The Disposal of OiCf ield Waste Water
CHARLES C. W. DAVIES~
WRIGHT*AND DOUGLAS
ABSTRACT
Presented in this paper a r e the available processes
f o r processing oil-field waste water to render it suit-
able for discharge. The principles involved a r e enumer-
ated and references a r e supplied to enable the reader , and/or design a r e enumerated. Emphasis is placed on
to obtain the latest state of the a r t . Processes covered
I. POSSIBLE MEANS O F DISPOSAL
The oil has only a limited choice in deciding
what to do about waste water and the nature of the
has a decided bearing on the problem. ~h~ choice
is limited in specific instances. Following a r e possible
means of disposing of waste water:
Percolation into ground water table
Discharge to streams o r lakes
Discharge to the ocean
Discharge to stornl sewer
Discharge t o sanitary sewer
Evaporation
Use a s industrial water
Use a s domestic water
Use a s input to chemical plant
Use f o r waterflooding
Subsurface injection into brackish o r saline water
zones.
11. TREATMENT PROCESSES
This paper covers the treatment processes which
must be considered in preparing a water f o r disposal.
Some of the treatment processes a r e common to all
methods of disposal, whereas others a r e peculiar to one
o r more disposal methods.
The major treatment processes, which may be re-
quired to process the water f o r disposal o r reuse, a r e
a s follows:
Oil removal
Gas removal
Solids removal
Reduction in biochemical and chemical oxygen demand
All other treatment processes a r e subsidiary to these
main processes.
A. Oil Removal
Oil removal is basic to all disposal processes involv-
ing oil-field water, although the necessary completeness
of oil removal may vary widely. There is a n economic
point o r dividing line on each lease where oil removal
f o r the value of the oil recovered ceases to be profitable.
Our discussions begin a t this point, a s we a r e concerned
with the treatment of waste water, not oil recovery.
The ease of removing oil from water is greatly in-
fluenced by chemical treatment o r the physical handling
of the oil-water mixture before i t reaches the waste-
water system. Frequently, the operator may make a
*Oilwell Research. Inc.. Long Beach. Calif.
+Daniel. Mann. Johnson and Menrlenhall. Los Angeles. Calif.
$Presented at the spring nieeting of the Pacific Coast District, API
Division of Production,-May 1966
1
include gravity separation, flotation, filtration, and
dissolved-gas removal.
Factors which must be considered in equipment choice
'
materials of construction and simplicity of operation.
I minor change in t h e chemical treatment o r the physical
handling of the oil-water mixture before it reaches the
waste-water facility. This change may result in a con-
siderable increase in the cost of operating the waste
water.
The treatment and handling of oil and water from
the point where they leave the formation to the ulti-
mate discharge of the water from the lease must be
viewed a s a n integrated process. All changes, whether
mechanical or chemical, must be reviewed f o r their
total effect on the system, not just the immediate prob-
lem a t hand. A few examples will suffice to illustrate
the point:
Overtreatment of producing wells with certain types
of scale inhibitors will stabilize the dispersion of oil
in water, making oil removal in the waste-water sys-
tem more difficult.
Certain types of corrosion inhibitors a r e f a i r oil-in-
water emulsifying agents and will cause oil-in-water
emulsions to appear in the waste-water facility when
used in slug treatments.
Enlulsion breakers have been found in use which give
very clean oil but which also give very stable emul-
sions of oil in water in the waste-water facility.
Centrifugal pumps can form oil-in-water emulsions.
There a r e three practical methods of removing oil
from water. Each h a s its distinct place in water treat-
ment. The three methods are: gravity separation, flota-
tlon, and filtration.
Gravity Separation
Gravity separation is where the oil and water mix-
ture is allowed to separate into two distince phases,
due to the difference in specific gravity between the oil
and water. Naturally, this process is highly effective
with low specific gravity oils (high "API) , but becomes
less effective o r even impossible with high specific grav-
ity oils (low " A P I ) . The separation is materially aided
by temperature. Temperature reduces the viscosity of
the suspending medium (water) and further increases
the specific gravity differential between the oil and
water (see Fig. 1).
Specific Gmvitg ~ i f f b e n c e
Specific gravity difference determines the driving
force causing separation of oil and water into two
phases. This relationship is derived from Stokes' law:
I' = De2 (~111 -PO)* n
18a
192 CHARLESC. WRIGHTAND DOUGLASW. DAVIES
I
Wherein:
v = droplet rising velocity, ft/sec
Dp = diameter of oil droplet, f t
pw = density of water, lb/cu f t
po density of oil, lb/cu f t
= Flotation is a process in which gases a r e dissolved i n
g = acceleration of gravity, ft/sec/sec
p = water viscosity, lb/ft-sec
The less t h e specific gravity difference between t h e oil
and the water, the lower the rising velocity and, there-
fore, the longer t h e residence time required i n t h e
separator.
The subject of gravity separation h a s been covered
in detail in A P I Refinery Waste Water Manual, Vol. I.'
Improvements a r e in ref. 2 and 3, while background
material is in ref. 4 and 5. These references should be
consulted whether the engineer is dealing with tanks,
a n A P I gravity separator, o r a n open pond a s the
principles a r e the same in a n y case. I n the normal case,
following these principles will give a high degree of
success in oil removal. The causes of difficulty in oil
removal in t h e abnormal case may be due to the pres-
ence of emulsions or the lack of sufficient specific gravity
difference.
I n the event t h a t a gravity separator will not give
t h e desired degree of oil removal, o r it is not feasible
Fig. 1 - Effect of Temperature on Specific
Gravity Difference (Water-Oil)
o r econonlical to use a properly designed gravity sepa-
rator, we must t u r n to flotation.
Flotation
t h e water under pressure. The pressure is released. The
evolving bubbles become attached to particulate matter
and/or oil and float t h e particulate matter and/or oil t o
the surface where i t may be skimmed off.6~7~s~9 This is a
highly efficient method of removing suspended oil from
water when t h e load is less than 100 ppm, and emul-
sions do not-exist. Increasing amounts of oil a r e left i n
the water a s the incoming load increases. The flotation
process has the following shortcomings:
1: Emulsions are seldom resolved.
2. Suspended solids may interfere with oil removal.
3. High oil contents incoming mean more oil in the
output.
4. The process is very sensitive to process variable,
such as:
a. Velocity o r throughput
b. Gas/water ratio
c. Recycle ratio
When the flotation cell is overloaded o r when emul-
sions a r e present and cannot be prevented by remedial
measures upstream, we must use supplementary chemi-
cal treatment with the flotation cell. Special clays have
been found to be good adsorbents of oil. Adding these
clays a s a slurry to the flotation cell, followed by a
polyelectrolyte, will often result in a very clear water
discharge. Alum alone o r with coagulant aids will also
aid a flotation cell t h a t is overloaded o r receiving emul-
sions.
Coagulation is a science in itself and there i s much
literature available on the subject. The chemical theory,
which is the older conventional one, assumes the col-
loids a r e aggregates of defined chemical structure, the
primary charge of colloid particles arises from t h e
ionization of complex ionogenic groups present on the
surface of the dispersed particles, and the destabliza-
tion of colloids results from the chemical interactions
such a s complex formation and proton transfer. This
chemical theory, although important, does not explain
all the actions t h a t take place in coagulation. A s a
result, a newer theory has been developed called t h e
“physical theory". This theory emphasizes the concept
of the electrical double layer and the significance of
predominantly physical factors such a s counter ion
adsorption, reduction of zeta potential, and ion pair
formation in the destablization of colloids. It has become
a very effective tool in the interpretation and control of
coagulation techniques and h a s practically replaced and
superseded the older chemical t h e ~ r y . l ~ ~ l4
ll,l~*~~~
A word of caution here. The concentration of t h e
additives and the point of addition is quite critical.
IReferences are at the end o i the paper.
Filtration
Where the last traces of oil must be removed from
the water and gravity separation and/or flotation a r e
inadequate, we turn to filtration. We also filter when
solids must be removed. Filtration must be viewed a s a
clean-up o r polishing operation. I t is not economical f o r
removal of gross amounts of solids o r oil from water.
Clt.oice of Filter
The choice of a filter is based upon a number of
factors, which must be evaluated in each case:
Quality of effluent desired
Amount of suspended solids
Nature of suspended solids
Capital cost vs. operational cost
Space available
Flexibility of operation desired
Salvage value
Degree of reliability of operation required
Variability in quality of incoming water
Degree of reliability of operation required
ConleyI5 has presented a n excellent summation con-
cerning the interrelation of the various components of
a water-treatment plant, showing how to determine the
optimum treatment practice and optimum sizing of the
various components in order to obtain the most good out
of a given amount of money.
Filtru.tion-General
The classic concept of water filtration h a s been t h e
use of the slow sand filter in which a layer of solids is
built up on the top layer of sand. The solids a r e com-
posed of the solids forming the turbidity i n the water
and bacterial growth. This layer h a s been known a s the
"Schmutzdecke." This concept applies only to the slow
sand filter, although many have not appreciated this.
Until recently all domestic water plant installations
have had sand filters of one description o r another,
either slow o r rapid. A revolution in water filtration h a s
occurred in the last several years. This had its origin
in the need f o r mobile' treatment plants for use by the
armed forces during World W a r 11. Portable diatoma-
ceous earth filters were devised and used extensively- by-
the Armed Forces. I n recent years the utility of these
diatomaceous earth filters has led to a determined assault
on the problems of water filtration. More papers a r e
being published today on this subject and its allied
problem-coagulation-than a n y other phase of water
treatment.
The developments t h a t have come about from the field
of water filtration have culminated in the availability
of a wide choice of filters and filtration processes.
Among them a r e :
Slow sand
Gravity sand
Pressure sand
Diatomaceous earth
Each of the filters h a s its proper place in water treat-
ment. The strengths and weaknesses of each will be
discussed briefly to enable intelligent decisions to be
made.
a . Slow Sanrl Fzlters
The slow sand filter has been superseded by the rapid
sand filter in all new installat~onsbuilt in recent years.
The slow sand filter requires too much surface area f o r
its operation and is inflexible.
h. Rapid S C L Filters
,~
Rapid sand filters a r e divided into two main classi-
fications: gravity and pressure. The principles of the
two a r e identical; the pressure filter is operated a t ele-
vated pressures, thus prolonging the filter cycle and/or
increasing the rate of flow of water through the filter.
The rapid sand filter is nor~llallyoperated with clarifi-
cation ahead of the filter. This step reduces the load,
allowing longer filter runs and high-quality effluent a t
higher flow rates.
Gravity filters a r e commonly operated a t 2 gal/min/
sq ft, whereas pressure filters a r e commonly operated a t
3 gal/min/sq ft.
Rapid sand filters have a layer of sand on layers of
graded gravel. The rapid sand filter does not utilize a
"Schmutzdecke" f o r its filtration action. Instead. the
particulate matter is adsorbed on the sand a t depth.
Considerable support f o r the adsorption of turbidity a s
the predominant removal mechanism of rapid sand
filters is gained in the report of O'Melia and CrappslG
in their study on the chemical aspects of filtration.
Rapid sand filters a r e customarily operated with sand
on top of a graded gravel bed. However, considerable
interest h a s been shown in some areas in t h e use of
sized coal in place of sand. Coal has the advantage of
being of lighter density, occupying greater volume per
unit weight, and-more important-requiring less ve-
locity of the backwash water to suspend the coal bed
during the washing or scrubbing cycle. However, coal
has the detrimental property of being soft and abrades
rapidly, thereby reducing i t s size, resulting in losses
during the backwash cycle. Coal replacement is much
more frequent than is the case with sand.
c. Dintwnnceous E n r t l ~Filters
Briefly, diatonlaceous earth filters consist of a screen,
o r screens, upon which a foundation of asbestos fibers
and diatonlaceous earth is laid (called precoat). Once
the precoating is in place and functioning, water filtra-
tion is comn~encedwith a continuous addition of diato-
maceous earth slurry called filter aid, body feed, o r slurry
-
feed. Although diatonlaceous earth is the customarv
choice, expanded perlite can be very attractive in some
areas because of local availability o r availability a t a
lower price than diatomaceous earth. A task group of
the American W a t e r Works Association made a report
in February 196517 on "Diatomite Filters f o r Municipal
Use." This extensive report, with many references,
covers in detail the design, installation, and operation
of diatomite filters in large-scale plants. This is a n
excellent review paper, and should be consulted f o r
general background information.
Baumann and L a Frenzls reported on the "Optimun~
Economical Design f o r Municipal Diatomite Filter
Plants." This report shows the extreme need f o r opti-
mizing filter design, a s water-production costs can be
four to five times higher than necessary if other t h a n
optimum conditions of flow rate, terminal head loss,
and body feed a r e used. Automatic operation proved to
be most economical f o r all waters and all plant sizes.
However, maintenance of a n automated plant can be a
problem if qualified personnel a r e not readily available.
BelllD in 1962 presented a paper entitled "Design
Criteria f o r Diatomite Filters." I n this paper consider-
able information is made available about various aspects
of design relating to hydraulic velocities, septum con-
siderations, adequacy of filter cleaning, precoating tech-
nique, and principles of continuous slurry feeding. This
paper should be consulted when design of a diatomite
filter i s considered.
Selection of Diatomite
There a r e a number of grades of diatomite available
f o r use a s a filter aid. The principal difference between
the grades is particle-size distribution. The difference i n
filtration properties is mainly the result of difference in
particle size distribution, with the finest size filter aid
having the lowest flow rate. The finest diatomite (lowest
flow rate) is used f o r removing tight emulsions, ultra-
fine colloids, etc. The coarsest grade of diatomite with a
high flow r a t e will produce water of good clarity when
the turbidity is composed of relatively coarse particles.
The common shortcoming of inadequately prepared di-
atomaceous earth is short filter cycles resulting from
the rapid buildup in filtration pressure.
The final selection of filter aid should be made only
on the basis of field trials, inasmuch a s we a r e striving
f o r a n optimizing of the variables of filtration pres-
sures, filter effluent clarity, filter cycle time, and rate of
flow through t h e filter. Diaton~aceousearth filters will
deliver high-quality water when properly run. We have
routinely obtained filtered water with 0.2 ppm sus-
pended solids using a diatomaceous earth filter.
Unfortunately, i t is very easy to plug wells with im-
properly operated diaton~aceousearth filters. Some of
the causes of filter failure a r e :
a. Plant operator leaves open line to high-pressure
pumps when backwashing and recoating filter.
Large amounts of asbestos and diatomaceous earth
a r e injected into the wells.
b. The filter cake and precoat drop off the screen in
whole o r in part, a s a result of temporary shut-
down of filter o r a momentary pressure surge.
Subsequent operation of filter results in all slurry
feed and all suspended solids going through the
filter into t h e high-pressure pumps and/or into t h e
wells.
c. Inadequate precoating of the screens h a s left holes
in the precoating, resulting in the same condition
a s item b., but to a lesser degree.
d. Operator leaves backwash valve open partially o r
completely a f t e r backwashing filter, resulting in
partial o r complete bypassing of the filter. This is
worse than no filter a t all as, i n addition t o by-
passing the filter, filter aid is supplied continuously
t o t h e water.
Frequently i t is advisable to install strainers o r in-line
filters downstream of a diatomaceous earth filter to
prevent mistakes o r problems, such a s those cited, from
plugging wells.
B. Dissolved Gases
So f a r only oil and solids removal have been dis-
cussed. Sometimes dissolved gases must be removed.
The commonly encountered dissolved gases and their
p:.oblems a r e :
Gas Normal Problems
Hydrogen sulfide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Odor, corrosion
Oxygen ........................ .Corrosion
Carbon dioxide ................. .Corrosion
Methane ........................Fire hazard
Undesirable dissolved gases may be removed from water
by one of the following means:
Aeration by spraying o r cascading
Vacuum degassing
Countercurrent g a s stripping
Chemical treatment (in case of oxygen o r low amounts
of hydrogen sulfide)
The choice of the specific method will be determined
by the amount of contaminant, the end use of the water,
and economics.
C. Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Frequently the only objection to a water proposed f o r
discharge is the high biochemical oxygen demand of
the water. This high biochemical oxygen demand is
caused by dissolved organic matter which is assimilable
by biological growth leading to flourishing biological
populations with resultant depletion of oxygen in the
receiving waters. Where this situation arises, i t is nec-
essary to provide the proper environment f o r bacterial
growth so t h a t the organic matter is consumed before
discharging the water.
.The proper environment is a tremendous surface a r e a
where t h e water is in motion and in continuous contact
with air. Trickling the water through gravel in contact
with a i r is a simple version of the facility required.
Lately, complex honeycomb elements have been placed
on t h e market which enable a great reduction in size of
unit required.
111. EQUIPMENT CONSIDERATIONS
Equipment required f o r the collection, treatment, and
distribution of waste water fro111 oil fields is a major
consideration when arriving at t h e economic feasibility
of various processes. Since the water is usually aggres-
sive and may require treatnlent with aggressive chem-
icals, careful consideration should be given to the use
of corrosion-resistant materials, low maintenance oper-
ations, and to a fairly high degree of automation f o r
reduction of plant upsets and operating labor costs. The
following a r e offered a s guidelines when considering
materials and equipment in various sections of a com-
plete facility.
A. Pipelines
Generally, pipelines must be of a corrosion-resistant
material, greater than 'that of steel and could be:
1. Epoxy-lined steel, with special attention to joints.
2. Epoxy fiberglass lining, either prefabricated or
joined in the field o r continuously produced by a
m o v i-
n ~machine in the field.
3. Plastic lines, such a s PVC, nlay be satisfactory if
the produced water temperature is low and the
lines a r e not subject to esternal o r internal shock.
4. Cement-asbestos lines can be used and should be
resistant to corrosion if made of type five cement
and autoclave cured and in special cases, may be
epoxy-lined.
I n general, consideration should be given to the con-
venience of rapid dismantling and relocation of t h e
lines, a s in the case of cement asbestos, to the types of
epoxys and plastics used by the actual test against the
fluids handled and to the requirements and costs of
additional facilities such a s cathodic protection of steel
line. Design of the pipeline itself should take into con-
sideration the possibility of hydraulic shock and surge
which may damage the lower tensile strength cement
asbestos pipe, to the venting of a i r pockets, to methods
of testing f o r leaks, to t h e use of cleanout pigs f o r
removal of scale and other fouling materials, and to t h e
use of surface-mounted lines with attendant expansion
problenls vs. buried and restrained line.
B. Separators
The type of separators selected depends upon the vol-
ume of suspended materials t h a t must be removed and
their origin, the aggressiveness of the waters, and the
value of land on which they would be located. Examples
of these considerations a r e :
If the waters a r e to be disposed of by injection f o r
secondary recovery, then the suspended solids must be
much lower, in some cases below 1 ppm, which would
not be the case if waste waters were discharged to the
ocean o r to streams. I n other cases, produced waters
must be combined with sea waters f o r waterfloods, in
which case a heavy precipitate of barium sulfate may be
generated, requiring a large sedimentation pond with
up to 72 hours retention time to allow settling, and also
to allow gravity separation of oil suspensions. Sedimen-
tation beds would probably be made of reinforcecl con-
crete in suficient depth to allow a reasonable collection
of sediment before taking out of service f o r cleaning.
Generally, two o r more separate ponds should be pro-
vided so t h a t when one is removed from service, a t
something less than 5 percent of the time, the other may
carry the throughput a t a n increased velocity o r a t a
reduced rate o r perhaps a combination of both. The
retention time can be variable and can be determined by
a maze of two o r more baffles within a single pond, so
t h a t their arrangements can be changed f o r different
lengths of retention time a s conditions vary. The ponds
should be made of corrosion-resistant concrete such a s
type five, o r sulfate resistant in the case of sea water.
F o r additional protection they should be lined with a
coal-tar epoxy o r similar coating. The bottoms of the
ponds should be designed so t h a t the greatest depth is
a t the point of marinlum precipitation fallout and with
consideration that, when drained, t h e sediment could be
hydraulically flushed out to a sludge pond. The internal
baffles guiding t h e flow through a number of passes can
be of wood o r similar low-cost material, which need not
support a hydraulic load since the level would be equal-
ized on all sides. Oil which would gravitate to the sur-
face can be skinlined near the end of the flow path by a
continuous adjustable-height gravity skimmer. I n treat-
ment f o r certain methods of disposal such a s secondary-
recovery injection, i t may be necessary to bacterially
reduce oxygen which can be aided by blocking out the
passage of sunlight into t h e sedimentation basin. One
method is to have interlocking opaque, polyfoam plastic
panels which will float on t h e surface and which can
easily be removed f o r pond maintenance purposes. I n
cases where there a r e entrained gases to be released or
different source waters to be mixed before entering the
sediment pond, the use of gravity cooling tower wood-
slat type aerators and eduction-type mixing nozzles
could be considered.
In cases where a lengthy time period is not required
f o r settlement and separation, where a closed system is
desirable, and where land area is costly, then standard
4 P I separators should be considered. Details will not be
discussed since there a r e standard models made by a
number of manufacturers f o r various conditions. The
materials of construction, however, should be carefully
considered a s to their corrosion resistance.
2. Aggressiveness of the waters
As all water, other than distilled, has some degree of
corrosive action, a major economic consideration is the
choice of materials in pumps, pipes, valves, fittings,
tanks, filters, etc., taking into account the desired life
of the facility, changing conditions affecting the aggres-
siveness of t h e water, the chemical treatment of the
water f o r corrosion control in comparison to the in-
creased cost of more corrosion-resistant materials.
196 CHARLESC . WRIGHTAND
3. T'c~llse of ~[L?IcZ on wllicl~facilitics wo~cldbe located
An additional consideration i n facility design i s the
value o r confinement of t h e land on which it is located.
In some cases sedimentation ponds may be planned on a
multi-level basis instead of being spread over a large
single-level area. This also holds t r u e of pumping and
filtration equipment which may be placed below grade
a s well a s ongrade and stacked f o r multi-level operation.
C. Filtration Equipment
Dependable filtration f o r removal of suspended solids
from water prior to injection i s no st important, par-
ticularly f o r reservoirs which a r e tightly packed. The
filtering process i s most often subject t o upset where
large blocks of solids a r e carried through the subse-
quent reduction in efficiency. I n general, the trend i s
toward more completely automated systems where dif-
ferential flows and pressures a r e measured and a t
predetermined levels the filters a r e back-washed o r
recharged a s often a s necessary to maintain the desired
quality of effluence. Filtration systems a r e generally of
two types.
1. Cla~ificntion
These systems include flocculation, decantation, sedi-
mentation, and sand-bed filtration. They a r e basically
the same a s those used i n filtration of domestic w a t e r
in municipal plants and a r e always necessary when t h e
suspended solids a r e heavy, s a y 1 5 ppm o r above, since
such quantities xvould impose a n impractical econonlic
load on filter-aid type filters. This type of filtration nlay
be used where the reduction of suspended solids is not
extremely critical, wlth the effluent having more t h a n
1 ppm.
The general construction of these facilities is usually
reinforced concrete basins through which water is
passed in compartments where chemicals a r e added in
subsequent stations f o r flocculation, decantation, and
then through basins f o r sedimentation and finally into
gravity sand beds o r other media filters.
These systems should have parallel chambers and
particularly filters so t h a t one section can be removed
f o r service and one filter a t a time regenerated, whlle
operating the system a t slightly reduced rates. The
sand filters should be autoniatically backwashed on
demand, based on differential pressure through the bed,
ancl a number of manufacturers make complete fittings
and appurtenances f o r these systems. One of t h e disad-
vantages of this system i s t h a t i t is open throughout
a n d subject t o taking on osygen ~ v h i c hmust l a t e r be
removed by deaeration and chemical scavenging. Plpe
and fittings may be the conventional cast iron, but the
trend is toward fiberglass epoxy o r plastic materials
throughout.
2. Fzltey-c~zdFi1tes.s
This type of filter i s considered essential to maintain-
i n g a closed system from source water to injection well
and also f o r a n y system requiring injection w a t e r less
t h a n 1 ppnl of suspended sohds. A s mentioned pre-
viously, t h e source \\later of high turbidity, the removal
of the majority of suspended solids, should be considered
by other means t h a n these filters. Design systems would
include the following:
a. The source and quality of filter aid is a n important
consideration. Generally, e ~ t h e rdiatomaceous e a r t h
o r perlite a r e t h e two media available and g r e a t
variation in the life of the filter cake can be ex-
perienced clue t o product quality.
b. The sizing of the filters depends upon the total
throughput, but also upon t h e total solicls ' t o be
removed which affect the life of t h e filter cake ancl
must be evaluated upon reasonable backwash.
c. Materials of shells, piplng and fittings a r e gener-
ally of stainless steel, although epoxy o r rubber
linlngs a r e econon~icallyfeasible f o r the interior
shell 011 large units. Filter frames may be of metal
mesh. However, hard-rubber o r plastic cores a r e
becoming more popular because of their lower cost
and lack of distortion. Metal screens on which t h e
D E cake 1s formed a r e being presently replaced in
most instances by a finely woven plastic cloth
which is relatively inespensive and comparatively
easy to replace l n t h e field.
cl. Controls a r e tending toward complete automation
which will most likely preclude upsets caused by
human error. Even in a r e a s where labor i s inex-
pensive, the possibility of human e r r o r is gener-
ally higher so autonlation seems to be t h e only
answer.
e. As a positive control on solids breakthrough in the
filter system, a positive-stop filter should be in-
stalled on the downstream side of the system.
General equipment selection, two o r more with t h e
optimum generally being three, should equip t h e
system f o r the maximum facility where one filter
can be taken out f o r backwash, \ilhile t h e remain-
ing can c a r r y the same or slightly reduced total
throughput a t temporarily increased rates of
throughput per square foot of filter area. The
optimum r a t e f o r filtration is presently accepted
a s about 2 gal/sq f t , although there a r e d a t a on
high-rate filters where 20 gal/sq f t a r e being
considered.
D. Degassing Equipment
Most waters f o r injection contain dissolved osygen
f a r above the limits which should be maintained f o r
control of corrosion and t h e most feasible method of
removing this dissolved osygen down to limits where
effective treatment could be completed by chemical scav-
engers is by passing through a cleaeration column. Ma-
terials i n t h e column f o r all wetted surfaces must be
resistant t o the corrosive atmosphere. The shell of t h e

colunln should have the interior lined with a n epoxy
material and the trays and appurtenances should be of
stainless steel. The two o r more t r a y s a r e packed with
Raschig of a ceramic o r plastic material creating the
desired dispersion of water into large surface areas.
Oxygen removal may be accomplished by vacuum pumps
exhausting from the top of the column and creating a
negative pressure f o r flash off of the osygen or, where
field gas is available, it can be used a s a n upward
counter-flow to the water where it will scrub the oxygen
and carry it with the gas out of the top of the column
to a use o r flare point. This column can also serve a s a
small-capacity surge tank between the supply to the
filters and the discharge to the injection pumps. Level
controls should be proviclecl to throttle the inlet o r out-
let and maintain a liquid level within a predetermined
range. Again, consideration should be given to providing
two o r more deaerating columns so t h a t one can be
removed f o r service and repairs while the other is
operated a t an increased throughput. Generally, the
deaerator should reduce the dissolved osygen content to
0.5 ~ ~ 1 1o r1 less and, by following with a chemical
scavenger, this can be reduced to 0.04 11~111o r less to
afford excellent corros~on control. Obviously, no a i r
should be allowed to enter the system beyond this point
and all vessels such a s chemical mising tanks or surge
tanks must be blanketed with a n oxygen-free gas.
Dividing water into large surface areas f o r contact
with a i r can accomplish the release of unwanted gases
such as carbon dioside, hydrogen sulfide, and methane
and the taking on of more desirable gases such a s oxy-
gen. The equipment to he used can be slat-type cooling
towers, spray nozzles, or mechanical division by high-
speed breakers.
E. Chemical Mising and Feed Equipnlent
411 chemicals, which tnay include bactericides, osygen
scivengers, alum, polyelectrolytes, bentonites, etc., used
in treating the water should be provided with a mix
hopper with a transfer arrangement to a feed tank. I n
the case of sodium sulfite, the tanks should be closed
and blanketed to prevent oxygen contamination. All
chen~icals should be fed into the system through a
variable metering type injection pump. Materials should
be selected for corrosion resistance to chemicals in the
concentrated and in the dilute states, which sometimes
differ and should be determined with the manufacturer.
Discharge lines from certain chemicals, such a s alum,
polyelectrolytes, and bentonite, should have outlets to a
number of water-treatment chambers so t h a t the pro-
gressive feed can be varied to meet operating condi-
tions. I n general, all equipment should be of a chemical-
resistant plastic and stainless-steel combination.
-FIELDWASTE WATER 197
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