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Signal diodes | Rectifier diodes | Bridge rectifiers | Zener diodesY

ñlso see: LEDs | ñ and D | Power Supplies

Y

Example: ircuit symbol:






Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one

direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol
shows the direction in which the current can
flow. Diodes are the electrical version of a
valve and early diodes were actually called
valves.Y




c
Y

Electricity uses up a little energy pushing its

way through the diode, rather like a person
pushing through a door with a spring. This
means that there is a small voltage across a
conducting diode, it is called the Ô



 and is about 0.7V for
all normal diodes which are made from silicon. The forward voltage drop of a
diode is almost constant whatever the current passing through the diode so
they have a very steep characteristic (current-voltage graph).Y

÷ 

Y

^hen a reverse voltage is applied a perfect diode does not conduct, but all
real diodes leak a very tiny current of a few µñ or less. This can be ignored in
most circuits because it will be very much smaller than the current flowing in
the forward direction. However, all diodes have a × × × 


 (usually 50V or more) and if this is exceeded the diode will fail and
pass a large current in the reverse direction, this is called 

.Y

ºrdinary diodes can be split into two types: Signal diodes which pass small
currents of 100mñ or less and Rectifier diodes which can pass large currents.
]n addition there are LEDs (which have their own page) and Zener diodes (at
the bottom of this page).Y

M







Y

Diodes must be connected the correct way round, the

diagram may be labelled  or  for anode and  or  for
cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!). The
cathode is marked by a line painted on the body. Diodes
are labelled with their code in small print, you may need a
magnifying glass to read this on small signal diodes!Y

Small  


 can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the risk is
small unless you are using a ×
×
 (codes beginning ºñ...) in
which case you should use a heat sink clipped to the lead between the joint
and the diode body. ñ standard crocodile clip can be used as a heat sink.Y

÷ Ô 
 are quite robust and no special precautions are needed for
soldering them.

J

Y

Úou can use a multimeter or a simple tester (battery, resistor and LED) to
check that a diode conducts in one direction but not the other. ñ lamp may be
used to test a rectifier diode, but do NºT use a lamp to test
a signal diode because the large current passed by the lamp will destroy the
diode!Y

? 


×

 
Y

Signal diodes are used to process information (electrical signals) in circuits, so

they are only required to pass small currents of up to 100mñ.Y

General purpose signal diodes such as the 1N4148 are made from silicon and
have a forward voltage drop of 0.7V.Y
è×
×
 such as the ºñ
0 have a lower forward voltage drop of
0.2V and this makes them suitable to use in radio circuits as detectors which
extract the audio signal from the weak radio signal.

For general use, where the size of the forward voltage drop is less important,
silicon diodes are better because they are less easily damaged by heat when
soldering, they have a lower resistance when conducting, and they have very
low leakage currents when a reverse
voltage is applied.





Ô




Signal diodes are also used to protect

transistors and ] s from the brief high
voltage produced when a relay coil is
switched off. The diagram shows how a
protection diode is connected 'backwards'
across the relay coil.Y

urrent flowing through a relay coil creates a

magnetic field which collapses suddenly when the current is switched off. The sudden
collapse of the magnetic field induces a brief high voltage across the relay coil which is
very likely to damage transistors and ] s. The protection diode allows the induced
voltage to drive a brief current through the coil (and diode) so the magnetic field dies
away quickly rather than instantly. This prevents the induced voltage becoming high
enough to cause damage to transistors and ] s.
Y

Y
÷ Ô 

 
Y 
 Y

 Y

Y Y

 Y
Rectifier diodes are used in power supplies to  Y
convert alternating current (ñ ) to direct current Y Y Y
(D ), a process called rectification. They are also Y Y Y
used elsewhere in circuits where a large current
Y Y Y
must pass through the diode.Y
Y Y Y
ñll rectifier diodes are made from silicon and Y Y Y
therefore have a forward voltage drop of 0.7V. The
table shows maximum current and maximum reverse voltage for some
popular rectifier diodes. The 1N4001 is suitable for most low voltage circuits
with a current of less than 1ñ.Y
ñlso see: Power Supplies

u  Ô Y

There are several ways of connecting

diodes to make a rectifier to convert
ñ to D . The bridge rectifier is one of
them and it is available in special
packages containing the four diodes
required. Bridge rectifiers are rated by
their maximum current and maximum reverse voltage. They have four leads
or terminals: the two D outputs are labelled + and -, the two ñ inputs are
labelled .Y

The diagram shows the operation of a bridge rectifier as it converts ñ to D .

Notice how alternate pairs of diodes conduct.Y

ñlso see: Power Supplies

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Y Y
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YY
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Y Y Y 
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!Y

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Example: ircuit symbol:

a = anode, k = cathodeY
Zener diodes are used to maintain a fixed voltage.
They are designed to 'breakdown' in a reliable and
non-destructive way so that they can be used

  to maintain a fixed voltage across their
terminals. The diagram shows how they are
connected, with a resistor in series to limit the
current.Y

Zener diodes can be distinguished from ordinary

diodes by their code and breakdown voltage which
are printed on them. Zener diode codes begin BZX... or BZÚ... Their
breakdown voltage is printed with V in place of a decimal point, so 4V7 means
4.7V for example.

Zener diodes are rated by their breakdown voltage and maximum power:

î The minimum voltage available is 2.4V.

î Power ratings of 400m^ and 1.3^ are common.

?
   
  



J
 

This page covers practical matters such as precautions when soldering and identifying
leads. The operation and use of transistors is covered by the Transistor ircuits page.Y

Types | onnecting | Soldering | Heat

sinks | Testing | odes | hoosing | Darlington pairY

ñlso see: Heat sinks | Transistor ircuits






Transistors ×
Ô 
, for example they can be used to
amplify the small output current from a logic ] so that it can
operate a lamp, relay or other high current device. ]n many
circuits a resistor is used to convert the changing current to a
changing voltage, so the transistor is being used to ×
Ô


.Y

ñ transistor may be used as a   (either fully on with maximum current,

or fully off with no current) and as an ×
Ô  (always partly on).Y

The amount of current amplification is called the  

, symbol hFE.

For further information please see the Transistor ircuits page.

J
Ô
 
Y

There are two types of standard

transistors, 22 and 2, with different circuit
symbols. The letters refer to the layers of
semiconductor material used to make the transistor.
Most transistors used today are NPN because this is Y

the easiest type to make from silicon. ]f you are new to

&
 Y

Y'(Y
electronics it is best to start by learning how to use
NPN transistors.
The leads are labelled  (B), 


 ( ) and ×  (E).

These terms refer to the internal operation of a transistor but they are not much help in
understanding how a transistor is used, so just treat them as labels!Y

ñ Darlington pair is two transistors connected together to give a very high

current gain.

]n addition to standard (bipolar junction) transistors, there are Ô 

ÔÔ

 
 which are usually referred to as Js. They have different circuit
symbols and properties and they are not (yet) covered by this page.

Y
M



Y

Transistors have three leads which

must be connected the correct way
round. Please take care with this
because a wrongly connected
transistor may be damaged instantly
when you switch on.Y

]f you are lucky the orientation of the

transistor will be clear from the P B
or stripboard layout diagram,
otherwise you will need to refer to a
supplier's catalogue to identify the
leads.Y
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The drawings on the right show the &
 YY YYYY ')Y
leads for some of the most common
case styles.

Please note that transistor lead diagrams show the view from 

 with the
leads towards you. This is the opposite of ] (chip) pin diagrams which show
the view from above.

Please see below for a table showing the case styles of some common
transistors.

Y
?


Y

Transistors can be damaged by heat when soldering

so if you are not an expert it is wise to use a heat sink Y

clipped to the lead between the joint and the

transistor body. ñ standard crocodile clip can be used

Y
#Y
" #Y$Y#
Y% 
)Y
as a heat sink.Y

Do not confuse this temporary heat sink with the permanent heat sink (described below)
which may be required for a power transistor to prevent it overheating during operation.
Y

Y
Œ
Y

^aste heat is produced in transistors due to the current

flowing through them. Heat sinks are needed for power
transistors because they pass large currents. ]f you find Y

that a transistor is becoming too hot to touch it certainly * Y
!Y

needs a heat sink! The heat sink helps to dissipate
" #Y$Y#
Y% 
Y
(remove) the heat by transferring it to the surrounding
air.Y

For further information please see the Heat sinks page.

Y

J

 
Y

Transistors can be damaged by heat when soldering or by misuse in a circuit.

]f you suspect that a transistor may be damaged there are two easy ways to
test it:Y

Y
Ñ J
 ×
 ×
&
YY"Y 
 Y
üse a multimeter or a simple tester (battery,
resistor and LED) to check each pair of leads for conduction. Set a digital
multimeter to diode test and an analogue multimeter to a low resistance
range.Y

J 
Ô

 (six tests in total):Y

î The × u junction should behave like a diode and conduct
one way only.
î The 


uM junction should behave like a diode

and conduct one way only.
î The 


× M should not conduct either way.

The diagram shows how the junctions behave in an NPN transistor. The
diodes are reversed in a PNP transistor but the same test procedure can be
used.
Y
D J

 ×
 
  

onnect the transistor into the circuit shown on

the right which uses the transistor as a switch.
The supply voltage is not critical, anything
between 5 and 12V is suitable. This circuit can be
quickly built on breadboard for example. Take
care to include the 10k resistor in the base
connection or you will destroy the transistor as
you test it!Y

]f the transistor is º the LED should light when

Y

the switch is pressed and not light when the Y
#Y+

Y

Y
switch is released.Y Y  YY"Y 
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To test a PNP transistor use the same circuit but reverse the LED and the
supply voltage.

Some multimeters have a 'transistor test' function which provides a known

base current and measures the collector current so as to display the
transistor's D current gain hFE.

Y
J
 

Y

There are three main series of transistor codes used in the ü :Y

î M



 u
Ô
×
uMÑ
uM
The first letter B is for silicon, ñ is for germanium (rarely used now). The second
letter indicates the type; for example means low power audio frequency; D
means high power audio frequency; F means low power high frequency. The rest
of the code identifies the particular transistor. There is no obvious logic to the
numbering system. Sometimes a letter is added to the end (eg B 108 ) to
identify a special version of the main type, for example a higher current gain or a
different case style. ]f a project specifies a higher gain version (B 108 ) it must
be used, but if the general code is given (B 108) any transistor with that code is
suitable.Y
î M



 JÔ
×
JÑ
T]P refers to the manufacturer: Texas ]nstruments Power transistor. The letter at
the end identifies versions with different voltage ratings.
î M



 D2Ô
×
D2

The initial '2N' identifies the part as a transistor and the rest of the code identifies
the particular transistor. There is no obvious logic to the numbering system.

M



 
Y

Most projects will specify a particular transistor, but if necessary you can
usually substitute an equivalent transistor from the wide range available. The
most important properties to look for are the maximum collector current ] and
the current gain hFE. To make selection easier most suppliers group their
transistors in categories determined either by their  
  or × × ×

rating.Y

To make a final choice you will need to consult the tables of technical data
which are normally provided in catalogues. They contain a great deal of useful
information but they can be difficult to understand if you are not familiar with
the abbreviations used. The table below shows the most important technical
data for some popular transistors, tables in catalogues and reference books
will usually show additional information but this is unlikely to be useful unless
you are experienced. The quantities shown in the table are explained below.Y

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This is two transistors connected together so that the

amplified current from the first is amplified further by
the second transistor. This gives the Darlington pair a
very high current gain such as 10000. Darlington pairs
are sold as complete packages containing the two
transistors. They have three leads (u, M and ) which
are equivalent to the leads of a standard individual
transistor.Y

Úou can make up your own Darlington pair from two transistors.
For example:Y

î For TR1 use B 548B with hFE1 = 220.

î For TR2 use B 3
with hFE2 = 40.

The overall gain of this pair is hFE1 × hFE2 = 220 × 40 = 8800.

The pair's maximum collector current ] (max) is the same as TR2. 

?