MAT04 CALCULUS 1

A Module for Mechanical Engineering Student

Revised 2020

GILBERT R. ESQUILLO, PME

INTRODUCTION
An introductory course covering the core concepts of limits,
continuity and differentiability of functions involving one or more
variables. This is also includes the applications of differential
calculations in solving problems on optimization, partial
differentiation, and transcendental curve tracing.

OBJECTIVES
After completing this module, the student should be able to
1 Differentiate algebraic and transcendental functions.
2. Apply the concept of differentiation in solving word problems .
3. Analyze and trace transcendental curves.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..i
Introduction.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..ii
Objectives .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..ii
Table of Content .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..iii
Discussion .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..1
First Term .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..1
Introduction of Calculus .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..1
Functions .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..1
Continuity and Limits .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..5
The Derivative .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..10
The Slope .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..12
Rate of Change .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..14
The Chain Rule and the General Power Rule .. .. .. .. ..17
Second Term.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..21
Implicit Differentiation .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..21
Higher-order derivatives .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..23
Polynomials curve .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..25
Application of the derivative .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..29
Derivatives of the Trigonometric Functions .. .. .. ..43
Derivatives of an inverse Trigonometric Functions .. ..44
Derivative of Logarithmic and Exponential Functions .. ..46
Third Term .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..49
Derivative of Hyperbolic Functions .. .. .. .. .. .. ..49
Solutions of Equations .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..51
Transcendental Curve Tracing .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..52
Parametric Equations .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..55
The Differential .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..58
Partial Differentiation .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..59
References .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..60

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 First Term

Introduction of Calculus
Calculus, originally called infinitesimal calculus or "the
calculus of infinitesimals", is the mathematical study of
continuous change, in the same way that geometry is the study of
shape and algebra is the study of generalizations of arithmetic
operations.
It has two major branches, differential calculus and integral
calculus; the former concerns instantaneous rates of change, and the
slopes of curves, while integral calculus concerns accumulation of
quantities, and areas under or between curves. These two branches are
related to each other by the fundamental theorem of calculus, and
they make use of the fundamental notions of convergence of infinite
sequences and infinite series to a well-defined limit.
Infinitesimal calculus was developed independently in the late
17th century by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.
Today, calculus has widespread uses in science, engineering,and
economics.

Functions
A technical definition of a function is: a relation from a set
of inputs to a set of possible outputs where each input is related
to exactly one output.
This means that if the object x is in the set of inputs (called
the domain) then a function f will map the object x to exactly
one object f(x) in the set of possible outputs (called
the codomain).
A function is more formally defined given a set of
inputs X (domain) and a set of possible outputs Y (codomain) as
a set of ordered pairs (x,y) where x∈X and y∈Y, subject to the
restriction that there can be only one ordered pair with the same value
of x. We can write the statement that f is a function
from X to Y using the function notation f:X→Y.

Example 1. Determine if each of the following are functions.

a) y  x 2  1
b) y 2  x  1

Solution:
a) This first one is a function. Given an x there is only one
way to square it and then add 1 to the result and so no matter

1
 what value of x you put into the equation there is only one
possible value of y.
b) This is not a function. To see that this isn’t a function
is fairly simple. Choose a value of x, say x=3 and plug this
into the equation.
y2  3 1  4
Now, there are two possible values of y that we could use
here. We could use y = 2 or y = −2. Since there are two
possible values of y that we get from a single x this
equation isn’t a function.

Function notation is nothing more than a fancy way of writing the

y in a function that will allow us to simplify notation and some of
our work a little.
Let’s take a look at the following function.
y  2 x 2  5x  3
Using function notation we can write this as any of the following.

1. f  x   2 x 2  5 x  3
2. g  x   2 x 2  5 x  3
3. h x   2 x 2  5 x  3
4. R  x   2 x 2  5 x  3
5. w x   2 x 2  5 x  3
6. y  x   2 x 2  5 x  3
Recall that this is NOT a letter times x, this is just a fancy way
of writing y.
So, why is this useful? Well let’s take the function above and
let’s get the value of the function at x=-3. Using function notation
we represent the value of the function at x=-3 as f(-3). Function
notation gives us a nice compact way of representing function values.
Now, how do we actually evaluate the function? That’s really
simple. Everywhere we see an x on the right side we will substitute
whatever is in the parenthesis on the left side. For our function this
gives,
y  3  2 3  5 3  3
2

 2(9)  15  3
 36

2
EXERCISES. Given f  x    x 2  6 x  11 find each of the following
a. f(-2) Ans. f (2)  3
b. f(-10) Ans. f (10)  171
c. f(t) Ans. f (t )  t 2  6t  11
d. f(x-3) Ans. f ( x  3)   x 2  12 x  38
e. f(4x-1) Ans. f (4 x  1)  16 x 2  32 x  18

Inverse function

An inverse function is a function that undoes the action of the

another function. A function g is the inverse of a function f if
whenever y = f(x) then x = g(y). In other words, applying f and
then g is the same thing as doing nothing. We can write this in terms
of the composition of f and g as g(f(x)) = x.
A function f has an inverse function only if for every y in
its range there is only one value of x in its domain for
which f(x) = y. This inverse function is unique and is frequently
denoted by f 1 and called “f inverse.”

Finding the Inverse of a Function

Step 1. First, replace f (x) with y. This is done to make the
rest of the process easier.
Step 2. Replace every x with a y and replace every y with an
x.
Step 3. Solve the equation from Step 2 for y. This is the step
where mistakes are most often made so be careful with
this step.
Step 4. Replace y with f 1 ( x) . In other words, we’ve managed
to find the inverse at this point!

Step 5. Verify your work by checking that  f  f 1  x   x and

 f 1  f x   x are both true. However, there are
functions (they are beyond the scope of this course
however) for which it is possible for only one of these
to be true. This is brought up because in all the
problems here we will be just checking one of them.
We just need to always remember that technically we
should check both.

Example: Given f  x   3 x  2 find f 1 x 

3
Solution:
We’ll first replace f ( x) with y.

y  3x  2

Next, replace all x’s with y and all y’s with x.

x  3y  2

Now, solve for y.

x  2  3y
1
( x  2)  y
3
x 2
 y
3 3

Finally we replaced y with f 1 ( x) .

x 2
f 1  x   
3 3

Now, we need to verify the results. We already took care

of this in the previous section, however,we really
should follow the process so we’ll do that here. It
doesn’t matter which of the two that we check we just
need to check one of them. This time we’ll check that
 f  f 1 x   x is true.
 f  f x   f  f x 
1 1

 x 2
 f  
3 3
 x 2
 3    2
3 3
 x22
x

EXERCISES:
a. Given g  x   x  3 find g 1  x  .

Ans. g 1  x   x 2  3

4
 x4
b. Given h x   find h 1  x  .
2x  5

4  5x
Ans. h 1  x  
2x 1

Continuity and Limits

Limit of a function. A limit tells us the value that a function

approaches as that function’s inputs get closer and closer to some
number. The idea of a limit is the basis of all calculus.

Let f be the function defined at every number in some interval

containing a, except possibly at he number a itself. The limit of
f(x) as x approaches a is L, written as

a lim x f  x   L

if the following statement is true:

Given any  0 , however small, there exists a   0 such that if
0  x  a   then f  x   L  .

In words, this states that the function values f(x) approach a

limit L as x approaches a number a if the absolute value of the
difference between f(x) and L can be made as small as we please by
taking x sufficiently near a but not equal to a.

Example 1. Estimate the value of the following limit.

x 2  4 x  12
lim
xa x2  2x

Solution:
The point of this example is to give us a better idea of how
limits work and what they can tell us about the function.
We will choose values of x that get closer and closer to x=2
and plug these values into the function. Doing this gives the
following table of values.

5
 Note that we made sure and picked values of x that were on both
sides of x = 2 and that we moved in very close to x = 2 to make
sure that any trends that we might be seeing are in fact correct.
Also notice that we can’t actually plug in x = 2 into the
function as this would give us a division by zero error. This is
not a problem since the limit doesn’t care what is happening at
the point in question.
From this table it appears that the function is going to 4 as
x approaches 2, so

x 2  4 x  12
lim 4
x2 x2  2x

Let’s think a little bit more about what’s going on here.

Let’s graph the function from the last example. The graph of the
function in the range of x’s that were interested in is shown
below.
First, notice that there is a rather large open dot at x = 2 .
This is there to remind us that the function (and hence the graph)
doesn’t exist at x = 2 .
As we were plugging in values of x into the function we are in
effect moving along the graph in towards the point as x = 2 . This
is shown in the graph by the two arrows on the graph that are moving
in towards the point.

When we are computing limits the question that we are really

asking is what y value is our graph approaching as we move in towards
x = a on our graph. We are NOT asking what y value the graph takes

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 at the point in question. In other words, we are asking what the
graph is doing around the point x = a . In our case we can see that
as x moves in towards 2 (from both sides) the function is
approaching y = 4 even though the function itself doesn’t even
exist at x = 2 . Therefore we can say that the limit is in fact
4.

EXERCISES: Estimate the value of the following limit.

 x 2  4 x  12
1. lim g  x  , where g  x    2
if x  2 , if x  2
x2
 x  2x

Ans. lim g  x   4
x2

x 2  25
2. lim f ( x)  Ans. lim f ( x)  10
x 5 x5 x 5

Continuity of a function. A continuity is formulation of the intuitive

concept of a function that varies with no abrupt breaks or jumps.
A function is a relationship in which every value of an independent
variable say x is associated with a value of a dependent variable say
y. Continuity of a function is sometimes expressed by saying that if
the x-values are close together, then the y-values of the function
will also be close.
A function is said to be continuous if and only if it is continuous
at every point of its domain. A function is said to be continuous on
an interval, or subset of its domain, if and only if it is continuous
at each point of the interval. The sum, difference, and product of
continuous functions with the same domain are also continuous, as is
the quotient, except at points at which the denominator is zero.
Continuity can also be defined in terms of limits by saying
that f(x) is continuous at x0 of its domain if and only if, for
values of x in its domain,

lim f  x   f  x0 
x  x0

The function f is said to be continuous at the number a if and only

if the following three condition are satisfied:
(i) f(a) exists;
(ii) lim f ( x) exists;
x a

(iii) lim f ( x)  f (a )
xa

7
if one or more of these three conditions fail to hold at a, the function
is said to be discontinuous at a.

Example 1
Given the graph of f(x), shown below, determine if f(x) is
continuous at x = −2, x = 0 , and x = 3.

SOLUTION:
To answer the question for each point we’ll need to get both the
limit at that point and the function value at that point. If they
are equal the function is continuous at that point and if they
aren’t equal the function isn’t continuous at that point.

First x = −2,

f  2   2 lim f  x 
x  2 does’t exist

The function value and the limit aren’t the same and so the
function is not continuous at this point. This kind of
discontinuity in a graph is called a jump discontinuity. Jump
discontinuities occur where the graph has a break in it is as this
graph does.

Next is x=0,
f 0   1 lim f ( x)  1
x 0

The function is continuous at this point since the function and

limit have the same value.

8
 Then x=3,
f (3)  1 lim f (3)  0
x 3

The function is not continuous at this point. This kind of

discontinuity is called a removable discontinuity. Removable
discontinuities are those where there is a hole in the graph as
there is in this case.

If f ( x) is continuous at x = b and lim g ( x)  b

xa
then,

lim f  g  x   f  lim g ( x) 
xa  xa 

Example 2

Evaluate the given limit. lim e sin x .

x 0

SOLUTION:
Since we know that exponentials are continuous everywhere we can
use the fact above.
lim sin x
lim e sin x  e x 0
 e0  1
x 0

EXERCISES:

 1 if x0

1. Let f (x)  0 if x  0 . Determine whether f is continuous at
1 if x0

0 or not. (Answer: f is not continuous at 0)

 x 2 if x  0,
2. Let f ( x)   For each real number a, determine
1 if x  0.
whether f is continuous or discontinuous at a.

(Answer: f is not continuous at 0, and f is continuous at a)

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The Derivative

The derivative of a function describes the function's

instantaneous rate of change at a certain point. Another common
interpretation is that the derivative gives us the slope of the line
tangent to the function's graph at that point.

The derivative of the function f is that function, denoted by f’,

such that its value at a number x in the domain of f is given by

f  x  x   f  x 
f  x   lim
x  0 x
if this limit exists.

If x1 is a particular number in the domain of f, then

f  x1  x   f  x1 
f '  x   lim
x  0 x
if this limit exists. Observe that the domain of f’is a subset of
the domain of f.

3
Example 1. Find the derivative of f if f  x   .
x

Solution:
If x is real number in the domain of f, then
f  x  x   f  x 
f  x   lim
x  0 x
3 3

 lim x  x x
x  0 x
3 x  3( x  x)
 lim
x  0 x  x  x  x 

 3x
 lim
x  0 x  x  x  x 

3
 lim
x  0 x  x   x 

3
 2
x
Therefore the derivative of f is the function f’defined by
3
f ' ( x)   2 . The domain of f’is the set of all real numbers except
x
0, which is the same as the domain of f.

10
Example 2. Find the derivative of the following function using the
definition of the derivative.
f  x   2 x 2  16 x  35
Solution:
So, all we really need to do is to plug this function into the
definition of the derivative, and do some algebra. While, admittedly,
the algebra will get somewhat unpleasant at times, but it’s just
algebra so don’t get excited about the fact that we’re now computing
derivatives.
First plug the function into the definition of the derivative.

f  x  x   f  x 
f '  x   lim
x  0 x
2 x  x   16 x  h   35  (2 x 2  16 x  35)
2
 lim
x  0 x
2 x  4x  2(x)  16 x  16(x)  35  2 x 2  16 x  35)
2 2
 lim
x  0 x
2
4 x(x)  2(x)  16(x)
 lim
x  0 x
x(4 x  2(x)  16)
 lim
x  0 x
 lim 4 x  2(x)  16
x  0

 4 x  16

So, the derivative is,

f ' ( x)  4 x  16

EXERCISES: Find f '  x  of the following equations

8 1
1. f ( x)  ; x1  6 Answer: f ' ( x)  
x2 2

2. f ( x)  sin x; x1  0 Answer: f ' ( x)  1

1
3. f ( x)  sin x; x1   Answer: f ' ( x)  0
2
t 1
4. g (t )  Answer: g ' (t ) 
t 1 t  12
5
5. R ( z )  5 z  8 Answer: R ' ( z ) 
2 5z  8

11
The Slope

The slope of a function, f, at a point x = (x, f(x)) is given by

f  x1  x   f  x1 
m( x1 )  lim
x x  0

The slope of the tangent line to the graph of a function at a point

is also called the slope of the graph at the point.

Example 1. Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola

y  x 2  1 at the point (2,3).

Solution:
We first compute the slope of the tangent line at (2,3). With
f ( x)  x 2  1 , we have
f 2  x   f (2)
m( x1 )  lim
x  0 x

 lim

2  x 2  1  3
x  0 x
4  4 x  ( x ) 2  4
 lim
x  0 x
x ( 4  x )
 lim
x  0 x
 lim 4  x
x  0

4
Thus the tangent line at (2,3) has a slope of 4. From the point
of slope form of an equation of a line, y  y1  m x  x1  , we have
y  3  4( x  2)
ans.
4x  y  5  0

Example 2. Find the derivative of f(x) = 4x - 1.

Solution:

f  x  x   f ( x )
m( x1 )  lim
x  0 x

12
 4 x  x   1  4 x  1
 lim
x  0 x
4 x  4 x  1  4 x  1
 lim
x  0 x
4 x
 lim
x  0  x

 lim 4
x  0

4

EXERCISES:
1. Find the derivative of equation f ( x)  x 2  4 x  1
(Answer: f ' ( x)  2 x  4 )

2. Find an equation of the tangent line at the given point.

a) y  9  x 2 ; (2,5) Answer: y  4 x  13

b) y  2 x 2  4 x; (2,0) Answer: y  4 x  8

c) y  x 3  3; (1,4) Answer: y  3 x  1

3. Find the slope of an equation f ( x)  3 x 2  12 x  8

(Answer: m( x1 )  6 x1  12 )

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 Rate of Change

The average rate of change of the function f over that same

interval is the ratio of the amount of change over that interval to
the corresponding change in the a values. It is given by

f ( a  x )  f ( a )
x
As we already know, the instantaneous rate of change
of f(x) at a is its derivative

f a  x   f a 
f ' (a )  lim
x  0 x

If f is a function given by the equation

s  f (t )
and a particle is moving along a
units in the directed distance of
the line at t units of time, then
particle at t units of time is v
line such that s is the number of
the particle from a fixed point on
the instantaneous velocity of the
units of velocity, where

ds
v  f ' (t )  v 
dt
if it exists.

The instantaneous velocity may be either positive or negative,

depending on whether the particle is moving along the line in the positive
or negative direction. When the instantaneous velocity is zero, the
particle is at rest.
The speed of a particle at any time is defined as the absolute value
of the instantaneous velocity. Hence the speed is a non-negative number.
The term “speed”and “instantaneous velocity”are often confused. Note
that the speed indicates only how fast the particle is moving, whereas
the instantaneous velocity also tells the direction of motion.

If y=f(x), the instantaneous rate of change of y per unit change in

x at x1 is f ' ( x1 ) or, equivalently, the derivative of y with respect to
x at x1 , if it exists.

Example 1. Find the average rate of change of f over the interval

0  x  9 from the graph below

14
Solution:
We can see from the graph that f(0)=−7 and f(9)=3.

f ( a  x )  f ( a )
Average rate of Change =
x
f (9)  f (0)

90
3  ( 7 )

9
10

9

Example 2. Find the rate of change of g ( x)  x 3  9 x over the

interval 1  x  6 .

Solution:
g 1  13  9 1  8
g 6   63  9  6  162

f ( a  x )  f ( a )
Average rate of change =
x
g (6)  g (1)

6 1
162  (8)

5
 34

15
EXERCISES:
1. Let V(x) cubic centimeters be the volume of a cube having an
edge of x centimeters, measured to four significant digits. On
a calculator compute the average rate of change of V(x) with
respect to x as x changes from (a) 3.000 to 3.200; (b) 3.000
to 3.100; (c) 3.000 to 3.010; (d) 3.000 to 3.001. (e) What is
instantaneous rate of change of V(x) with respect to x when x
is 3.000? (Answer: (a) 28.84; (b) 27.91; (c) 27.09; (d) 27.01;
(e) 27
2. Let m(x) be the slope of the tangent line to the curve
y  x 3  2 x 2  x at the point (x,y). Find the instantaneous rate
of change of m(x) with respect to x at the point (2,2).
(Answer: 8)
3. Let A(x) square centimeters be the area of a square having a
side of x centimeters, measured to four significant digits.
Calculate the average rate of change of A(x) with respect to
x as x changes from (a) 4.000 to 4.600; (b) 4.000 to 4.300; (c)
4.000 to 4.100; (d) 4.000 to 4.050. (e) What is the
instantaneous rate of change of A(x) with respect to x when x
is 4.000? (Answer: (a) 8.6; (b) 8.3; (c) 8.1; (d) 8.05; ( e )
8

16
The Chain Rule and the General Power Rule

The Chain Rule. The Chain Rule is a compact way to express the
relation between the derivatives of g ◦ f , g and f.

If the function g is differentiable at x and the function f is

differentiable at g(x), then the composite function f  g is
differentiable at x.

Suppose that we have two functions f(x) and g(x) and they are both
differentiable.
1. If we define F  x    f  g  x  then the derivative of F(x) is

F ' ( x)  f ' ( g ( x)) g ' ( x)

2. If we have y = f (u) and u = g(x) then the derivative of

y is

dy dy du

dx du dx

Example 1. Use the Chain Rule to differentiate R ( z )  5 z  8 .

Solution:
We’ve already identified the two functions that we needed for the
composition, but let’s write them back down anyway and take their
derivatives.
f ( z)  z
g ( z)  5z  8
1
f ' ( z)  g ' ( z)  5
2 z

So, using the chain rule we get,

R ' ( z )  f ' ( g ( z )) g ' ( z )

 f ' (5 z  8) g ' ( z )
1

 f ' (5 z  8) 2 (5)
1
 (5)
2 5z  8
5

2 5z  8

17
 Example 2. Find f’(x) by the chain rule if

1
f ( x)  .
4 x  5x 2  7 x  8
3

Solution:
We write f ( x)  (4 x 3  5 x 2  7 x  8) 1 and apply the chain rule to
obtain

f ' ( x)  1(4 x 3  5 x 2  7 x  8) 2  Dx (4 x 3  5 x 2  7 x  8)
 1(4 x 3  5 x 2  7 x  8) 2 (12 x 2  10 x  7)
 12 x 2  10 x  7

(4 x 3  5 x 2  7 x  8) 2

EXERCISES:
d  2 x  1  
4
20(2 x  1) 3
1. Compute    (Answer: 
dx  3 x  1   (3 x  1) 5

2. Find F’(t) if
F (t )  tan(3t 2  2t ) (Answer: 2(3t  1) sec 2 (3t 2  2t ) )

dy
3. Find if
dx

y  sin(cos x) (Answer:  sin xcoscos x  )

4. Compute Dx (sec 4 2 x 2 ) (Answer: 16 x sec 4 2 x 2 tan 2 x 2 )

5. Solve f ( x)  sin(3 x 2  x)
(Answer: f ' ( x)  (6 x  1) cos(3 x 2  x) )

18
The General Power Rule. The general power rule is a special case of
the chain rule. It is useful when finding the derivative of a
function that is raised to the nth power. The general power
rule states that this derivative is n times the function raised to
the (n-1)th power times the derivative of the function.

d
g x n  ng x n1  g ' x 
dx

Example 1.Differentiate the equation h( x)  2 x 3  3 x  1

7

Solution:
h' ( x)  n g  x   g ' x 
n 1


 7 2 x 3  3 x  1 
7 1
 (6 x 2  3)

 42 x 2  21

2 x 3
 3x  1  8

3
 x 1 
Example 2.Differentiate the equation h( x)   
 x 1

Solution:
h' ( x)  n g  x   g ' x 
n 1

31
 x 1  ( x  1)(1)  ( x  1)(1)
 3  ( )
 x 1 ( x  1) 2

3
 x  1
2

2
x  1 x  12
2

6 x  1
2

x  14

19
EXERCISES:
d  3  15
1. Find   (Answer: )
dx  x 5  x6
2. Suppose f ( x)  15 x 4 .Find f’(x) (Answer: 60x 3 )
3. Suppose f ( x)  2 x 3  16 x 2  5 x  4 . Find f′(x).
1
(Answer: 6 x 2  x  5 )
3
2 1
6
4. Suppose f ( x)  x  4 x  3 x . Find f′(x).
3 5

2 1
(Answer: x 3  4 x 6  3 x 5 )
6
5. Suppose f ( x)  4 x  . Find f’(x).
x
4
x 3 x
(Answer:  )
4x x2

20
 Second Term
Implicit Differentiation

Implicit differentiation is a technique for differentiating functions

that are not given in the usual form y = f(x).

For example,

Find the slope of the line tangent to the circle

x² + y² = 4

Solution:
We have two ways to find the slope in the given equation.
1. The first method is to rewrite the equation of the circle (in
fact, semi-circle) in the form y = f(x). The slope at the given
point is f ' ( 2 ) . Solving y in terms of x, we get y   4  x 2 .
But this doesn’t give a function since certain value of x (say
x = 1) gives two values of y. Note that the point  
2 , 2 lies
on the upper semi-circle. To consider the required slope, we
take y  4  x 2 .
Differentiating, we get
1
dy d
 (4  x 2 ) 2
dx dx
1 1
d
  4  x 2  2  4  x 2 
2 dx
1
 1
  2 x 
24  x 
2 2

x

4  x2

The slope of tangent at  2 , 2 is 

dy
  2
 1
dx x 2 2

2. The second method is to differentiate both sides of the given

d 2
equation with respect to x. For the left-side, to find d y
dx
we can use the Chain Rule & Power Rule by treating y = f(x) as
a function of x.

21
 Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x,
we get,
d 2 d
dx
x  y 2   ( 4)
dx
d 2 d 2
dx
x   dx y   0
dy
2x  2 y 0
dx
dy
Solving for , we get
dx
dy x

dx y
At  
2 , 2 , the slope of the tangent is,
dy 2
dx  2, 2    2  1

In general, although an equation of the form F(x,y)= 0 usually defines

y as a function of x implicitly, it may be difficult to express y in terms
of x explicitly. By treating y as a function of x, the left-side of F(x,y)
dy
= 0 becomes a function of x. To find , we may differentiate both sides
dx
dy
of F(x,y) = 0 with respect to x and then solve for (in terms of x and
dx
y).

Exercises:
dy
1. Use implicit differentiation to find given that x 3  4 xy 2  7  y 3 .
dx
dy 3 x 2  4 y 2
(Answer:  )
dx 3 y 2  8 xy
dy
2. Find that y ln x  xe y  1 .
dx
dy xe y  y
(Answer:  )
dx x ln x  x 2 e y
3. Find the slope of the curve with equation x sin y  cos y 2  1 .
dy sin y
(Answer:  , the slope at (1,0) is 0)
dx 2 y sin y 2  x cos y

22
 Higher-order derivatives

If p(x) is a polynomial of degree n (i.e. the largest exponent in the

polynomial) then,
p k  x   0 for k  n 1

Considering the given equation

f  x   5 x 3  3 x 2  10 x  5

By this point we should be able to differentiate this function without

any problems. Doing this we get,

f '  x   15 x 2  6 x  10 , First derivative

Now, this is a function and so it can be differentiated. Here is the

notation that we’ll use for that, as well as the derivative.

f "  x    f '  x '  30 x  6 , Second derivative

Again, this is a function as so we can differentiate it again.

f " '  x    f "  x '  30 , Third derivative

Continuing, we can differentiate again

f ( 4 )  x    f " '  x '  0 , Fourth derivative

We will need to be careful with the “non-prime” notation for derivatives.

Consider each of the following.
f ( 2) x   f " x 
f 2  x    f  x 
2

The presence of parenthesis in the exponent denotes differentiation while

the absence of parenthesis denotes exponentiation.

23
Exercises:
1. Find the first four derivatives for each of the following.
1
a) R t   3t  8t  e t
2 2

b) y  cos x
c) f  y   sin 3 y   e 2 y  ln 7 y 
2. Find y”for x 2  y 2  10
3. Find the second derivative for each of the following functions.
a) Q  x   sec5t 

b) g w  e1 2 w
3

c) f t   ln 1  t 2 
4. Find the fifth derivative of equation

f  x   2 x 6  4 x 5  8 x 4  5 x 3  11x 2  6 x  8

5. Find the 3rd derivative of equation

f  x   7 x10  14 x 6  5 x 4  5 x 3  6 x 2  x

24
 Polynomials curve
A curve obtained by fitting polynomials to each ordinate of an
ordered sequence of points. The figure below plots how polynomial curves
where the order of the fitting polynomial varies from to ,
where is the number of points.

For example,

1. Given a function f  x   x ln x
a) Find and classify the critical number(s) of f
b) Find the interval(s) on which f is increasing or decreasing,
convex or concave.
c) Sketch the graph of f .

Solution:
a) & b) First we note that the domain of f is (0, ∞).

Differentiating f, we get

d
f ' x   x ln x 
dx
d d
 x ln x  ln x  x
dx dx
1
 x   ln x
x
 1  ln x
Solving f’(x)=0
f '  x   0  1  ln x
ln x  1

we get the critical number of f :

x1  e 1

The function f is decreasing on (0, e 1 ) and increasing on ( e 1 ,

∞).

25
 Thus f has a local minimum at x1  e 1 .
Differentiating f’ , we get
d
f "  x   1  ln x 
dx
1

x

The function f is convex on (0, ∞).

c) The graph of f is shown below

2. Sketch the graph of f(x) = sin x + cos x for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π. On the

graph, indicate the local extremum points and inflection points.

Solution:

Differentiating f , we get
d
f ' x   sin x  cos x 
dx
 cos x  sin x
Solving f’(x) = 0,
cos x  sin x
tan x  1

we get the critical number of f in the interval (0, 2π): x1 
4
5
and x2  .
4

26
     5 
The function f is increasing on  0,  , decreasing on  , 
 4 4 4 
 5 
and increasing on  , 2  .
 4 
       
Thus  , f      , 2  is a local maximum point and
 4  4   4 
 5  5    5 
 , f     , 2  is a local minimum point of
 4  4   4 
the graph.
d
Differentiating f 0 , we get f "  x   cos x  sin x 
dx
  sin x  cos x
Solving f”(x) = 0 in the interval [0, 2π]
 cos x  sin x
 1  tan x

3
we get the zeros of f” in the interval (0, 2π): x3  and
4
7
x4  .
4

 3   3 7 
The function f is concave on  0,  , convex on  ,  , and
 4   4 4 
 7 
concave on  , 2  .
 4 
 3 3   3   7 7   7 
Thus  , f ( )   ,0  and  , f( )   ,0  are
 4 4   4   4 4   4 
inflection points of the graph of f .

27
 Because the sine and cosine functions are periodic with period
2π, we can use the above graph to get the whole graph of f .

Exercises
1. For each of the following equations, sketch its graph.
 x2
a) y  e
x
b) y  xe
c) y  x  ln x
ln x
d) y 
x
e) y  x  2 sin x

28
 Application of the derivative

The following are the application of derivative in real world.

1. Rates of Change
If f(x) is a function defined on an interval [a,a+h],[a,a+h], then
the amount of change of f(x) over the interval is the change in
the y values of the function over that interval and is given by

f a  h   f a  .

The average rate of change of the function f over that same

interval is the ratio of the amount of change over that interval to
the corresponding change in the x values. It is given by

As we already know, the instantaneous rate of change of f(x) at a is

its derivative

f a  h   f a 
For small enough values of h, f ' a   . We can then solve
h
for f a  h  to get the amount of change formula:

Example 1
If f(3)=2, and f′(3)=5, estimate f(3.2).

Solution:
Begin by finding h.

We have h = 3.2−3 = 0.2

Thus,
f(3.2) = f(3+0.2)≈f(3)+(0.2)f′(3)= 2 + 0.2(5)= 3

Example 2
Determine all the points were the following function is not
changing.
g ( x)  5  6 x  10 cos( 2 x)

Solution:
First we’ll need to take the derivative of the function.

29
 g ' ( x)  6  20 sin( 2 x)

Now, the function will not be changing if the rate of change is

zero and so to answer this question we need to determine where the
derivative is zero. So, let’s set this equal to zero and solve.

6
 6  20 sin( 2 x)  0  sin( 2 x)   0 .3
20

The solution to this is then,

2 x  0.2955  2 n OR 2 x  2.8461  2 n n  0,1,2,...

x  0.1478   n OR x  1.4231   n n  0,1,2,...

Exercises:
1. Determine where the following function is increasing and
decreasing.
f ( x)  27 x 5  45 x 4  130 x 3  150
2. Two cars start out 500 miles apart. Car A is to the west of Car
B and starts driving to the east (i.e. towards Car B) at 35 mph
and at the same time Car B starts driving south at 50 mph. After
3 hours of driving at what rate is the distance between the two
cars changing? Is it increasing or decreasing?

2. Critical Points
We say that x = c is a critical point of the function f(x) if f (c)
exists and if either of the following are true.

f ' (c )  0 OR f ' (c ) doesn’t exists

Example 1. Determine all the critical points for the function.

f ( x)  6 x 5  33 x 4  30 x 3  100

Solution:
We first need the derivative of the function in order to find the
critical points and so let’s get that and notice that we’ll factor
it as much as possible to make our life easier when we go to find the
critical points.
f ' ( x)  30 x 4  131x 3  90 x 2

 6 x 2 5 x 2  22 x  15 
 6 x 5 x  3 x  5
2

30
 Now, our derivative is a polynomial and so will exist everywhere.
Therefore the only critical points will be those values of x which
make the derivative zero. So, we must solve.

6 x 2 5 x  3 x  5  0

Because this is the factored form of the derivative it’s pretty

easy to identify the three critical points. They are,

Example 2. Determine the critical points of the function.

g (t )  3 t 2 2t  1
Solution:
To find the derivative it’s probably easiest to do a little
simplification before we actually differentiate. Let’s multiply the root
through the parenthesis and simplify as much as possible. This will allow
us to avoid using the product rule when taking the derivative.

Now differentiate.

Notice as well that eliminating the negative exponent in the second

term allows us to correctly identify why t = 0 is a critical point for
this function. Once we move the second term to the denominator we can
clearly see that the derivative doesn’t exist at t = 0 and so this will
be a critical point. If you don’t get rid of the negative exponent in
the second term many people will incorrectly state that t = 0 is a critical
point because the derivative is zero at t = 0 . While this may seem like
a silly point, after all in each case t = 0 is identified as a critical
point, it is sometimes important to know why a point is a critical point.

So, we’ve found one critical point (where the derivative doesn’t
exist), but we now need to determine where the derivative is zero. To help
with this it’s usually best to combine the two terms into a single
rational expression. So, getting a common denominator and combining gives
us,

31
 Notice that we still have t = 0 as a critical point. Doing this kind
of combining should never lose critical points, it’s only being done to
help us find them. As we can see it’s now become much easier to quickly
determine where the derivative will be zero.
1
So, in this case we can see that the numerator will be zero if t 
5
and so there are two critical points for this function.

1
t=0 and t 
5

Exercises:
1. Determine all the critical points for the function.
x2 1
f ( x)  2
x  x6
2. Determine all the critical points for the function.
y  6 x  4 cos(3 x)
3. Determine all the critical points for the function.
2
h(t )  10te 3t

3. Minimum and Maximum Values

We say that f(x) has an absolute (or global) maximum at x = c if
f ( x)  f (c) for every x in the domain we are working on.
We say that f(x) has a relative (or local) maximum at x = c if
f ( x)  f (c) for every x in some open interval around x = c .
We say that f(x) has an absolute (or global) minimum at x = c if
f ( x)  f (c) for every x in the domain we are working on.
We say that f(x) has a relative (or local) minimum at x = c if
f ( x)  f (c) for every x in some open interval around x = c .

32
Example 1. Identify the absolute extrema and relative extrema for the
following function.
f ( x)  x 2 on  1,2
Solution:
Since this function is easy enough to graph let’s do that. However,
we only want the graph on the interval [-1,2]. Here is the graph,

We can now identify the extrema from the graph. It looks like we’ve
got a relative and absolute minimum of zero at x = 0 and an absolute
maximum of four at x = 2 . Note that x = −1 is not a relative maximum
since it is at the end point of the interval.

This function doesn’t have any relative maximums.

Example 2. Identify the absolute extrema and relative extrema for the
following function.
f ( x)  x 2 on  2,2

Solution:
Here is the graph for this function.

In this case we still have a relative and absolute minimum of zero

at x = 0 . We also still have an absolute maximum of four. However,
unlike the first example this will occur at two points, x = −2 and
x = 2 .
Again, the function doesn’t have any relative maximums.

33
 Exercises:
1. Identify the absolute extrema and relative extrema for the
following function.

2. Identify the absolute extrema and relative extrema for the

following function.
f ( x)  x 3 on  2,2

4. The Shape of a Graph

Increasing or Decreasing
1. Given any x1 and x2 from an interval I with x1 < x2 if f (
x1 )<f( x2 ) then f(x) is increasing on I.
2. Given any x1 and x2 from an interval I with x1 < x2 if f ( x1 )>f(
x2 ) then f (x) is decreasing on I.

Fact
1. If f’(x) > 0 for every x on some interval I, then f ( x) is
increasing on the interval.
2. If f’(x)< 0 for every x on some interval I, then f ( x) is decreasing
on the interval.
3. If f’(x)= 0 for every x on some interval I, then f ( x) is constant
on the interval.

Let’s take a look at an example. This example has two purposes. First,
it will remind us of the increasing/decreasing type of problems.
Secondly,and maybe more importantly, it will now incorporate critical
points into the solution.

Example 1. Determine all intervals where the following function is

increasing or decreasing.Sketch the graph.

Solution:
To determine if the function is increasing or decreasing we will need
the derivative.

34
Note that when we factored the derivative we first factored a “-1”
out to make the rest of the factoring a little easier.
From the factored form of the derivative we see that we have three
critical points : x = −2, x = 0 , and x = 4 . We’ll need these in
a bit.
In other words, the only place that the derivative may change signs
is at the critical points of the function. We’ve now got another use
for critical points. So, we’ll build a number line, graph the
critical points and pick test points from each region to see if the
derivative is positive or negative in each region.
Here is the number line and the test points for the derivative.

Make sure that you test your points in the derivative. One of the more
common mistakes here is to test the points in the function instead!
Recall that we know that the derivative will be the same sign in each
region. The only place that the derivative can change signs is at the
critical points and we’ve marked the only critical points on the
number line.
So, it looks we’ve got the following intervals of increase and
decrease.

Note that often the fact that only a single point separates the two
intervals of increase will be ignored and the interval will be written
−2<x<4.

Whenever we sketch a graph it’s nice to have a few points on the graph
to give us a starting place. So we’ll start by the function at the
critical points. These will give us some starting points when we go
to sketch the graph. These points are,

Once these points are graphed we go to the increasing and decreasing

information and start sketching. For reference purposes here is the
increasing/decreasing information.

35
To get this sketch we start at the very left of the graph and knowing
that the graph must be decreasing and will continue to decrease until
we get to x = −2. At this point the function will continue to increase
until it gets to x = 4 . However, note that during the increasing phase
it does need to go through the point at x = 0 and at this point we
also know that the derivative is zero here and so the graph goes through
x = 0 horizontally. Finally, once we hit x = 4 the graph starts, and
continues, to decrease. Also, note that just like at x = 0 the graph
will need to be horizontal when it goes through the other two critical
points as well.

Concave
1. f (x) is concave up on an interval I if all of the tangents to the
curve on I are below the graph of f (x).
2. f(x) is concave down on an interval I if all of the tangents to
the curve on I are above the graph of f (x).
3. A point x = c is called an inflection point if the function is
continuous at the point and the concavity of the graph changes at
that point.

So a function is concave up if it “opens” up and the function is

concave down if it “opens” down. Notice as well that concavity has
nothing to do with increasing or decreasing. A function can be concave
up and either increasing or decreasing. Similarly, a function can be
concave down and either increasing or decreasing.

36
Fact
Given the function f(x) then,
1. If f”(x) > 0 for all x in some interval I then f ( x) is concave
up on I.
2. If f”(x) < 0 for all x in some interval I then f ( x) is concave
down on I.

Example 1. For the following function identify the intervals where

the function is increasing and decreasing and the intervals where the
function is concave up and concave down. Use this information to sketch
the graph.

Solution:

We are going to need the first two derivatives so let’s get those
first.

Let’s start with the increasing/decreasing information.

There are three critical points for this function : x = −1, x = 0 ,

and x =1. Below is the number line for the increasing/decreasing
information:

So, it looks like we’ve got the following intervals of increasing

and decreasing.

37
Note that from the first derivative test we can also say that x = −1
is a relative maximum and that x =1 is a relative minimum. Also x =
0 is neither a relative minimum or maximum.

Now let’s get the intervals where the function is concave up and
concave down. If you think about it this process is almost identical
to the process we use to identify the intervals of increasing and
decreasing. This only difference is that we will be using the second
derivative instead of the first derivative.
The first thing that we need to do is identify the possible inflection
points. These will be where the second derivative is zero or doesn’t
exist. The second derivative in this case is a polynomial and so will
exist everywhere. It will be zero at the following points.

As with the increasing and decreasing part we can draw a number line
up and use these points to divide the number line into regions. In
these regions we know that the second derivative will always have the
same value since these three points are the only places where the
function may change sign. Therefore, all that we need to do is pick
a point from each region and plug it into the second derivative. The
second derivative will then have that sign in the whole region from
which the point came from.

Here is the number line for this second derivative.

So, it looks like we’ve got the following intervals of concavity.

This also means that

are all inflection points.

38
 All this information can be a little overwhelming when going to sketch
the graph. The first thing that we should do is get some starting points.
The critical points and inflection points are good starting points.
So, first graph these points. Now, start to the left and start graphing
the increasing/decreasing information. As we graph this we will make
sure that the concavity information matches up with what we’re
graphing.

Exercises:
1. For the following function find the inflection points and determine
the intervals of increase/decrease and the intervals of concave
up/concave down and sketch the graph of the function.

5. Optimization
In optimization problems we are looking for the largest value or the
smallest value that a function can take.
In this section we are going to look at another type of optimization
problem. Here we will be looking for the largest or smallest value of a
function subject to some kind of constraint. The constraint will be some
condition (that can usually be described by some equation) that must
absolutely, positively be true no matter what our solution is. On occasion,
the constraint will not be easily described by an equation, but in these
problems it will be easy to deal with as we’ll see.
This section is generally one of the more difficult for students taking
a Calculus course. One of the main reasons for this is that a subtle change
of wording can completely change the problem. There is also the problem
of identifying the quantity that we’ll be optimizing and the quantity
that is the constraint and writing down equations for each.
The first step in all of these problems should be to very carefully
read the problem. Once you’ve done that the next step is to identify the
quantity to be optimized and the constraint.

39
 In identifying the constraint remember that the constraint is
something that must true regardless of the solution. In almost every one
of the problems we’ll be looking at here one quantity will be clearly
indicated as having a fixed value and so must be the constraint. Once
you’ve got that identified the quantity to be optimized should be fairly
simple to get. It is however easy to confuse the two if you just skim the
problem so make sure you carefully read the problem first!

Example 1. We need to enclose a field with a fence. We have 500 feet of

fencing material and a building is on one side of the field and so won’t
need any fencing. Determine the dimensions of the field that will enclose
the largest area.

Solution:
In all of these problems we will have two functions. The first is the
function that we are actually trying to optimize and the second will be
the constraint. Sketching the situation will often help us to arrive at
these equations so let’s do that.

In this problem we want to maximize the area of a field and we know

that will use 500 ft of fencing material. So, the area will be the function
we are trying to optimize and the amount of fencing is the constraint.
The two equations for these are,

Okay, we know how to find the largest or smallest value of a function

provided it’s only got a single variable. The area function (as well as
the constraint) has two variables in it and so what we know about finding
absolute extrema won’t work. However, if we solve the constraint for one
of the two variables we can substitute this into the area and we will then
have a function of a single variable.
So, let’s solve the constraint for x. Note that we could have just as
easily solved for y but that would have led to fractions and so, in this
case, solving for x will probably be best.

Substituting this into the area function gives a function of y.

Now we want to find the largest value this will have on the interval
[0,250]. Note that the interval corresponds to taking y = 0 (i.e. no sides

40
to the fence) and y = 250 (i.e. only two sides and no width, also if there
are two sides each must be 250 ft to use the whole 500ft).
So, recall that the maximum value of a continuous function (which we’ve
got here) on a closed interval (which we also have here) will occur at
critical points and/or end points. As we’ve already pointed out the end
points in this case will give zero area and so don’t make any sense.
That means our only option will be the critical points.
So let’s get the derivative and find the critical points.

Setting this equal to zero and solving gives a lone critical point
of y =125 . Plugging this into the area gives an area of 31250 ft² . So
according to the method from Absolute Extrema this must be the largest
possible area, since the area at either endpoint is zero.
Finally, let’s not forget to get the value of x and then we’ll have the
dimensions since this is what the problem statement asked for. We can get
the x by plugging in our y into the constraint.

The dimensions of the field that will give the largest area, subject
to the fact that we used exactly 500 ft of fencing material, are 250 x
125.
Don’t forget to actually read the problem and give the answer that
was asked for. These types of problems can take a fair amount of
time/effort to solve and it’s not hard to sometimes forget what the
problem was actually asking for.

Exercises:
1. A manufacturer needs to make a cylindrical can that will hold 1.5 liters
of liquid. Determine the dimensions of the can that will minimize the
amount of material used in its construction.(Ans. h=12.4070,r=6.2035)

2. We have a piece of cardboard that is 14 inches by 10 inches and we’re

going to cut out the corners as shown below and fold up the sides to
form a box, also shown below. Determine the height of the box that will
give a maximum volume. (ans. h=1.9183)

41
6. Business Application
For the most part these are really applications that we’ve already looked
at, but they are now going to be approached with an eye towards the business
world.

Example 1. An apartment complex has 250 apartments to rent. If they rent

x apartments then their monthly profit, in dollars, is given by,

How many apartments should they rent in order to maximize their profit?

Solutions:
All that we’re really being asked to do here is to maximize the profit
subject to the constraint that x must be in the range 0≤x≤250.

First, we’ll need the derivative and the critical point(s) that fall in
the range 0≤x≤250.

Since the profit function is continuous and we have an interval with finite
bounds we can find the maximum value by simply plugging in the only
critical point that we have (which nicely enough in the range of acceptable
answers) and the end points of the range.

So, it looks like they will generate the most profit if they only rent
out 200 of the apartments instead of all 250 of them.

Exercises:
1. A production facility is capable of producing 60,000 widgets in a day
and the total daily cost of producing x widgets in a day is given by,

How many widgets per day should they produce in order to minimize
production costs? (Ans. 50,000 widgets)

2. The production costs per week for producing x widgets is given by,

Answer each of the following questions.

(a) What is the cost to produce the 301st widget? (Ans.$295.91)
(b) What is the rate of change of the cost at x = 300 ?
(Ans.C’(x)=296.00)

42
 Derivatives of the Trigonometric Functions

The table below summarizes the derivatives of 6 basic trigonometric

functions:

Examples:
1. Differentiate the given functions.

g  x   3 sec x   10 cot  x 
Solution:
There really isn’t a whole lot to this problem. We’ll just
differentiate each term using the formulas from above.

2.Differentiate the given functions.

hw  3w 4  w 2 tan w
Solution:
In this part we will need to use the product rule on the second term and
note that we really will need the product rule here. There is no other
way to do this derivative unlike what we saw when we first looked at the
product rule. When we first looked at the product rule the only functions
we knew how to differentiate were polynomials and in those cases all we
really needed to do was multiply them out and we could take the derivative
without the product rule. We are now getting into the point where we will

43
be forced to do the product rule at times regardless of whether or not
we want to.
We will also need to be careful with the minus sign in front of the second
term and make sure that it gets dealt with properly. There are two ways
to deal with this. One way it to make sure that you use a set of parenthesis
as follows,

Because the second term is being subtracted off of the first term then
the whole derivative of the second term must also be subtracted off of
the derivative of the first term. The parenthesis make this idea clear.
A potentially easier way to do this is to think of the minus sign as part
of the first function in the product. Or, in other words the two functions
in the product, using this idea, are  w 2 and tan (w). Doing this gives,

So, regardless of how you approach this problem you will get the same
derivative.

Exercises:
1. Differentiate the given functions:
a) y  5 sin  x  cos x   4 csc x  (Ans. y '  5 cos 2  x   5 sin 2  x   4 csc x  cot( x) )
sin(t ) 3 cos(t )  2
b) P (t )  (Ans. P ' (t )  )
3  2 cos(t ) 3  2 cos(t ) 2
2. Suppose that the amount of money in a bank account is given by
P (t )  500  100 cos(t )  150 sin(t )
where t is in years. During the first 10 years in which the account
is open when is the amount of money in the account increasing?
(Ans.increasing at 2.1588  t  5.3004 and 8.4420  t  10 ).

Derivatives of an inverse Trigonometric Functions

In order to derive the derivatives of inverse trig functions we’ll need

the formula relating the derivatives of inverse functions. If f(x) and
g(x) are inverse functions then,

Recall as well that two functions are inverses if f(g(x))= x and g(f(x)=x.

44
Here are the derivatives of all six inverse trig functions.

Examples.
1
1. Evaluate sin 1   .
2
Solution:
So we are really asking what angle y solves the following equation.

and we are restricted to the values of y above.


From a unit circle we can quickly see that y   
6

 2
2. Evaluate cos 1   .

 2 
Solution:
As with the inverse sine we are really just asking the following.

where y must meet the requirements given above. From a unit circle we can
3
see that we must have y  .
4

3. Evaluate tan 1 1 .
Solution:
Here we are asking,
tan y = 1
where y satisfies the restrictions given above. From a unit circle we can

see that y  .
4

Exercises:
1. Differentiate the following functions.
a) f (t )  4 cos 1 (t )  10 tan 1 (t )
b) y  z sin 1  z 

45
 Derivative of Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

We’ll start off by looking at the exponential function,

f ( x)  a x
We want to differentiate this. The power rule that we looked at a couple
of sections ago won’t work as that required the exponent to be a fixed
number and the base to be a variable. That is exactly the opposite from
what we’ve got with this function. So, we’re going to have to start with
the definition of the derivative.

Now, the a x is not affected by the limit since it doesn’t have any h’s
in it and so is a constant as far as the limit is concerned. We can therefore
factor this out of the limit. This gives,

Now let’s notice that the limit we’ve got above is exactly the definition
of the derivative at of f(x)= a x at x = 0 , i.e. f ′(0). Therefore, the
derivative becomes,

Some definition of e
n
 1
1. e  lim1  
n 
 n
eh 1
2. e is the unique positive number for which lim 1
n  h

1
3. e  
n  0 n!

The second one is the important one for us because that limit is exactly
the limit that we’re working with above. So, this definition leads to
the following fact,

Fact
1. For the natural exponential function, f ( x)  e x we have
eh 1
f ' (0)  lim 1.
h 0 h
2. If f(x) and g(x) are inverses of each other then,

46
 1
g ' ( x) 
f ' ( g ( x))

So, provided we are using the natural exponential function we get the
following.

At this point we’re missing some knowledge that will allow us to easily
get the derivative for a general function. Eventually we will be able to
show that for a general exponential function we have,

Here is a summary of the derivatives in this section.

Examples.
1. Differentiate each of the following functions.
a) R ( w)  4 w  5 log 9 w
Solution:
This will be the only example that doesn’t involve the natural
exponential and natural logarithm functions.

b) f ( x)  3 x x  10 x 3 ln x

Solution:
Not much to this one. Just remember to use the product rule on the
second term.

5e x
c) y x
3e  1
Solution:
We’ll need to use the quotient rule on this one.

47
Exercises:
1. Solve for x in each of the following:
a) ln x  3
b) log a x  0
c) e x  3
d) (0.015) 2 x  (0.34) x 1
e) ln ln x  1
f) ln sin x  1  ln cos x

48
 Third Term
Derivative of Hyperbolic Functions

In many physical situations combinations of e x and e  x arise fairly

often. Because of this these combinations are given names. There are six
hyperbolic functions and they are defined as follows.

Here are the graphs of the three main hyperbolic functions.

We also have the following facts about the hyperbolic functions.

You’ll note that these are similar, but not quite the same, to some of
the more common trig identities so be careful to not confuse the identities
here with those of the standard trig functions.

Here are all six derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions.

49
 Table of Derivative of Hyperbolic Function

Examples
1. Differentiate each of the following functions.
a) f ( x)  2 x 5 cosh x
sinh t
b) h(t ) 
t 1
Solution:
a) f ' ( x)  10 x 4 cosh x  2 x 5 sinh x
(t  1) cosh t  sinh t
b) h(t ) 
(t  1) 2

50
Exercises:
1
1. y  coth
x
2. y  ln(sinh x), x  0
3. y  sinh(tan x)
4. y  sinh(ln x)
5. y  tanh( x 2 )

Solutions of Equations

The solution of an equation is the set of all values that, when

substituted for unknowns, make an equation true. For equations having one
unknown, raised to a single power, two fundamental rules of algebra,
including the additive property and the multiplicative property, are used
to determine its solutions. Solutions for equations with multiple unknown
variables are found by using the principles for a system of equations.
Equations with terms raised to a power greater than one can be solved by
factoring and, in some specific cases, by the quadratic equation

Methods for solving simple equations. An equation is an algebraic

expression which typically relates unknown variables to other variables
or constants. For example, x + 2 = 15 is an equation, as is y² = 4. The
solution, or root, of an equation is any value or set of values that can
be substituted into the equation to make it a true statement. For the first
example, the solution for x is 13. The second example has two values that
will make the statement true, namely +2 and –2. These values make up
the solution set of the equation.
Solving more complex equations. Most equations are given in a more
complicated form that can be simplified. Consider the equation 4x–x–5
= 2x + 7. The first step in solving this equation is to combine like terms
on each side of the equation. On the right side, there are no like terms,
but the 4x and–x on the left side are like terms. This equation, when
simplified, becomes 3x–5 = 2x + 7. The next step is to eliminate the
unknown from one side of the equation. For this example, this is
accomplished by adding –2x to both sides of the equation, which gives
x – 5 = 7. Using the additive property, the solution is obtained by
adding 5 to both sides of the equation, so x = 12.
Solving multivariable equations. Many algebraic equations contain more
than one variable, so the complete solution set can not be found using
the methods described thus far. Equations with two unknowns are called
linear equations and can be represented by the general formula ax + by
= c; where a, b, and c are constants and x and y are variables. The solution

51
of this type of equation would be the ordered pair of x and y that makes
the equation true. For example, the solution set for the equation x + y
= 7 would contain all the pairs of values for x and y that satisfy the
equation, such as (2,5), (3,4), (4,3), etc. In general, to determine the
solution to a linear equation with two variables, the equation is
rewritten and solved in terms of one variable. The solution for the
equation x + y = 7, then becomes any pair of values that makes x = 7 – y
true.
Solving second degree and higher equations. Equations that involve
unknowns raised to a power of one are known as first-degree equations.
Second-degree equations also exist which involve at least one variable
that is squared or raised to a power of two. Equations can also be
third-degree, fourth-degree, and so on. The most famous second-degree
equation is the quadratic equation, which has the general form ax²+bx+c
= 0; where a, b, and c are constants and a is not equal 0. The solution
for this type of equation can often be found by a method known as factoring.

Transcendental Curve Tracing

A Transcendental Curve is a curve which intersects some straight line

in an infinity of points (but for which not every point lies on this curve).

Maxima and Minima. A local maximum point on a function is a point (x,y)

on the graph of the function whose y coordinate is larger than all other
y coordinates on the graph at points "close to'' (x,y). More precisely,
(x,f(x)) is a local maximum if there is an interval (a,b) with a<x<b and
f(x)≥f(z) for every z in (a,b). Similarly, (x,y) is a local minimum
point if it has locally the smallest y coordinate. Again being more
precise: (x,f(x)) is a local minimum if there is an interval (a,b) with
a<x<b and f(x)≤f(z) for every z in(a,b). A local extremum is either
a local minimum or a local maximum.

Example
1. Find all local maximum and minimum points of the given equation.
f ( x)  sin x  cos x
Solution:
The derivative is f′(x)=cosx−sinx. This is always defined and is zero
whenever cosx = sinx. Recalling that the cosx and sinx are the x and
y coordinates of points on a unit circle, we see that cosx=sinx when x is
π/4,π/4±π, π/4±2π,π/4±3π, etc. Since both sine and cosine have
a period of 2π, we need only determine the status of x=π/4 and x=5π/4.
We can use 0 and π/2 to test the critical value x=π/4. We find
that f(π/4)= 2 , f(0)=1< 2 and f(π/2)=1, so there is a local

52
maximum when x=π/4 and also when x=π/4±2π, π/4±4π, etc. We can
summarize this more neatly by saying that there are local maxima at
π/4±2kπ for every integer k.
We use π and 2π to test the critical value x=5π/4. The relevant values
are f(5π/4)=- 2 , f(π)=−1>− 2 , f(2π)=1>− 2 , so there is a
local a minimum at x=5π/4, 5π/4±2π, 5π/4±4π, etc. More succinctly,
there are local minima at 5π/4±2kπ for every integer k.

First Derivative Test. Suppose that f′(a)=0. If there is a local maximum

when x=a, the function must be lower near x=a than it is right at x=a.
If the derivative exists near x=ax=a, this means f′(x)>0 when x is
near a and x<a, because the function must "slope up'' just to the left
of a. Similarly, f′(x)<0 when x is near a and x>a, because f slopes
down from the local maximum as we move to the right. Using the same
reasoning, if there is a local minimum at x=a, the derivative of f must
be negative just to the left of a and positive just to the right. If the
derivative exists near a but does not change from positive to negative
or negative to positive, that is, it is positive on both sides or negative
on both sides, then there is neither a maximum nor minimum when x=a.

Example 1
Find all local maximum and minimum points for f(x)=sinx+cosx using the
first derivative test.

Solution:
The derivative is f′(x)=cosx−sinx and from previous example the
critical values we need to consider are π/4 and 5π/4.
The graphs of sinx and cosx are shown below. Just to the left of
π/4 the cosine is larger than the sine, so f′(x) is positive; just to
the right the cosine is smaller than the sine, so f′(x) is negative.
This means there is a local maximum at π/4. Just to the left of 5π/4
the cosine is smaller than the sine, and to the right the cosine is larger
than the sine. This means that the derivative f′(x) is negative to the
left and positive to the right, so f has a local minimum at 5π/4.

53
Second Derivative Test.The basis of the first derivative test is that if
the derivative changes from positive to negative at a point at which the
derivative is zero then there is a local maximum at the point, and
similarly for a local minimum. If f′ changes from positive to negative
it is decreasing; this means that the derivative of f′, f″, might be
negative, and if in fact f″ is negative then f′ is definitely
decreasing, so there is a local maximum at the point in question. Note
well that f′ might change from positive to negative while f″ is zero,
in which case f″ gives us no information about the critical value.
Similarly, if f′ changes from negative to positive there is a local
minimum at the point, and f′ is increasing. If f″>0 at the point, this
tells us that f′ is increasing, and so there is a local minimum.

When it works, the second derivative test is often the easiest way to
identify local maximum and minimum points. Sometimes the test fails, and
sometimes the second derivative is quite difficult to evaluate; in such
cases we must fall back on one of the previous tests.

Example 1. Consider again f(x)=sinx+cosx, with f′(x)=cosx−sinx and

f′′(x)=−sinx−cosx. Since f″(π/4)=  2 / 2  2 / 2   2  0 , we know
there is a local maximum at π/4. Since
f″(5π/4)=   2 / 2   2 / 2  2  0 , there is a local minimum at 5π/4.

..

54
 Parametric Equations

In the two-dimensional coordinate system, parametric equations are

useful for describing curves that are not necessarily functions. The
parameter is an independent variable that both x and y depend on, and
as the parameter increases, the values of x and y trace out a path
along a plane curve. For example, if the parameter is t (a common
choice), then t might represent time. Then x and y are defined as
functions of time, and (x(t),y(t)) can describe the position in the plane
of a given object as it moves along a curved path.

Definition. If x and y are continuous functions of t on an

interval I, then the equations x=x(t)and y=y(t) are called parametric
equations and t is called the parameter. The set of points (x,y) obtained
as t varies over the interval I is called the graph of the parametric
equations. The graph of parametric equations is called a parametric
curve or plane curve, and is denoted by C.

Example.
1. Sketch the curves described by the following parametric equations:
a) x(t )  t  1, y (t )  2t  4,3  t  2
b) x(t )  t 2  3, y (t )  2t  1,2  t  3

Solution:
a) To create a graph of this curve, first set up a table of values.
Since the independent variable in both x(t) and y(t) is t,
let t appear in the first column. Then x(t) and y(t) will appear
in the second and third columns of the table.
t x(t) y(t)
-3 -4 -2
-2 -3 0
-1 -2 2
0 -1 4
1 0 6
2 1 8
The arrows on the graph indicate the orientation of the graph, that
is, the direction that a point moves on the graph as t varies from
−3 to 2.

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 b) To create a graph of this curve, again set up a table of values.
t x(t) y(t)
-2 1 -3
-1 -2 -1
2 -2 1
1 -2 3
2 1 5
3 6 7
The first point on the graph (corresponding to t=−2) has coordinates
(1,−3), and the last point (corresponding to t=3)has coordinates
(6,7).As t progresses from −2 to 3, the point on the curve travels along
a parabola. The direction the point moves is again called the orientation
and is indicated on the graph.

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Exercises
1. Sketch the curves described by the following parametric equations:
a) x(t )  4 cos t , y (t )  4 sin t ,0  t  2
b) x(t )  3t  2, y (t )  t 2  1,3  t  2

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 The Differential

Given a function y=f(x) we call dy and dx differentials and the

relationship between them is given by,

Note that if we are just given f (x) then the differentials are df and
dx and we compute them the same manner.

Example 1. Compute the differential for each of the following.

a) y  t 3  4t 2  7t
b) w  x 2 sin( 2 x)
4
c) f ( z )  e 3 z

Solution:
Before working any of these we should first discuss just what we’re being
asked to find here. We defined two differentials earlier and here we’re
being asked to compute a differential.
So, which differential are we being asked to compute? In this kind of
problem we’re being asked to compute the differential of the function.
In other words, dy for the first problem, dw for the second problem and
df for the third problem.

a) dy  (3t 2  8t  7)dt
b) dw  (2 x sin( 2 x)  2 x 2 cos( 2 x))dx
4
c) df  4 z 3e 3 z dz

Exercises
1. Compute dy and Δy if y  cosx 2  1  x as x changes from x = 2 to x
=2.03 .
2. A sphere was measured and its radius was found to be 45 inches with
a possible error of no more that 0.01 inches. What is the maximum possible
error in the volume if we use this value of the radius? (Ans. 0.067%)

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 Partial Differentiation

A Partial Derivative is a derivative where we hold some variables

constant.
For example, a function for a surface that depends on two variables x and
y. When we find the slope in the x direction (while keeping y fixed)
we have found a partial derivative.Or we can find the slope in the y
direction (while keeping x fixed).

Here is a function of one variable (x):

f(x)= x²
And its derivative (using the Power Rule):
f’(x)= 2x
But what about a function of two variables (x and y):
f ( x, y )  x 2  y 3
To find its partial derivative with respect to x we treat y as a
constant (imagine y is a number like 7 or something):
f ' ( x, y )  2 x  0  2 x
To find the partial derivative with respect to y, we treat x as a
constant:
f ' ( x, y )  0  3 y 2  3 y 2

Exercises
1. Determine the partial derivative of the volume of a cylinder, where
V = πr²h with respect to r and h. (r-radius, h-height)

2. Determine the partial derivative of prism with an equation

f ( x, y )  2 x 2  4 xy
with respect to x and y.

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Leithold, L.(2013) The Calculus 7. Pearson Education Asia Pte.Ltd.

http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/terms.aspx

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculus

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https://mathinsight.org/definition/inverse_function

https://www.khanacademy.org/math/ap-calculus-ab/ab-limits-new/ab-1-2/
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https://www.britannica.com/science/continuity

https://www.khanacademy.org/math/differential-calculus/dc-diff-intro

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https://openstax.org/books/calculus-volume-1/pages/3-4-derivatives-as
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https://www.math24.net/derivatives-hyperbolic-functions/

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https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcrip
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https://www.whitman.edu/mathematics/calculus_online/section05.04.html

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