Hastelloy Alloy C –196 –321 425 797
Inconel 625 & 718 –196 –321 650 1 202
Monel –196 –321 425 797
Stellite Hard Facing –196 –321 650 1 202
Tungsten Carbide –50 –58 150 * 302*
* If resin filled. If unfilled, 650°C (1 200°F).

Table 15 – Temperature Limits of Non‐Metallic Materials
Material Temperature1
Minimum Maximum
C F C F
Chlorinated Polyethylene (Penton) –10 14 90 194
Chlorosuphonated Polyethylene (Hypalon) (depends on grade) –15 5 200 392
Ebonite (depends on grade) 0 32 57 to 135 to
149 300
Ethylene Propylene (EPDM) –30 –22 150 302
Epichlorohydrin –30 –22 150 302
Fluoroelastomer FKM (Viton) (depends on grade) –40 to –40 to 2002 3922
–5 23
Fluoroelastomer FEPM (Aflas) 30 86 220 428
Fluorosilicone –45 –49 175 347
Hydrogenated nitrile (HNBR) (depends on grade) –40 to –40 to 150 302
–20 –4
Natural Rubber –50 –58 70 158
Nitrile rubber (NBR) –20 –4 120 248
Nylon (Devlon V) –196 –321 1203 2483
Perfluoroelastomer (Kalrez/Chemraz etc.) (depends on grade) 0 32 230 to 446 to
260 500
Polychloroprene (neoprene) –20 –4 100 212
Polyethylene –40 –40 60 140
Polyproplene 0 32 100 212
Polyurethane –30 –22 90 194
PEEK –196 –321 250 482
PTFE (virgin) –196 –321 2604 5004
Silicone Rubber –60 –76 170 338
1. For continuous exposure. Most materials can withstand brief excursions to 5 C (9 F) lower and 10/20 C (18/36 F)
higher. For marginal applications specialist advice should be sought.
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2. Unless special arrangements are made to prevent extrusion an upper limit of 180 C (356 F) is recommended.
3. 75 C (167 F) if material has had significant exposure to water.
4. If fully contained. This material tends to extrude and a safer upper limit is 200 C (392 F).
5. All materials can withstand temperatures 25 C (45 F) above the specified upper limit for short periods.
6. At temperatures below the lower limit elastomers tend to lose resilience, leading to leakage. If the temperature is
increased the material recovers.
10.12. Temporary Coatings, Lubricants, etc.
Depending on local regulatory or site requirements, information may have to be supplied
relating to any temporary coatings, insulating oils, corrosion inhibitors, anti‐freeze solutions,
desiccants, or other chemical or hydrocarbon substances e.g. provision of a Materials Safety
Data Sheet.
a. In such cases valves and actuators should be prominently tagged at openings to indicate
the nature of contents, and precautions for shipping, storage, and handling should be
provided.
b. Any such requirements should be indicated on the purchase order.
Page 142 of 165

Annex A
(Informative)
Glossary of Valve Terminology
This Annex lists many common terms used in vale specification and description.
Abrasion
Wear of valve trim caused by rubbing of one surface over another exacerbated by hard particulate in
the process fluid.
Actuator
A powdered valve operator energised by electric, pneumatic or hydraulic power sources.
Air/Vacuum Relief Valve
See pressure/vacuum safety valve.
Angle Valve
A globe valve design having valve ends at right angles to each other. Normally the inlet in the vertical
plane and outlet in the horizontal plan but well chokes use the opposite configuration.
Anti‐Blowout Stem
A valve stem with a shoulder, positively retained by the body or bonnet which prevents ejection of
the stem by pressure.
Anti‐Static Device
A device providing electrical continuity between the valve body and internal components to prevent
ignition of flammable fluids by static discharge.
Automatic Control Valve
An actuated valve automatically regulating the flow, pressure, or temperature of a fluid in response
to a process signal.
Axial Flow Valve
A valve of the globe type whose seat and plug axis are on the pipe axis. Available in check, on‐off and
control valve versions (also known as a nozzle valve, inline globe or (in check version) anti‐slam
valve).
Back Pressure
The pressure at the outlet, downstream of the valve. For safety valves back pressure can affect
operation and is often expressed as a percentage of the set pressure.
Back Pressure Controller
An automatic control valve with an internal sensing element which maintains a constant pressure in
the upstream pipe‐work.
Back Seat
In globe or gate valves a face on the valve stem, seating on the underside of the gland stuffing box,
providing a metal to metal seat in the full open position. Intended to reduce gland leakage should
this occur.
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Balanced Safety Valve
A safety valve in which the back pressure is balanced so that it does not affect the set point
(generally by means of a bellows).
Ball
See Closure.
Ball Check Valve
A lift check valve having a free or spring loaded ball closing on a spherical seat (see also check valve).
Ball Valve
A quarter turn, rotary action valve with spherical obturator and seats. (Sometimes called a ball plug
valve).
Bellows
A convoluted, cylindrical component, usually metal, providing axial flexibility combined with pressure
containment. Used as a hermetic gland seal (in bellows sealed valves) or for equalising back pressure
in balanced safety valves. Occasionally used for loading seats in some designs of ball and gate valves
for high temperature.
Bellows Sealed Valve
A valve having a bellows sealed gland.
Bi‐Directional Valve
A valve designed to seal against flow or pressure from either direction.
Block Valve
A general term for valves used to shut‐off flow and pressure. Other terms used are isolation valve,
shut‐off valve and stop valve.
Blow Down
(1) When applied to safety valves means the difference between set pressure and reseating
pressure, usually expressed as a percentage of set pressure.
(2) When applied to gas or steam service the depressurisation of a piping system etc.
Blow Down Valve
A valve, often specially designed for rapid depressurising of a high pressure system. Automated
versions are linked to the emergency shut‐down system
Body (Valve)
The main pressure containing component of a valve shell. The body may be of a single piece
construction or comprise of several sections.
Bolted Bonnet
A term specifying that the bonnet is bolted to the body (not screwed or welded).
Bolted Gland
A term specifying that the gland is bolted to the bonnet (not screwed or a union type).
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Bonnet
The pressure containing top cover containing the gland. The term cover is used for check valves.
Bonnet Assembly
The bonnet and valve operator.
Bonnet Packing
See gland packing.
Bonnetless Valve
A term for a valve having all internal parts inserted into a one piece body.
Bottom Flange
A term used when a pressure containing plate covers an opening on the bottom of a valve.
Breakout Torque of Force
The torque or force required at the valve stem to initially move the obturator from the fully closed
position.
Bronze Trim or Bronze Mounted
Specifies that trim (internal components), e.g. closure, stem, seat ring are of bronze.
Bubble Tight
No visible leakage (bubbles of air) during a gas seat test.
Built‐Up Back Pressure
A pressure occurring at a safety valve outlet during discharge as a result of discharge line flow
resistance. Normally expressed as a percentage of the set pressure.
Butterfly Valve
A quarter turn valve having a circular, disk like obturator mounted on a shaft transverse to the axis of
the pipe. When rotated the disk shuts off the pipe at right angles to the flow.
By‐Pass Valve
A valve intended to divert flow around part of a system through which it normally passes.
Cage Trim
A cylindrical component having multiple holes intended to improve regulation of flow and minimise
wear and noise in control and choke valves.
Cavitation
A phenomena which can occur in partially closed valves in liquid service if pressure at the vena
contractor is reduced below vapour pressure. Subsequent increases in static pressure cause vapour
bubbles to suddenly collapse or implode causing erosion damage.
Cavity Relief
Relief to prevent pressure rise in valve body cavities due to temperature changes affecting trapped
fluids. Internal relief may be provided by the seat design but external relief may be necessary in some
designs requiring a body mounted relief valve with its inlet connected to the cavity.
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Chatter
Rapid reciprocating motion of safety valve disks contacting the seat. Typically a result of oversizing
where high pressure occurs but there is insufficient volume to fully lift the valve.
Check Valve
A self acting valve type allowing forward flow and preventing reverse flow. Other terms used include
non‐return valve, reflux and retention valve.
Choke Valve
A control valve for flow and pressure reduction, specifically located immediately downstream of an
oil or gas well or upstream of a water or gas injection well. The design is similar to a globe valve, the
closure being conical or plug shape seating in a circular orifice.
Clamp Gate Valve
A gate valve having body and bonnet held together by a ‘U’ bolt clamp which facilitates stripdown for
overhaul.
Class Rating
A meaningless number denoting a range of temperature and pressure combinations at which a valve
may be used.
Clean Service
A classification used to denote that the process fluid and piping system are essentially clean and free
of solids or debris.
Closing Torque or Force
Torque or force required at the valve stem to close the obturator on to the seat.
Closure Member
The final component of the valve drive train regulating the flow or pressure and closing against the
seat e.g. ball, disk, gate, piston, or plug. Synonymous with obturator.
Cock
A small quarter turn, rotary action valve with a taper plug closure, generally used for low pressure
instrumentation, drains and vents.
Combined Stop and Check Valve
See globe stop and check valve.
Compact Gate Valve
A gate valve of small nominal size having compact dimensions. Normally complying with ISO 15761 or
API Std 602. May be supplied with one extended end for threaded or welded attachment to pipe
(Formerly addressed by API Std 606).
Conduit Gate Valve
A parallel gate valve having a continuous uninterrupted port through the valve when fully open. Also
known as a through conduit gate valve. See also slab gate and split gate valves.
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Control Valve
A valve that regulates flow, pressure, or temperature. See also automatic control valve and manual
control valve. Other terms include regulating valve and throttling valve.
Corrosion Allowance
An addition to the design wall thickness of pressure containing components which may be subject to
corrosion in service.
Crawl
Graduated adjustment of the set pressure of a spring loaded safety valve from below normal to
normal after the spring temperature has been raised by discharged fluid.
Cryogenic Valve
A valve designed to operate within the temperature range –50°C to –196°C (–58°F to –320°F). Typical
valve types used include ball, butterfly globe, wedge gate and check valves.
Dashpot
A device for dampening the movement of the closure member, particularly of check valves.
Diaphragm
A flexible disk of metal, polymer, or elastomer that provides limited movement for valve operation or
is used to sense pressure. Applications include diaphragm check valves, diaphragm block valves,
pressure regulators and control valve actuators.
Diaphragm Actuator
A control valve actuator consisting of a diaphragm in a pressurised housing. Usually pneumatic
operation with spring return.
Diaphragm Check Valve
A valve in which the closure element is a specially shaped diaphragm allowing forward flow but
preventing reverse flow.
Diaphragm Valve
A block/control valve utilizing a resilient diaphragm as the closure element. Can be either weir or
straight through type.
Differential Pressure
The difference in pressure between any two points in a piping system. For valves usually the
difference in pressure between the upstream (inlet) and downstream (outlet) of a fully closed valve.
Also known as pressure differential.
Discharge Coefficient
The ratio of the measured relieving capacity of a pressure relief valve to the theoretical relieving
capacity.
Dirty Service
Denotes that the process fluid and piping system contain particulate which may damage valves
unless specially selected for the conditions (e.g. hard metal seated slab gate and ball valves for oil
and gas production).
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Diverter Service
A process requirement to direct flow from one stream to two or more streams. Several block valves
or a single diverter valve may be employed.
Diverter Valve
A valve with multiple ports intended to divert flow from one stream to two or more alternative
streams whilst preventing intermixing. Also called multi‐port valves, switching valves and change
over valves. The term is sometimes used to describe several valves used in combination for directing
flow streams.
Double Block
The provision of double isolation either by means of two separate valves installed in series or by
means of a single valve having two seats, each of which provides a seal.
Double Block and Bleed Valve
Specifically as defined by ISO 14313 (API 6D) a valve with two seating surfaces which, in the closed
position, blocks flow from both valve ends when the cavity between the seating surfaces is vented
through a bleed connection provided on the body cavity. Note that this DOES NOT provide double
isolation of equipment from a single source of pressure
Double Disk Butterfly Valve
An uncommon design having two disks to isolate flow and pressure usually provided with cavity
bleed for double block and bleed.
Double Isolation Block Valve
A single valve having two seats, each of which provides a seal against pressure from a single source.
This feature may be provided in one direction or in both directions. Usually provided with a cavity
vent.
Double Piston Effect Seat
A trunnion mounted ball valve seat which is designed to seal with pressure applied from the body
cavity.
Downstream Seated Valve
A valve where the upstream line pressure loads the obturator against the downstream seat with
differential pressure across the valve. Typical examples include gate valves, floating ball valves, globe
valves and butterfly valves.
Drag Valve
A control valve with a cage trim having multiple perforations providing a high resistance flow path for
high pressure drop, low noise application.
Drive Train
The components which transmit operating force or torque from the input device (handwheel,
actuator, etc.) through the pressure retaining boundary to the valve seat.
Drop Tight
A term specifying that no liquid droplets should be visible through a closed valve.
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Dual Plate Check Valve
A swing check valve having a central shaft which supports two spring loaded half disks.
Eccentric Ball Valve
A quarter turn, rotary action valve providing a cam action against the seat and this closing by
application of mechanical force.
End Entry Ball Valve
Strictly a ball valve with a single piece body in which the ball is assembled from one end of the bore
and held in position by a seat/retainer ring fastened to the body. The term is often used
interchangeably with Side Entry Ball Valve.
Erosion
Damage to the valve/trim caused by high velocity flow of fluids – usually containing solids.
Excess Flow Valve
A valve designed to close automatically when flow exceeds a specified rate.
Expanding Gate Valve
A parallel gate valve having two gate halves with inclined mating faces such that operation results in
mechanical loading of each gate half against its seat.
Expanding Plug Valve
A parallel plug valve having two plug halves separated by an internal wedge such that operation
results in mechanical loading of each plug half against its seat.
Face to Face Dimensions
The dimension from the end face of the inlet port to the end face of the outlet port of a valve or pipe
fitting.
Facing
The finish of the gasket contact surface of flanged end piping materials and valves.
Fire Fighting Valve
Generally a globe valve specifically for fire hydrants having an outlet for a hose coupling.
Fire Safe
A misleading and incorrect term used to describe a valve suitable for service in fire hazardous areas.
Fire Type Test
A standardised test which can be performed on a valve or range of valves to provide an indication of
how they may behave when subjected to a real fire.
Fire Type Test Certified Valve:
A valve covered by fire type test certification in accordance with an accepted fire type test standard.
Fixed Seats
Seats fixed to the valve body, often by welding.
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Flap Valve
A low pressure swing check valve having hinged disk or flap, sometimes leather or rubber faced.
Flash Point
The temperature at which a fluid first releases sufficient flammable vapour to ignite in the presence
of a small flame or spark.
Flat Faced bonnet Joint
The jointing surface between a valve body and bonnet when the bonnet is not recessed into the body
but seated on a flat surface. Suitable for low pressure service only.
Flat Full Face Gasket
A flat gasket covering the entire surface of parts to be joined.
Flexible Wedge Gate Valve
A valve having a slotted gate permitting flexing, improving seat alignment and reducing break out
and closing force (torque) with high pressures and temperatures. Only effective in larger sizes.
Float Valve
An automatic flow control valve of globe or piston type, usually operated by a float mechanism for
regulating or maintaining liquid level in a tank.
Floating Ball Valve
A valve having a ball supported by seat rings, without a trunnion. Also called a seat supported ball
valve.
Floating Seats
Valve seats having limited axial movement, energised by line pressure to seal against the obturator
and sealed against the valve body.
Flow Coefficient Cv
The flow capacity of a valve at a specified opening position in US gallons per minute of water at a
temperature of 60°F with a pressure loss of one pound per square inch.
Flow Coefficient Kv
The flow capacity of a valve at a specified opening position in cubic meters per hour of water at 15°C
with a pressure loss of 0,981 bar.
Flutter
Rapid reciprocating or oscillating motion of a valve disk during which the disk does not contact seat
(applicable to check valves).
Foot Valve
A lift or swing check valve with an open inlet for total immersion on a pump suction line, always
fitted with a filter or strainer.
Full Bore/Port
A valve bore approximately equivalent to pipe bore ‐ minimising pressure drop and facilitating
pigging.
Page 150 of 165

Full Bore Diaphragm Valve
Diaphragm valve with straight through full bore. See diaphragm valve and weir diaphragm valve.
Full Bore Plug Valve
Plug valve with full bore through valve as opposed to standard patterns having trapezoidal ports.
Full Lift Safety Valve
A valve which modulates open over a small portion of the lift and then opens rapidly to the fully open
position.
Galling
The tendency to seizure of two metallic components in sliding contact, usually where there is
insufficient difference in relative hardness or where identical materials are used.
Gate
The obturator of a gate valve.
Gate Valve
A linear action, multi‐turn (when hand operated) valve, the obturator is a gate or disk closing against
flat faced seats.
Gear Operator
A gearbox fitted to a valve for manual or actuated operation to reduce operating effort. Increases
operating time.
Gland
A flanged or screwed component fastened to the bonnet to compress and retain the gland packing.
Gland Follower
An integral or separate gland component in direct contact with the packing.
Glandless Valve
A valve not requiring a gland, e.g. a diaphragm valve or pinch valve.
Gland Packing
See packing.
Globe Stop and Check Valve
A globe valve whose disk is disconnected from the stem so that, in the open position, the valve acts
as a check valve. Also called a combination stop check valve
Globe Valve
A linear action, multi‐turn (when hand operated) valve with a disk or plug type obturator seating on a
flat or shaped seat
Hammer Blow Handwheel
A handwheel incorporating lost motion and designed to provide a sudden load to start opening of a
valve where a plain handwheel is inadequate but a geared operator is not justified. Generally only
used with globe valves and wedge gate valves.
Page 151 of 165

Handwheel
The manually operated component used to open and close a valve.
Hand Operated Valve
A valve without a powered actuator.
Hard Faced Seats
Seats or seating having a hard facing or coating to provide good sealing surfaces resistant to wear,
wire drawing, galling and abrasion. Materials generally used ‐ cobalt bearing alloys (stellite,
colmonoy); carbides (tungsten, chromium).
Hard Seated Valve
A valve with hard faced seats and obturator.
(Valve) Height
Usually the distance from pipe centre line to top of valve handwheel or the top of a gear operator or
powered actuator. See overall height.
High Performance Butterfly Valve
Imprecise term historically used for double and triple offset butterfly valves.
Hose End Valve
A valve for utility services which has fittings for connection to a hose.
Inlay/Overlay
A corrosion resistant fusion welded coating applied to valve body internal surfaces.
Inlet Port
The port connected directly to the upstream pipework.
Inside Screw Non‐Rising Stem
A gate valve design in which the gate rises on a threaded portion of the stem within the valve body
and below the stem seal. The stem rotates but does not rise.
Iris Valve
A valve design in which the closure moves towards the centre of the valve bore to seat.
Isolation Valve
See block valve.
Kicker Valve
A specific term for the valve used on pig traps to initiate pig launching and to stop flow on pig
reception.
Knife Gate Valve
A valve having a narrow parallel gate with a shaped edge for cutting through glutinous media or
slurries. Normally limited to low pressure, the gland normally seals directly onto the gate.
Page 152 of 165

Lantern Ring
A metallic ring forming a chamber between upper and lower sets of compression packings in a
stuffing box. A port from the bonnet may connect with the lantern ring which may have several
functions:
(i) An injection chamber for gland sealant.
(ii) A pressure chamber for preventing external loss of e.g. toxic process fluid.
(iii) A leakage collection chamber.
Lapping
The process of rubbing and polishing surfaces (e.g. obturator and seats) to obtain a smooth seating
surface and minimise leakage.
Leak Tight
A term confirming there is no leakage through or from a valve.
Lever Operated Valve
A quarter turn, rotary action valve, e.g. ball, butterfly and plug types, usually small, low rated valves.
Lift Check Valve
A check valve in which the obturator is lifted from the seat during forward flow.
Lifting Plug Valve
A valve in which the plug is lifted clear of the seat during rotation from open to close to reduce
operating torque.
Line Blind Valve
A method of positive isolation using a plate arranged to rotate between flanges that are clamped
against the plate to seal off. Also called a goggle and spectacle valve.
Line Pressure
The pressure in the piping system.
Lined Valve
A ball, plug or butterfly valve whose body is internally lined, typically with PTFE or elastomer. The
lining is used to seal valve.
Lubricated Plug Valve
A plug valve having grooved seating areas and passage ways for lubricant and sealant injection. See
pressure balanced plug valve.
Lugged Pattern
Term for butterfly and check valves of wafer pattern which are provided with lugs through drilled for
flange bolting. Other terms used ‐ lugged wafer pattern, wafer lugged pattern and single flanged
valve.
Manual Control Valve
A valve for regulating flow or pressure which is not part of a feedback control loop. Globe, needle,
ball, butterfly and diaphragm valves are extensively used.
Page 153 of 165

Manual Operation
A valve supplied for operation by hand.
Manual Override
Operation by handwheel of a powered actuator in the event of power failure and for setting of the
actuator travel stops etc.
Manual Valve Operator
A valve operator consisting of a hand lever, handwheel or T bar.
Mechanically Seated Valve
A valve designed to achieve primary seating by application of mechanical force e.g. expanding gate
valve, wedge gate valve, expanding plug valve, globe valve, butterfly valve.
Metal Seated Valve
See hard seated valve.
Mixing Valve
A control valve, usually self operating which uses a control element to regulate flow from more than
one input. Multi‐port designs e.g., globe type may be used to mix different fluids and are sometimes
called blending valves. Mixing valves are also used for temperature control in conjunction with a
thermostat.
Modulating Safety Valve
A pilot operated valve designed to modulate opening according to the degree of overpressure.
Needle Valve
A globe valve with a conical plug (needle) closing into a small seat. Used for flow metering and
damping pressure fluctuations on instruments e.g. pressure gauges. Also called an instrument valve.
Nominal Diameter (DN) & Nominal Pipe Size (NPS)
A number denoting the size of a pipe, fitting, or valve. Units of DN is millimetres, units of NPS is
inches. The actual bore may vary considerably from the DN or NPS designation.
Non‐Lubricated Plug Valve
A plug valve not depending on the injection of lubricant or sealant for operation and seating e.g.,
lined and sleeved plug valves and lifting plug valves.
Non‐Rising Stem
See inside screw, non‐rising stem.
Nozzle Check Valve
See axial flow valve.
Oblique Pattern
A globe valve body pattern with the closure at an angle to the port to reduce pressure drop. Also
called a ‘Y’ pattern valve.
Page 154 of 165

Obturator
The final component of the valve drive train regulating the flow or pressure and closing against the
seat e.g. ball, disk, gate, piston or plug. Synonymous with closure member.
Outlet port
The port connected directly to the down stream pipework.
Outside Screw and Yoke (OS&Y)
A rising stem design for linear action valves (gate and globe). The threaded portion of the stem is
outside the valve body and isolated from the process media by the gland packing. The stem is
operated by a threaded nut in the yoke.
Outside Screw, Rising Stem
See outside screw and yoke.
Overall Height
Valve height plus the distance below the valve bore centreline to the base of the valve.
Overlay
Fusion welded alloy applied to valve bodies (for corrosion resistance) and trim (for wear resistance).
Overpressure
A safety valve term for pressure increase above the set pressure after the valve has lifted (expressed
as percentage of set pressure).
Packing
The material used to effect a seal between the valve stem and the bonnet in a packed gland valve.
Packing Assembly
The gland, gland follower, packing nut and packing components of a valve.
Packing Box Assembly
The bonnet gland stuffing box and packing assembly used to seal against leakage from the valve body
stem area.
Parallel Gate Valve
A gate valve with a parallel faced, sliding gate or disk closure. Typically slab gate, parallel slide gate
and expanding gate.
Parallel Plug Valve
A valve with a cylindrical plug closure, various methods of sealing are used i.e., lubricated, expanding
plug, eccentric and O‐ring sealed designs.
Parallel Slide Valve
A parallel gate valve incorporating two disks separated by a spring. Generally used for power
generation and steam service applications.
Particulate
Small solid contaminants in the process fluid which may be abrasive and damaging to the valve
performance.
Page 155 of 165

Penstock Valve
A gate valve with the gate mounted in a frame fixed to a wall or bulkhead. Used for handling large
volumes of low pressure water. Also called a sluice valve.
Pig‐Ball Valve
A ball valve designed to hold and launch or receive pigs or spheres.
Piggable Valve
A full bore block valve suitable for the passage of pigs and spheres. Valves used are trunnion
mounted ball valves and conduit gate valves of slab and expanding design.
Pilot Operated Safety Valve
A valve comprising of a main valve and a pilot valve. The pilot valve senses the pressure of the system
and, when opened, vents pressure from a cylinder which normally holds the main valve closed.
Pinch Valve
A valve in which the closure is a flexible tube, either exposed or enclosed in a body. The tube is
pinched to close mechanically or by application of control fluid pressure between the body and the
tube.
Piston Check Valve
A check valve with a free or spring loaded piston closure.
Piston Valve
A globe valve in which a cylindrical obturator enters or withdraws from a seat bore to start, stop or
regulate flow. The seat bore contains packing to effect a seal against the obturator. In addition to the
standard straight pattern design other variants are available, e.g., tank bottom outlet valves and
sampling valves.
Plate Check Valve
A valve having an arrangement of metallic or plastic plates allowing forward flow but preventing
reverse flow. Used for air and gas compressors.
Plug
A valve obturator which may be of tapered or cylindrical shape.
Plug Valve
A quarter turn, rotary action valve in which the obturator is a plug closing against a downstream seat.
PN Rating
A meaningless number denoting a range of temperature and pressure combinations at which a valve
may be used.
Poppet Valve
A linear action valve (derivative of globe valve) in which the closure is a stem mounted disk often
with an angled edge closing on an angled seat. Frequently found solenoid operated in control
systems.
Page 156 of 165

Port
A passage through a component, e.g. the inlet and outlet through an open valve. Also, sometimes,
the valve seat opening.
Preferred Flow Direction
A term for a design of valve where line pressure aids closure in one direction and tends to unseat
from the other direction. Valves with preferred flow directions include butterfly, eccentric ball and
eccentric plug valves.
Pressure Balanced Plug Valves
A lubricated plug valve having internal passageways pressurised by the process fluid in order to
reduce operating friction and make it more predictable.
Pressure Control Valve
An automatic valve with a pressure sensing element to control pressure within specified limits. (see
pressure maintaining valve, pressure reducing valve).
Pressure Differential
See differential pressure.
Pressure Drop
The pressure lost between the inlet and the outlet of an open valve owing to its resistance to flow.
Pressure Energised Seat
A floating seat with limited movement that is energised by line pressure against the obturator.
Common in trunnion mounted ball valves and slab gate valves.
Pressure Maintaining Valve
A control valve that maintains the level of upstream line pressure. Also called a back pressure
controller.
Pressure Reducing Valve
An automatic control valve that reduces the upstream line pressure to a set level downstream and
maintains the reduced pressure irrespective of changes in upstream pressure.
Pressure Relief Valve
See safety valve.
Pressure Sealed Bonnet
A valve in which the bonnet is in the form of a cylindrical plug retained inside the valve body by a
segmented ring which reacts the pressure load on the bonnet and transfers to the valve body.
Sealing is provided by a separate gasket.
Pressure/Vacuum Safety Valve
A valve that automatically releases excess pressure or admits pressure to prevent a vacuum forming
when filling or emptying a pipeline or tank.
Raised Face Flange (RF Flange)
A pipe flange or valve body flange where the gasket contact surface is raised relative to the flange
face.
Page 157 of 165

Raised Face Gasket (RF Gasket)
A gasket with dimensions matching a RF flange face.
Reduced Bore
A valve in which the diameter of the flow passage is reduced at the seat. Generally the reduction is to
the next standard pipe size down. Saves weight, size, and cost at the expense of additional pressure
drop. (See venturi valve).
Regular Pattern
A U.S. term for a valve design in common usage as opposed to less common designs. Also specifically
used for plug valves in which the port commonly used is trapezoidal. Synonymous with standard
pattern.
Relief Valve
Also known as a pressure relief valve or safety valve. Strictly a design of safety valve that is direct
acting and intended for liquid service only. Designs include full lift relief valve and modulating relief
valve.
Reseating Pressure
The pressure at which a pressure relief valve or safety valve reseats after discharge.
Resistance Coefficient
A coefficient defining the friction loss through a valve in terms of velocity head or velocity pressure.
Reverse Acting Gate
A term used for conduit gate valves in which the gate(s) is ported through the upper half so that the
gate is raised to close. This design utilises internal pressure to close the valve and therefore
minimises the size of actuators for shutdown valves etc. Also avoids problems in closing as a result of
any solids/particulate which may have entered the body cavity where the process fluid is dirty.
Ring Type Joint Flange (RTJ Flange)
A pipe or valve body flange having a machined groove into which a metal ring gasket is fitted.
Ring Type Joint Gasket
A metal ring gasket of oval or octagonal section.
Rising Stem
Valves in which the stem (but not necessarily the handwheel) rises during valve opening.
Rotary Disk Valve
A form of quarter turn gate valve design in which an offset shaft slides a disk shaped obturator across
the valve seat to open or close. Upstream pressure loads the disk against its seat. Also called a rotary
gate valve and a lever gate valve when manually operated by a lever.
Rotary Valve
A general term sometimes used to describe valves with a rotary action, e.g., ball, butterfly, plug
valves. The term is also used specifically for a design of valve used to dose precise quantities of
powders on liquids into a process stream. The obturator is machined with a series of cups to hold the
dose and may be continuously rotated through 360 degrees or reciprocated through 180 degrees to
provide dosing. A particular design is the cup ball valve typically used in chemical plants.
Page 158 of 165

Rubber Lined Butterfly Valve
A quarter turn rotary action valve of conventional design in which the disk is mounted concentrically
with the shaft axis. The rubber lining of the body forms the valve seat. The lining may be vulcanised
to the body or be replaceable in the form of a lining or insert.
Rubber Seated Wedge Gate Valve
A valve with a rubber coated wedge closure that seals against the valve seat. This design eliminates
the cavity in the bottom of the valve but is limited by pressure and temperature.
Running Torque or Force
The torque or force required to stroke a valve over the majority of its travel. This torque or force is
always less than the breakout and closing torque/force.
Safety Relief Valve
A direct acting pressure‐relief valve intended for gas, vapour and liquid service.
Safety Valve
In Europe a term for any automatic valve that relieves overpressure in a pressurised system. In the
USA it is specifically a full lift pressure‐relief valve intended for gas service only. Also sometimes used
for valves which perform a safety related function e.g. shut‐down valves.
Sampling Valve
A globe valve intended for taking samples from a vessel or piping system. Usually mounted on the
bottom of a vessel or pipe (see piston valve).
Screwed Bonnet
A bonnet screwed into the valve body rather than flanged or bolted. Generally used on small bore
low pressure valves for non‐hazardous industrial applications. The bonnet is sometimes seal welded
to prevent external leakage from the threaded portion.
Screwed (Threaded) End
A valve (and pipe) with ends machined with an internal or external screw thread.
Screwed (Threaded) Gland
A gland with an external screw thread and screwed into the bonnet stuffing box, rather than flanged
and bolted. Generally used on small bore valve, e.g. instrument valves. A locking device is sometimes
fitted to prevent rotation in service due to vibration or other cause.
Sealant Injection
The injection through a non‐return valve of a viscous sealing compound to seal the stem and/or seats
of a valve either by design (lubricated plug valve) or for use in an emergency.
Seat
The part of a valve against which the obturator is loaded to provide shut‐off and through which
process fluid flows in the open position. The seat may comprise one or more components of metallic
or non‐metallic materials.
Seat Bush
See seat ring.
Page 159 of 165

Seat Contact Pressure
The force per unit area required to prevent leakage across the contact surface of a valve seat and
obturator. May be applied by line pressure and/or mechanical force.
Seat Holder
A metallic component, usually corrosion resistant, with a seat insert of another material, e.g.
elastomer or polymer. Specifically the term is used for valves with floating seat designs. Seat holders
are typically used in trunnion mounted ball valves and slab (parallel) gate valves.
Seat Housing
The counter bone in the body of floating seat valve in which the seat holder is located.
Seat Insert
A ring shaped sealing element generally of elastomer or polymer that is fitted in a seat holder, seat
ring or closure. Also called a soft seat insert.
Seat Pocket
A general term for the counterbore(s) within a valve body that house or locate a seat holder or seat
ring. Seat pockets may be left plain or overlaid in corrosion resistant materials when required.
Seat Ring
Synonymous with seat where this is a separate component from the valve body.
Seat Supported Ball Valve
See floating ball valve.
Seat to Body Seal
The seal preventing leakage around an inserted seat. In fixed seat valves the seal usually depends on
a screwed or swaged joint. In floating seat valves a dynamic seal (O‐ring etc.) is required to allow
float of the seat assembly.
Set Pressure
The pressure at which a pressure relief valve opens.
Shaft
Synonymous with stem but usually associated with rotary valves.
Short Pattern Valve
Valve in which the face to face dimension is less than normal. Several standards include short pattern
dimensions for different types of valves. Generally, valves are of reduced bore.
Shut‐Off Valve
A valve designed to operate either fully open or fully closed, and not at intermediate positions.
Side Entry Ball Valve
Strictly, a two or three piece body ball valve in which the ball is assembled via the bore of one of the
body pieces. The term is often used interchangeably with End Entry.
Single Flanged Valve
Normally a wafer pattern valve provided with lugs for bolting to pipe flanges.
Page 160 of 165

Single Piece Ball Valve
A ball valve with the body in one piece, the ball being assembled from one end and held by a retainer
ring which may also include a valve seat. Generally used for small bore valves.
Size
The size of a valve usually refers to the nominal size (DN or NPS) of the connecting piping. Sometimes
the actual internal diameter is given e.g. for wellhead gate valves. Reduced bore/venturi valves
normally reference the size of the reduced internal diameter e.g. 6 in x 4 in NPS (See also full
bore/part and reduced bore).
Slab Gate Valve
A conduit gate valve with a single parallel sided gate normally sealed by floating seats, line pressure
energised with supplementary mechanical loading (springs) at low pressure. Fixed seats are
sometimes used for small bore valves.
Sleeved Plug Valve
As a lined plug valve except that the sleeve of PTFE or similar polymer material is machined and press
fitted or keyed into the valve body rather than moulded in place
Slide Valve
A general term for the knife gate valve and the parallel slide valve but, specifically, the term is used
for specialised parallel gate valves working at high temperature and low pressure on FCCUs in
refineries. Valve bodies are normally internally insulated.
Slurry
A product consisting of solids mixed with liquid to assist transportation through piping systems. The
solids vary widely and may be abrasive, non‐abrasive, hard or fibrous materials.
Small Bore Valve
A term generally used for valves of NPS 2 and less.
Socket Weld End
A valve with counterbored end(s) into which piping is fitted and fillet welded to make a joint.
Soft Seat Insert
See seat insert.
Soft Seated Valve
A valve with primary seating elements manufactured from elastomer or polymer.
Soft Seated Wedge Gate Valves
A wedge gate valve in which primary soft seating is used. Seating may be a solid PTFE seat, or a soft
seat insert, either in the valve body or in the wedge gate closure.
Solenoid Valve
A linear action block valve, generally of globe type, fitted with a solenoid actuator. Generally quick
operating.
Solid Wedge Disc
A disc or wedge of one piece.
Page 161 of 165

Split Wedge Gate
Gate valve having a wedge comprising two separate halves in order to provide flexibility and
resistance to thermal wedging.
Stem
The component of a valve which transmits force or torque from the operator to the obturator.
Stop Check or Screw Down Non‐Return Valve
A valve which automatically closes when flow reverses and which can be screwed down into a stop or
closed position.
Stuffing box
The gland packing chamber within a valve bonnet.
Swing Check Valve
A valve which has an obturator comprising swinging disc that opens with forward flow and closes
automatically when forward flow ceases.
‘T’ bar
A lever handle extending on both sides of the stem/shaft centre line.
Throttling
Regulation of pressure or flow across a valve.
Trim
Internal components isolating or regulating the flow (e.g. wetted parts). Includes seating surfaces,
obturator, cage, stem, bearings, guides and associated parts.
Uni‐Directional Valve
A valve designed to seal in only one flow direction.
Upstream Seated Valve
A valve that when closed, seals by line pressure acting on the upstream seat.
V Port Plug or Ball
A type of valve closure member (plug or ball) having a ‘V’ shaped orifice giving good throttling
characteristics.
Valve Closure Member
Synonymous with obturator.
Valve Operator
The valve part or parts by means of which a force is applied to move the obturator.
Valve Port
Usually the passages adjacent to the inlet or outlet openings of the valve.
Venturi Throat Valve
A valve having a reduced port opening at the seat and a graduated transition to the valve ends.
Intended to minimise pressure drop through the valve.
Page 162 of 165

Wiper Ring
A ring which removes extraneous material (e.g. from a gate valve stem) by a wiping action in order to
protect the stem seal.
Y Type Globe Valve
See ‘Oblique Pattern’.
Yoke
That part of a valve which connects the valve actuator to the valve body and reacts the force on the
stem.
Yoke bush
A screwed brush, retained in the yoke (often in bearings) to which the hand‐wheel or actuator is
connected. Is threaded onto the valve stem so that rotation of the bush causes valve stem to move
up or down.
Page 163 of 165

Annex B
(Informative)
EEMUA Recommended Valve Test Requirements
Nomenclature: Y = Test recommended A = Discretionary according to service conditions
N = Test not recommended T = Type test
Test Description Commodity Valves Critical Service Valves

1 1
Gate Globe But’fly Plug Ball Gate Globe But’fly Plug Ball
Shell Strength (liquid) Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Shell Tightness (liquid) Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Shell Tightness (LP Gas) N N N N N A 2 A 2 A 2 A 2 A 2
Hp Seat (liquid) Y Y Y Y A 3 Y Y Y Y Y
2 2 2 2
Lp Seat (gas) A A A A Y A 2 A 2 A 2 A 2 Y
Hp Seat (gas) 4 N N N N N A 2, 5 A 2, 5 A 2, 5 A 2, 5 A 2, 5
Obturator Strength N N N N N N N Y 6 N N
(liquid/gas)
HP Backseat (liquid) Y 5 Y 5 N N N Y Y N N N
LP Backseat (gas) N N N N N N N N N N
Operability (function) Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Torque/Force Measurement N N N N N Y 5 Y 5 Y 5 Y 5 Y 5
7 7 7
Anti‐Static N N N Y Y N N N Y Y 7
Fire Test 8 Y 7, 9 N Y 7, 9 Y 7, 9 Y 7, 9 Y 7, 9 N Y 7, 9 Y 7, 9 Y 7, 9
Body Cavity Relief Test Y 5, 10 N N Y 5, 10 Y 5 Y 5, 10 N N Y 5, 10 Y 5
Notes:
1 Wedge gate, expanding gate and slab gate.
2 Gas service applications. Allowable leak rate for HP test should be agreed with manufacturer: is normally several times LP rate.
3 Strongly recommended if sealing force is mechanical, e.g. ‘Orbit’ type valves.
4 May be substituted for HP liquid seat test.
5 Sample.
6 ‘A’ for sizes below DN 350 (NPS 14).
7 Type test.
8 Not applicable to buried or subsea valves.
9 If polymer or elastomer seals employed.
10 Only types which can lock liquid inside body cavity when in closed position, and which may subsequently be heated.
Page 164 of 165

Bibliography
Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society (ISA)
[1] ISA 93.00.01 Standard Method for the Evaluation of External Leakage of Manual and Automated
On‐Off Valves.
Manufacturers Standardization Society of the Valve and Fittings Industry (MSS)
[2] MSS SP‐81 Stainless Steel, Bonnetless, Flanged Knife Gate Valves.
Verein Deutscher Ingenieure (VDI)
[3] VDI 2440 Emission control ‐ Mineral oil refineries.
Page 165 of 165

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6.12. Vacuum Service ..........................................................................................................44

10.6. Hard Coating .............................................................................................................136

Table 1 – Recommended Seat Leak Rates .....................................................................................17

Figure 1 – Isolation Arrangements ...................................................................................................13

Figure 11 – Venturi Pattern Gate Valve ...........................................................................................60

Figure 48 – Foot Valve ...................................................................................................................104

Valve Type Hydro Seat Test L.P. Gas Seat Test (API 6D H.P. Gas Seat Test

Gas Leak Rate Comparison

70 ISO 5208 Rate C

Size API 598 and ISO 10434 EN 12266‐1 ISO 5208 ISO 14313

 50 (2) 60 15 15 15 2 min

Size API 598 and EN 12266‐1 ISO 5208 ISO 14313

Valve Type Cl 150 Cl 300 Cl 600 Cl 900 Cl 1500 Cl 2500

NDT of Materials/Components Forgings and HIPings Casting Plate

NDT of Materials/Components Forgings and HIPings Casting Plate

DN (NPS) < 80 (3) 80 to 300 (3 to 12) 350 to 600 (14 to24) > 600 (30)

Sealing Force = 0.785 P (Do2-Ds2)

Sealing Force = 0.785 P (Do2-Ds2)

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Material Typical Specifications Typical Application

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Material Typical Specifications Typical Application

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Service Trim Trim Description

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