OPEN CIRCUIT TEST AND SHORT CIRCUIT TEST OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR

Open Circuit Test and Short Circuit Test are performed on a Synchronous Machine to find out the
Synchronous impedance For Large Machine to Determine the voltage regulation

Open Circuit Test

the alternator is run at rated synchronous speed and the load terminals are kept open. That is, all the loads are
disconnected. The field current is set to zero; this condition is called open circuit test condition.

The field current is gradually increase in steps, and the terminal voltage Et is measure at each step, The
excitation current may be increased to get 25% more than rated voltage of the alternator. A graph is plotted
between the open circuit test voltage
Ep and field excitation current If.

the characteristic curve so obtain is called open circuit characteristic (O.C.C.). it take the shape of a normal
magnetization curve. the extension of linear portion of an O.C.C. is called the air gap line are show in figure.

Short Circuit Test

The armature terminals are shorted through three ammeters. Care should we taken performing this test, and the
field current should first decrease to zero before starting the alternator. Each ammeter should have range
greater than the full rated value. The alternator runs at synchronous speed. Then the field current gradually
increased in step, and the armature current is measured at each step.

The field current may be increased to get armature current upto 150% of the rated value.The field current If
and the average of three ammeter reading at each step is taken.

A graph is plotted between the armature current Ia and field current If.
The characteristic so obtained is called short-circuit characteristic
(SCC). the characteristic is a straight line as shown in figure.

Calculation of Zs
The open circuit characteristic (O.C.C.) and short circuit characteristic
(S.C.C.) are drawn on the same curve sheet. Determine the value of Isc
and field current that gives the rated alternator voltage per phase. the
synchronous impedance Zs will then be equal to the open circuit voltage
divided by the short circuit current at the field current which gives the
rated e.m.f. per phase.
For the same value of field current.
The synchronous reactance is found as follows.

In figure , consider the field current If = OA that the produces

rated alternator voltage per phase. corresponding to this field
current the open circuit voltage is AB.

SYNCHRONIZING OF PARALLEL OPERATION.

A stationary alternator must not be connected to live bus bar Because the induce emf is zero at standstill and a
short circuit will result.
The synchronizing procedure and the equipment for checking it are the same whether one alternator is to be
connected in parallel with another alternator or an alternator is to be connected to infinite bus.

The following method are used for synchronization.

1. Synchronizing lamps
2. Synchroscope.

Synchronizing lamps
A set of three synchronizing Lamps can be used to check the condition for paralleling the incoming machine
with other machines. The dark lamp method along with a voltmeter used for synchronizing. It is used for
synchronizing low power machines.
The prime mover of the incoming machine is started and brought up ti near its rated speed. The field current of
the incoming machine is adjusted so that its terminal voltage becomes equal to the bus voltage. The three lamp
flicker at a rate equal to the difference in the frequencies of incoming machine and the bus bar. If phases are
properly connected, all the lamps will be bright and dark at same time. If this is not the case, then this means
phase sequences are not correct. In order to correct the phase sequence, two leads of the line of the incoming
machine should be interchange. The frequency of the incoming machine is adjusted until the lamps flicker at a
very slow rate, less than one dark period per second. After the finally adjusting the incoming voltage, the
synchronizing switch is closed in the middle of their dark period. Since the voltage across the lamps varies
from zero to twice the phase voltage, the lamps of suitable rating must be used.

Advantage of the dark lamp method

the method is cheap
the proper phase sequence is easily determined

Disadvantages of the dark lamp method

The lamps become dark at about half their rated voltage, it is possible that the synchronizing switch might be
closed where there is a considerable phases difference between machines. This may result in high circulating
current to damage the machines.
The lamps filament might burn out.
The flicker of the lamps does not indicate which machine has the higher frequency.

Three Bright Lamp methods

In this method lamps are connected across the phases, that is, A1 is connected to B2, B1 is connected to
C2 and C1 is connected to A2. If all the three laps get bright and dark together, then the phase sequences are
the same. The correct instant closing synchronizing switch in the middle of bright period. The brightest point
in the cycle is easier to distinguish than the middle of a dark period and avoid confusing letter with a lamp
filament failure.
Two Bright one dark Lamp method
In this method, one lamp is connected between corresponding phases while the two others are cross-connected
between the other two phases. that is, A1 is connected to A2, B1 to C2 and C1 to B2. The prime mover of the
incoming machine is started and brought up to
near its rated speed.

The excitation of the incoming machine is

adjusted in such a way that the incoming
machine induces the voltage EA1, EB2, EC3,
which is equal to the Busbar voltages VA1,
VB1 and VC1.The correct moment to close the
switch is obtained at the instant when the straight
connected lamp is dark, and the connected cross
lamps are equally bright. If the phase sequence is
incorrect, no such instant will take place, and all
the lamps will be dark simultaneously.

The direction of rotation of the incoming machine is changed by

interchanging the two lines of the machine. Since the dark range of
the lamp extends to a considerable voltage range, a voltmeter V1 is
connected across the straight lamp. The synchronising switch is
closed when the voltmeter reading is zero.
Thus, the incoming machine is now floating on the Busbar and is
ready to take up the load as a generator. If the prime mover is
disconnected, it behaves as a motor. For paralleling small machines
in power stations, three lamps along with the synchroscope are used.
For synchronizing very large machine in power stations, the whole
procedure is performed automatically by the computer.

SYNCHROSCOPE
The phase sequence of the generator is usually checked carefully at the time of its installation. Consider 1 and
2 are assumed by means of a synchroscope which compare the voltage from one phase of the incoming
machine with that of the corresponding phases of the three phase system.

The position of a pointer of the Synchroscope shows the phase difference

between the voltages of the incoming machine and the infinite bus. When the
frequencies are equal, the pointer is stationary. When the frequencies differ,
the pointer rotates in one direction or the other. The direction of motion of
the pointer shows whether the incoming machine is running too fast or too
slow. This means that whether the frequency of the incoming machine is
higher or lower in comparison to the infinite bus.The speed of rotation of the
pointer is equal to the difference between the frequency of the incoming
machine and the frequency of the infinite bus. The frequency and phase
positions are controlled by adjusting the prime mover input of the incoming
machine.When the indicator of the Synchroscope moves very slowly and passes through the zero phase point
or vertical up position, the circuit breaker is closed, and the incoming alternator is connected to the bus. In this
case, the frequencies are almost the same. The Synchroscope checks the relationships only on one phase and
does not give any information about phase sequence.
The procedure is same as that for the large synchronous machine. The synchronous motor is started. As the
motor approaches synchronous speed, direct current is applied to the field winding. If the load torque is not
excessive, the motor pulls into synchronism with the system.

Expression for power shared by Two alternators

Consider two alternators running in Parallel. The frequency -Load characteristic of the two machines is shown
in fig.
 Let
W1 = Full load power rating of machine 1
W2 = Full load power rating of machine 2
P1 = Power shared by machine 1
P2 = Power shared by machine 2
P = Total power supplied by two machines
f01 = No load frequency of machine 1
f02 = No load frequency of machine 2
fl1 = full load frequency of machine 1
fl2 = full load frequency of machine 2
f = common operating frequency when the two
machines are running in Parallel

Open Circuit and Short Circuit Characteristics of Synchronous Machine

Open Circuit Test and Short Circuit Test are performed on a Synchronous Machine to find out the parameters
of Synchronous Machine and hence to have an idea of their performance. Open Circuit Test of Synchronous
Machine is also called No Load, Saturation or
Magnetizing Characteristics for the reason which
will be clear after going through the post.
For getting the Open Circuit Characteristics of
Synchronous Machine, the alternator is first driven
at its rated speed and the open terminal voltage i.e.
voltage across the armature terminal is noted by
varying the field current. Thus Open Circuit
Characteristic or OCC is basically the plot
between the armature terminal voltage Ef versus
field current If while keeping the speed of rotor at
rated value. It shall be noted that for OCC, the
final value of Ef shall be 125% of the rated
voltage.
Figure below shows the connection diagram for
performing the Open Circuit Test of Alternator.
As clear from the figure above, an Ammeter is connected in series with the field circuit to measure the field
current and a Voltmeter is connected across the armature terminals to note down the voltage generated. Figure
(b) shows the plot between If and Ef. It can be seen from the graph that the relationship between the field
current Ifand no load generated voltage Ef is linear up to certain value of field current but as the the field
current increases the relationship no longer remains linear. The linear part of the relationship is because, at
small value of filed current the whole mmf is required by the air gap to create magnetic flux but as the value of
mmf exceeds some certain value, the iron parts get saturated and hence the relationship between the flux (No
load generated emf is proportional to flux) and field current no longer remain linear.
Next assume that if there were no saturation (assuming no iron part is present rather only air gap is present),
the relationship between the field current and no load voltage would have been a straight line and that is why
the straight line ob in the figure is called Air Gap Line.
Thus we observe that because of saturation in iron parts of machine, the no load generated voltage Efdoes not
increase in the same proportion as the increase in field current.

Short Circuit Test of Synchronous Machine:

For performing Short Circuit Test on an
Alternator, the machine is driven at rated
synchronous speed and the armature terminals are
short circuited through an Ammeter as shown in
figure below.

Now the field current If is gradually increased from zero

until the armature short circuit current reaches its
maximum safe value i.e. 125 to 150% of its rated current
value. Readings of field current If and short circuit
current are noted and plotted.

If you see the above plot of Short Circuit Test, you notice that the short circuit characteristics of a synchronous
machine is a straight line.

Why Short Circuit Characteristics of Synchronous Machine is Straight Line?

For short circuit test, as the armature terminals are shorted, therefore terminal voltage Vt = 0. Therefore the air
gap emf Er shall only be enough to provide the leakage impedance drop in the armature i.e.
Er = Ia(Ra + jXal) where Xal = Armature Leakage Reactance
As we know that, for a Synchronous machine the value of Xal is of the order of 0.1 to 0.2 per unit and Ra
(Armature Resistance) is negligible thus we can write as
Xal = 0.15 (Taking average value of 0.1 and 0.2)
Ra = 0
then Er = Ia (Ra +jXal) = 0.15Ia
Taking rated current of armature, Ia = 1 pu
Therefore, Er = 0.15 pu
You must read Per Unit System in Electrical Engineering
Thus we observe that during short circuit test, the air gap generated emf Er is only 0.15 pu which mean that air
gap flux must also be 0.15 pu. As the resultant air gap flux is only 0.15 of its rated value under normal voltage
condition, such a low value of air gap flux does not saturate the iron parts of synchronous machine and hence
the short circuit characteristics is a straight line. It shall also be noted here that, in case of short circuit test the
armature mmf is almost entirely demagnetizing in nature which results in very low value of air gap flux.
Zero Power Factor Characteristics and Potier Triangle

Zero Power Factor Characteristics

Zero Power Factor Characteristics (zpfc) of synchronous generator is a plot between the armature terminal
voltage and field current for a constant value of armature current and speed. A purely inductive load is
connected across the generator terminal to achieve zero power factor and zpfc.
Zero power factor characteristics along with Open Circuit Characteristics of generator are used to evaluate the
value of armature leakage reactance xal and armature reaction mmf Fa. zpfc for a synchronous generator is
obtained as follows:
The synchronous machine is operated at synchronous speed by the prime mover.
A purely inductive load is connected at the generator terminal and field current is increased till rated current
starts flowing in the armature winding.
The load is varied in steps and field current is also adjusted so that rated current flow in the armature. In each
step, the armature terminal voltage and field current is measured and noted. A plot between these two noted
quantities is drawn. This plot is the zero power factor characteristics of generator.
A typical zpfc is shown in figure below. The figure below also includes the phasor diagram of synchronous
generator under the condition of zero power factor.

From the above phasor diagram, it can be easily seen that terminal voltage Vt and air gap voltage Er are almost
in phase. Since the armature resistance is negligible as compared to leakage reactance xal, therefore
Vt = Er − Iaxal
The filed mmf Ff and resultant air gap mmf Fr is also almost in phase, therefore
Ff = Fr + Fa
Potier Triangle
Potier Triangle is a right angled triangle whose perpendicular and base represents the voltage drop in armature
leakage reactance (Iaxal) and armature mmf Fa respectively. This triangle is used to draw the zero power factor
characteristics (zpfc) from the open circuit characteristics (OCC) of synchronous generator.
In the above figure OCC and zpfc are shown. For field excitation Ff, the armature terminal voltage is ‘PK’
under open circuit condition. Keeping filed current If and speed constant, when the generator armature is
connected with purely inductive load, the air gap mmf Fr is reduced. Therefore, the generator open circuit
terminal voltage corresponding to Fr is FC. When voltage drop in leakage reactance i.e. Iaxal is subtracted from
this voltage FC, generator terminal voltage FB = PA = Vt is obtained. Since zero power factor characteristics is
a plot between Vt and Ff or If, which has not changed from its no load value of OP, the point A lies on the zpfc.
The triangle ABC so obtained is called the Potier Triangle where CB = Iaxal and BA = Fa. Thus from the Potier
Triangle armature leakage reactance (xal) and armature mmf Fa can be obtained.
For a constant armature current, the size of Potier Triangle ABC remains constant. Therefore it can be moved
parallel to itself with its corner ‘C’ on OCC and its corner ‘A’ tracing the zero power factor characteristics
(zpfc). Thus the shape of zpfc and OCC are same. The only difference being, zpfc is vertically downward by
an amount equal to Iaxal from the OCC and shifted horizontally right to the origin by an amount equal to Fa.
Purpose of Compensating Winding in DC Machine
The main purpose of compensating winding is to nullify the effect of armature reaction on the main field flux
under the pole faces in DC machine. Due to the effect of armature reaction mmf, the flux distribution under the
pole faces is distorted which leads to poor commutation and flashover.
When a DC machine is operated at heavy load or operated with a weak main field, the effect of armature
reaction flux dominates. Due to this the resultant air gap flux gets heavily distorted. In the interpolar region,
the effect of armature reaction is neutralized by the interpole winding but the distortion prevails under the pole
face as shown in the figure
below.

Any coil whose two coil sides

are under the influence of this
distorted peak flux will have a
large rotational emf (Bvl)
induced in it. In the above
figure, the coil sides a and a’
are shown under the peak flux.
If the rotational emf in the coil
sides a and a’ exceeds the limit
i.e. 30 to 40 V, the air in
between the adjacent
commutator segment to which
the coil aa’ is connected may
breakdown. This breakdown
will result in an arc which may
eventually spread to the nearby
commutator segment. Such
kind of flashover is
detrimental for commutator surface as well as supply line as the supply line is directly shorted by the arc.
The trouble of flashover due to the distortion of flux density wave under the pole shoe is overcome by the use
of compensating winding. Compensating winding basically nullifies the effect of armature reaction under the
pole shoe.
Compensating winding is also known as pole face winding. This winding is embedded in the slots in pole
faces. It is connected in series with the armature winding so that their mmfs are proportional to the same
current. To compensate the effect of armature reaction, the direction of current in compensating winding must
be opposite to that in the armature winding just below the pole
face as shown in figure below.

Half of the compensating winding in the right side pole face is

connected in series with the half of the left side pole face
winding as shown in above figure. In this way, the direction of
current in compensating winding is opposite to that in the
armature winding.
Figure below illustrate how the compensating winding mmf
neutralizes the armature mmf under the pole face.
In the interpolar region, both the interpole winding and compensating winding opposes the armature mmf.
Under the pole face, the armature mmf is neutralized by the compensating winding mmf. Therefore the
resultant air gap flux becomes independent of the load current and rectangular in shape.

Torque Equation of DC Motor

Torque equation of DC Motor gives the amount and nature of electrical torque Te developed whenever it is
taken into service. Basically the performance of DC machine centers around two equations. One is EMF
equation and another is Torque Equation. Therefore, understanding of torque equation is a must for
performance analysis. These equations equally apply for both i.e. generator and motor operation mode of DC
machine. In generator mode of operation, this torque opposes the prime mover torque to convert the
mechanical energy into electrical energy. But, in motor operation mode, electrical torque is utilized to drive the
load coupled to motor shaft.
Torque in DC Motor depends upon the constructional as well as operational parameters. Constructional
parameters include number of poles P, number of conductors Z and number of parallel paths ‘a’ in armature.
Operational parameters include armature current Ia and field excitation.
Torque produced in a DC Motor is given as
Te = KaØIa …….(1)
Where Ø = Total flux per pole
Ia = Armature current, and
Ka = (PZ/2πa).
Since Ka depends upon the constructional design of DC Motor or generator, it is known as armature constant.
Here P is number of poles, Z is total number of armature conductor and ‘a’ is the number of parallel paths in
armature.
Equation (1) is the torque equation for DC machine. This equation is applicable for both DC Motor and
Generator.
Derivation of Torque Equation of DC Motor
As we know that, a current carrying conductor experiences a force when kept in external magnetic field. This
force is given as
F = iLB ……..(2)
where i is the current flowing in the conductor, L is length of conductor and B is the magnetic flux density. We
will apply this concept to derive the torque equation of DC machine. But before we go to derive, there are
some important points which must be known:
In DC machine, rotor carries the armature winding and field winding is mounted on stator. Thus rotor
conductors are in the magnetic field produced by stator field winding.

Unidirectional torque is produced in DC machine. This is

because, as we go from one pole to another pole, the
direction of conductor current reverses. What does this
exactly mean? This means when the direction of magnetic
field changes (as we move from North to South Pole) the
current direction also changes resulting in unidirectional
torque.
Let us now move forward to derive the torque equation using
(2). Since Ø is the total flux per pole and P is the total
number of poles, therefore total air gap flux (Øt) will be
Øt = PØ
If D and L are the rotor diameter and the length of the
machine in meters, then
Cross Sectional area of machine = πDL
Therefore,
Magnetic Flux Density B = Total Flux / Area
= (PØ / πDL) Wb/m2
Again, total armature current is Ia and number of parallel path is ‘a’, therefore current in each conductor
= (Ia / a)
Now, from equation (2),
Force on each conductor, F = (Ia / a) (PØ / πDL) (L)
= (IaPØ / πaD)
This force F is causes the rotor to rotate around its axis. The perpendicular distance of this force F from the
rotor axis is (D/2). Therefore the torque produced by this force for a single conductor is given as below.
Torque on single conductor = FD/2
= (IaPØ / 2πa)
As there are total Z conductors, the total torque is the sum of torques acting on all the Z conductors.
Total Torque Te = Zx(IaPØ / 2πa)
= (ZP / 2πa)Ø Ia
Assuming Ka = (ZP / 2πa) = constant for a given machine
Torque equation of DC Motor, Te = KaØIa
⇒Te α ØIa
Torque Slip Characteristics of Induction Machine
Torque Slip Characteristics is the graphical relationship between the torque and slip of an Induction Machine.
This characteristic is very useful for the stability analysis of the machine.
Electromagnetic torque in an Induction Machine is given as
Te = [Kx(r2/s)] / [(Re + r2/s)2 + X2] …………………(1)
Where K = Constant
From the above equation, the variation of electromagnetic torque can be plotted for different values of slip
while assuming that the motor is connected to a constant frequency voltage source. This plot so obtained, also
called Torque Slip Characteristics, is shown in figure below.

From the above, torque slip

characteristics, it can be said that, there
are three regions of operation of
induction machine i.e. when s <0 , s>1
and 0<s<1. We will consider each of
the regions in the following discussion.

Case1: 0<s<1 i.e. Motoring Mode

As the slip is less than 1, this means
that the speed of rotor is less than
synchronous speed and the rotor is
rotating in the direction of rotating magnetic field. Also, electromagnetic torque for this region of operation of
induction motor is positive as clear from the characteristics and equation (1). This means that, this region of
operation, is the normal operation of machine and that too, as Induction Motor.
It must be noted that, when s = 0, electromagnetic torque is zero just because the machine rotor is rotating at
the synchronous speed in the direction of rotating magnetic flux, hence the relative speed between them is zero
which causes no emf to be developed in the rotor and hence no torque is produced.
Also, note that, at the starting i.e. s = 1, there exists some finite torque, this finite torque corresponds to the no
load torque requirement of the machine due to inertia of rotor and windage, friction and bearing losses.
Thus for motoring mode, the torque slip characteristics will be like

Therefore, if someone asks

you to draw the torque slip
characteristics of Induction
Motor then you should only
draw the portion marked in
the figure above.

Case2: s<0 i.e. Generating

Mode
As the name suggest, the
machine should be producing
electrical power. But
electrical energy can only be
produced if we supply input
mechanical energy, this means in Generating mode, we must be using prime mover to rotate the rotor and
stator is connected to constant frequency voltage source. Now if the rotor is rotated at a speed more than the
synchronous speed, the slip will be negative and as per equation (1), electromagnetic torque will be negative
which means that electromagnetic torque is opposing the prime mover torque. This opposition is necessary for
the conversion of mechanical energy to electrical energy.
It shall be noted that, even though rotor is rotated a super synchronous speed but stator is not connected to
constant voltage source then there will not be any generation action.

Case3: s>1 i.e. Braking Mode

Slip more than 1 means the rotor is revolving opposite to the direction of rotating magnetic field; this means
the electromagnetic torque will act in a direction opposite to the direction of rotation of rotor.
But how can we achieve s>1?
Well, we can use prime mover and can rotate the rotor in a direction opposite to the rotating magnetic field.
But this method is rarely used. Rather the practical application of s>1 is exploited in quick stopping to
induction motor by just changing any of the two phase leads.
Suppose the rotor of induction motor is revolving in clockwise direction which means magnetic flux is also
rotating in clockwise direction. Meanwhile we change any two phase leads. Changing the phase leads will
cause change in direction of rotation of magnetic field i.e. anticlockwise direction. This change in direction of
magnetic flux will cause electromagnetic torque to reverse its direction but due to inertia the rotor will
continue to rotate in clockwise direction. Thus, electromagnetic torque is anticlockwise and rotor is rotating in
clockwise direction. Therefore rotor will rotate in deceleration and will soon come to a stop. But as soon as the
motor come to a stop, the stator must be disconnected from supply else the rotor will start rotating in
anticlockwise direction. This method of Braking is known as Plugging. The Braking region in torque slip
characteristics is marked in the figure below.
What happens if AC Supply is given as Field Excitation to Synchronous Machine?
As we know that, the configuration of Armature and Field Winding is reverse in Synchronous Machine
compared to DC machine i.e. Armature is on stator and field winding is on rotor unlike DC machine where it is
opposite. In alternator the rotor part constitutes field winding so if we give DC supply to field winding
constant field is developed and we make the rotor rotate so that flux will be rotated and it cuts the conductors
in stator and emf is induced in the armature winding.

Now, we what will happen if we give AC Supply to the Field Winding of a Synchronous Machine.

Effect on Synchronous Motor:

Suppose, we are supplying AC to the Field Winding of a Synchronous Motor. In a Synchronous Motor, a
rotating magnetic field is produced in stator by giving 3 phase AC supply. Now as per working principle of
Synchronous Motor, rotor must have a magnetic locking with stator field. For this purpose we need permanent
magnetic poles in rotor so that rotor pole will form magnetic locking with nearest opposite pole of rotating
stator field and rotates with stator field at synchronous speed.
If AC excitation is given then alternate North and South Pole is
created on rotor field the rotor move half cycle clockwise and half
cycle anti clockwise and finally stops to rotate. Thus we see that
the Synchronous Motor will stop rotating.
Effect on Synchronous Generator:
Suppose that an Alternator is running at Synchronous speed by
prime mover and its Field Winding is supplied by AC source. As
the Field Winding is excited by AC source, an alternating /
pulsating magnetic flux will be produced.
Now using Double Field Revolving Theory, this magnetic flux
produced by Field winding can be resolved into two components-
one revolving in the forward direction at Synchronous Speed
(w) and another revolving in backward direction with synchronous
speed -w.
So, Relative speed of backward rotating field w.r.t Stator = 0 as the rotor speed = w = Synchronous speed
Therefore,
The armature conductor at Stator will not see any change in flux due to backward rotating field flux and hence
no EMF will be generated in the Armature Terminal of Alternator.
Now, the Relative speed of forward rotating field flux w.r.t Stator = 2w
As the relative speed of field flux is double, therefore the EMF generated in the Armature Terminal will be at a
frequency of 2f. Also, because of higher frequency i.e. 2f of generated emf, the core losses will increase and
Alternator / Synchronous Generator efficiency will decrease.

Armature Reaction in Alternator or Synchronous Machine

Armature winding in an electrical machine is the winding which carries the load current. Under no-load
condition, the armature current is zero. But as the machine is loaded, load current flows through the armature
winding and creates magnetic flux. The effect of armature winding mmf or flux on the main working flux
created by field poles is called the armature reaction. This article outlines the armature reaction in synchronous
machine or alternator.
To better understand the armature reaction in synchronous machine, it is essential to first understand the
internal happening. For this purpose the alternator operation is considered under different operating power
factor and loads as follows:
No-load Operation
1. Unity power factor (pf) load
2. Zero power factor lagging load
 3. Zero power factor leading load
4. Lagging power factor load
Let us now investigate the effect of armature reaction for the above mentioned cases one by one.
No-load Operation:
As mentioned earlier, the current through the armature winding of alternator is zero for no-load operation;
therefore there will not be any armature reaction. When the field winding is excited by a DC source and the
alternator / generator is brought up to synchronous speed by adjusting the speed of prime-mover, no load
voltage or excitation voltage is generated across the
alternator armature terminals. The value of no-load
or excitation armature terminal voltage is given as
Ef = √2πfNphKwØf
Where Ef, Nph, Kw and Øf are excitation voltage,
number of series turns per phase, winding factor
and filed flux respectively.
This generated excitation voltage across the
armature terminal lags behind the field flux Øf by
90 degree. In general, the emf generated by the
filed flux always lags behind the field flux by 90
degree in any machine.
Unity Power Factor Load:
In order to understand the effect of armature
mmf on the field mmf wave, let us consider a two
pole cylindrical rotor alternator as shown in figure
below.
In the above figure, concentrated full pitched coils aa’,bb’ and cc’ on stator represents the three phase winding
a, b & c. The filed winding on rotor is fed by DC source for setting up working or main filed mmf. Field
current indicated by cross and dot in the field winding on rotor, creates field mmf Ff and field flux Øf which
are sinusoidally distributed along the air-gap periphery. This filed flux creates North (N) and South (S) pole
on the rotor.
As we know that emf induced in a coil is maximum when its coil sides are lying under maximum flux position.
In view of this, maximum emf will be generated in coil aa’ as its coil sides a and a’ are lying under peak flux
density. This generated emf is shown by dot and cross at a & a’ respectively assuming anti-clockwise rotation
of rotor. Since coil sides b’ and c’ are also under the influence of N pole, emf induced in these coil are
represented by a dot. However their magnitude will be less than the maximum value. This emf generated by
Øf alone is called the excitation voltage.
Now, when this alternator is connected to a balanced 3
phase load, a balanced three phase current starts flowing in
the three phases of alternator. As the load is of unity power
factor, this means that excitation voltage Ef and armature
current Ia will be in phase. This can also be interpreted in
another way like excitation voltage and armature current
attain their peak simultaneously. Since excitation voltage is
maximum in phase “a”, this means armature current phase
a will also be maximum. Though load current also flows in
remaining two phases “b” and “c” but their magnitude is
less than the maximum for this instant of time. The mmf
set up by the armature current is called the armature
reaction mmf. As we know that for balanced polyphase
currents flowing in the polyphase winding, the peak value
of resultant mmf wave is along that phase axis which
carries the maximum current. Therefore, the resultant
armature reaction mmf Fa due to the combined effect 3-phase mmfs is set up along the phase “a” because this
phase carries the maximum current. This is shown in figure below.

This armature reaction mmf wave produces North (N) and South (S) pole on the stator as shown in above
figure. The interaction between these poles on stator and rotor causes the production of electromagnetic torque.
For aa alternator, the prime-mover torque must counteracts this electromagnetic torque for conversion of
mechanical energy into electrical energy.
 Now, if we combine the space phasor of field mmf and
armature mmf wave, then it can easily be seen that the
armature reaction mmf lags behind the filed mmf by 90
degree. This is shown in figure below.

The resultant air gap mmf will be the resultant of filed mmf
and armature reaction mmf. This means,
Fr = Ff + Fa
If we neglect the saturation, then the field flux Øf and
armature flux Øa will be along their respective mmf wave.
This is shown in the figure. Thus we can say that, armature
reaction flux lags behind the field flux by 90 degree.
Therefore, armature reaction mmf at unity power factor is
entirely cross-magnetizing in nature.

Zero Power Factor Lagging Load:

Zero power factor lagging load means that the load current is lagging behind the excitation voltage by 90
degree. This is shown in figure below.
The above phasor diagram has been drawn using the
following facts:
The excitation emf lags the field mmf by 90 degree.
As saturation is neglected, the filed flux will be along the
field mmf.
Armature reaction mmf is along the armature current.
From the above phasor diagram, it is clear that armature
reaction mmf Fa is in opposition of field mmf Øf. This
means that the resultant air-gap mmf will be equal to
(Ff – Fa). Thus under zero power factor lagging loading
condition of alternator, the effect of armature reaction
mmf is purely demagnetizing.
This can also be understood in another way as described
below.
Due to zero power factor lagging load, the current in
phase “a” of armature winding will become maximum
when the field poles have advanced by 90 degree in
assumed counter-clockwise direction. This is shown in
figure below.

Carefully observe the above figure. It can be seen that, in

this case the direction of armature reaction mmf Fa will
be along the phase “a” axis and that of and filed mmf
Øf will be vertically downward. This direction can be
found by using right hand screw rule. Thus we see that,
both the armature reaction and filed mmf are opposing
each other. Hence, the effect of armature reaction mmf is
purely demagnetizing in zero pf lagging load condition.

Zero Power Factor Leading Load:

The condition of zero pf leading load may be depicted by phasor
diagram in the same way that for zero pf lagging load. This is
shown below.

From the above phasor, it is clear that armature reaction mmf is

in the direction of field mmf. Thus the effect of armature
reaction mmf under zero power factor leading loads is purely
magnetizing.
The above conclusion can also be drawn by analyzing the space
phasor of the alternator. Zero pf leading means that the current
in phase “a” of armature winding will be zero when the field poles are behind the axis of phase “a“ winding by
90 degree as shown in figure below.

Therefore, the direction of field mmf and armature mmf will be

same. Hence armature reaction mmf is magnetizing in nature.

Lagging Power Factor Load:

Lagging power factor loads are more common. So let us consider a
general case of armature current Ia lagging the excitation voltage
Ef by angle Ɵ. This means that the load power factor is cosθ.
For a lagging pf load having pf angle θ, the current in coil a and a’
will be maximum when the field poles have advance by θ degree in
space. In other words, by the time armature current in coil a, a’
attains maximum value with the same polarity i.e. dot in coil side
“a”, the rotor poles N, S would have moved forward by θ degree as
shown in figure below.

The resultant of rotating armature mmf Fa is directed vertically upward along the axis of phase “a”, because
this phase carries the maximum current at the instant considered. Thus the armature reaction mmf Fa is lagging
behind the filed mmf Øf by (90+θ) degree. Let us now draw the
phasor diagram.

The armature reaction mmf can be resolved into two

components: One along the excitation voltage Ef (FaCosθ) and
another opposite to the field mmf Ff (FaSinθ). Thus we can say
that, the effect of armature reaction in lagging pf load is cross-
magnetizing as well as demagnetizing in nature.
Thus to summarize, the effect of armature reaction mmf on
main filed mmf of alternator is tabulated below.

Sr. No. Loading Condition Effect of Armature Reaction

1) No Load No effect

2) Unity Power Factor Cross-magnetizing

3) Zero Power Factor Lagging Purely demagnetizing

4) Zero Power Factor Leading Purely magnetizing

5) Lagging Load Cross-magnetizing and demagnetizing

Brushless Excitation System
May 1, 2016 by admin
Brushless Excitation System is a technology for providing the field current to the Synchronous Generator
without using Slip Ring and Carbon Brushes. As this method of Excitation i.e. Brushless Excitation System do
not use Carbon Brushes, therefore the losses because of contact resistance of carbon brushes is eliminated.
Also, in case of initial start up of Generator we don’t need to supply external power source to Brushless
Exciter as is the case in Static Excitation System. Because in Static Excitation System the power for filed
excitation is taken from the output of the Generator terminal through CT and PT. But in Brushless Excitation
System we don’t need any start up power supply for field excitation (Why? Ask yourself after going through
the whole post. I am sure you will be able to Answer.)
Brushless Excitation System consists of two major parts: Pilot Exciter and Main Exciter.
Pilot Exciter:
Pilot Exciter is Permanent Magnet, also called PMG (Permanent Magnet Generator) mounted on the rotor
shaft. Armature winding of PMG is a stationary part which is mounted on Stator. Thus when rotor rotates, the
filed flux created by Permanent magnet will also rotate and as Armature is stationary, there will be flux linkage
in the Armature winding of PMG and an EMF will be induced across the terminals of Armature of Pilot
Exciter. This Armature thus produces three phase AC power by using the mechanical energy of Rotor. This
AC power from Pilot Exciter is then rectified by Thyristor Bridge. This DC is then feed to the field winding of
Main Exciter which is wounded on Stator of main Exciter. Note that Permanent Magnet of Pilot Exciter is
mounted on Rotor, Armature of PMG is stationary as it is wounded on Stator and Field winding of Main
Exciter is stationary as it is also wounded to Stator of Main Exciter. Normally PMG has 16 poles, so the AC
produced by PMG will be at a frequency of 400 Hz (f = PN/120, N =3000 rpm). Why?

Because of high frequency the ripple content in the rectified DC will be low. That is why PMG produces AC
power at this higher frequency. Armature of PMG is shown in figure below.

Schematic diagram of Brushless Excitation System is shown in figure below.

Main Exciter:
Main Exciter of Brushless Excitation System consists of Stator and Rotor part. Rotor of Main Exciter is
coupled with the Rotor of Turbo Generator on which armature winding is wound. On Stator, filed winding is
wound. Normally there are six poles on the field, so it will produce AC power at a frequency of 150 Hz. This
AC power is then converted to DC by Diode Bridge. Diode Bridge is mounted on two wheels which in turn is
mounted on the Rotor shaft. This wheel is called Diode Wheel. Both diode wheels are connected to complete a
bridge rectifier arm. Figure of whole Brushless Excitation System is shown below.

For each arm of Diode, two fuses are connected as shown in the Schematic diagram of the Brushless
Excitation System.
The above picture shows the whole Brushless Excitation System. Note that Brushless Exciter is manufactured
and supplied separately. Then Turbo Generator and Brushless Exciter rotor is coupled at the Site. Form the
figure, wire is wound on the PMG, actually it is wound for making the material permanent magnet by field
flashing. Field flashing is done by applying 20,000-24,000 AT for fraction of second. Two poles, North and
South pole is created on the PMG filed by field flashing. Moving a bit left from PMG, you can see a Fan and
this is provided for cooling purpose. Brushless Exciter is normally air cooled. Thus this Fan forces the air to
pass through the Air Guide (see in figure) and main Exciter Armature for cooling. Also from the figure, you
can see small windows on Armature of Main Exciter, it is provided for cooling.

Now the question arises how to control the field current of Turbo Generator?
See the schematic diagram of Brushless Excitation System. Thyristor Power Regulator controls the DC output
of Thyristor Bridge Rectifier. Thus by Thyristor Power Regulator / Automatic Voltage Regulator we control
the field current to the Main exciter due to which we can control the AC output of Main Exciter and hence the
DC output of Diode Bridge Rectifier which is feed to the Field winding of Turbo Generator Filed winding. By
this way we control the field current input to the field wing of Turbo Generator.
Static Excitation System – Working Principle
Excitation system in a Generator is essential for the production of working magnetic flux in the air gap. It is
usually provided by having filed winding on the rotor in case of Synchronous Generator. Providing field
winding on the rotor possess certain advantages over field winding on the stator (Read Why Armature
Winding on Stator in Synchronous Machine?). It shall be noted at this point that DC current flows in the field
winding to create working magnetic flux. Thus for any excitation system, the main aim shall be to flow DC
current in the field winding. Static Excitation system is one such method.

Principle of Static Excitation System

In Static Excitation System, power for providing field excitation is derived from the Generator output
terminals. A transformer know as Excitation Transformer, is connected to the output terminals of Generator to
step down the voltage to required voltage level usually 415 V AC. As we need DC supply, therefore
Transformer output is connected to a Thyristor Full Bridge Rectifier. Figure below shows simplified block
diagram of Static Excitation System.

The firing angle of Thyristor Full Bridge Rectifier is controlled by a Regulator so that required field excitation
may be provided. Secondary terminal of CT and PT connected to Generator output terminals is fed to
regulator. On the basis of Generator terminal voltage, the regulator adjusts its firing angle. Let’s say, Generator
output voltage has increased beyond its rated voltage of 21 kV (say), in that case, field current must be reduced
to maintain the terminal voltage. Therefore, regulator increases the firing angle so that average value of DC
current may reduce. Similarly, if the Generator terminal voltage goes below its rated value then field current
must be increased. Therefore regulator decreases the firing angle to increase the average value of the field
current.
As in Static Excitation System, excitation is provided by field winding wound on the rotor therefore Slip Rings
and Carbon brushes are used.

How to provided Field Excitation during Startup of Generator?

As in Static Excitation System, field excitation power is derived from the Generator output terminals therefore
it can only work during the normal and steady operation of Generator. Suppose we are going to start a
Generator, in that case it is not possible to have field excitation using static excitation system as there is no
Generator output terminal voltage. In such case, excitation power shall be provided using separate source. As
shown in figure above, this is normally made available using a Battery Bank. As soon as the Generator reaches
its rated speed, its terminal voltage reaches to rated voltage and hence Static Excitation System comes in
picture. Thus as soon as Generator reaches its rated speed, Battery Bank is isolated and excitation power is fed
by Static Excitation System.

Advantages of Static Excitation System

The excitation system with the use of reliable and high power thyristor, is simple in design and provides fast
response characteristics as needed in modern power system.
As there is no separate rotating type exciter, the system is free from friction, windage and commutator
loss occurring in the exciter.
Since excitation energy is directly taken from generator output terminals therefore excitation voltage is directly
proportional to the Generator speed. This improves the overall system performance.
But the due to use of slip ring and carbon brushes, sparking and contact resistance loss take place in this
system of excitation. To eliminate this, Brushless Excitation System is used these days.

Purpose of Interpole in DC Machine

For understanding the role of Interpoles, we need to understand the effect of armature reaction in the DC
Machine. The effect of armature mmf on the main field flux is to distort the main field flux and to reduce the
net main field flux. The figure below, shows the effect of armature mmf on the main field flux.

It is quite clear from the above figure

that the flux at the location of Carbon
Brush i.e. A, B and A are not zero
and therefore an EMF will be
induced in the coils undergoing
commutation and will lead to the
sparking. As we know that for better
commutation, the coils short circuited
by the brushes should have zero EMF
induced in them. As the zero crossing
of field flux is shifted due to armature
reaction, the coils undergoing the
commutation will have a net EMF
induced in them. This induced EMF
in the short circuited coil will delay
the reversal of current in the short
circuited coils and will result into
poor commutation and sparking at the
carbon brushes.
The question arises how to resolve
this issue?
If we see the figure above, we
observe that there is a net shift of
zero crossing of net flux in the air
gap by an angle Ɵ in the direction of
rotation for Generator and opposite to
the direction of rotation for Motor. So
the cheap and easy solution shall be
to shift the Carbon Brush at Zero Crossing of the air gap flux.

Thus carbon Brush need to be shifted by an angle Ɵ from Geometrical Neutral Axis (GNA) in the direction of
rotation for Generator and opposite to the direction of rotation for Motor.

But this method of shifting the Carbon brush has a big disadvantage. What is that?
As the Armature Reaction depends on the current flowing through the armature winding which in turn depends
on the load current. Therefore as the loading of the DC Machine varies the angle Ɵ will also vary and therefore
we need to continuously shift the Carbon Brushes. So we need to find a smart way.

Again, looking back to the figure, if it could be possible to make the resultant or net air gap flux zero at GNA,
then there would not have been any detrimental effect of armature reaction on commutation. Also, the existing
flux at the GNA (at point C) is due to North Pole so we could use a South Pole (opposite of the pole which
produced the imbalance at C) at C so that the net flux at C becomes Zero. Similarly at C’ we can use a North
Pole to make net flux Zero there. Okay, this will work fine but how t change the magnitude field strength of
this newly installed poles at C and C’?

We can use a winding on the newly installed poles at C and C’ and connect that winding in series with
armature winding so that the strength of field due to newly installed poles at C and C’ varies proportionally
will the loading of machine. Yes, this will work fine.
So we can conclude our solution as,

We will use Poles same as that of Main Poles ahead of GNA or Carbon Brush for Generator at the location of
GNA or Carbon Brush and Poles same as Main Pole that of behind the GNA or carbon Brush for Motor at the
location of GNA or Carbon Brush and will use winding on them and connect them in series with the armature
winding as shown in figure below.

The Poles used in our smart solution is called the Interpole.

Interpoles are narrow poles placed at the GNA and fitted to the Yoke and also known as Commutating Poles or
Compoles. For generator, the polarity of Interpoles must be same as that of main Pole ahead of it in the
direction of rotation. For Motor, the polarity of Interpole must be same as that of Main Pole behind it.
So I expect that you understand the purpose of Interpoles as you only designed it. But there is one more
interesting role of Interpole.

Interpole do not only nullify the effect of armature reaction but in addition, produces some extra mmf in the
interpolar zone. This extra mmf in the interpolar zone induces rotational EMF in the short circuited coil
undergoing commutation in such a direction to oppose the reactance voltage in the coil. Thus the resultant the
resultant voltage in the short circuited coil becomes zero and the commutation is spark less.
Generator V-Curve and Power Factor Control
November 5, 2017 by admin
V-curve and power factor control of generator are closely related to each other. V-curve of Generator is
basically a plot of variation of armature current with the change in field current. For a constant power, V-
curve can only be obtained for generator connected to infinite bus / grid. There does not exists any such curve
for an isolated generator.
For synchronous generator with zero armature winding resistance the equation of voltage is given as
Ef = Vt + jIaXs
From the above equation, we can draw phasor relation between the excitation voltage Ef and terminal voltage
Vt as shown in figure below.

From the above phasor, we can have three cases.

Case1: When Excitation voltage is Ef1.
As clear from the phasor, when excitation voltage is Ef1, the Generator is underexcited and load current Ia1 is
leading the Vt = Vb = Infinite bus voltage. Therefore we can say that, an underexcited Generator connected
to infinite bus operates at leading power factor and absorbs the reactive power from the Grid.
Case2: When Excitation voltage is Ef2.
With increase in field current, excitation emf rises. For excitation emf Ef2, load current Ia2 is in phase with the
terminal voltage Vt = Vb = Infinite Bus Voltage. Thus generator is operating at unity power factor and as clear
from the phasor, Generator is normally excited. This means that, Generator will neither absorb nor deliver
reactive power from / to Grid.
Case3: When Excitation voltage is Ef3.
For Ef3 more than Ef2, load current Ia3 lags behind the terminal voltage Vt. In this case, the generator is
overexcited and therefore delivers the reactive power to the Grid / Infinite Bus.
V-Curve of Generator
After having the concept behind the three cases discussed, it is better to plot a curve between field current and
armature current. This curve is popularly known as V-curve of Generator connected to infinite bus.
“V-curve of Generator is a plot of variation of armature current with the change in field current. “ This
curve for generator connected to infinite bus is show below.
Difference in behaviors of Isolated Generator from that Connected to Grid
The difference between the behaviors of isolated generator to that that of generator connected to an infinite bus
can be summarized as below.
Speed
When speed of an isolated generator is increased, its excitation voltage and terminal voltage both increases as
Ef = 1.414πfNphØ. Its output frequency f = PN/120 also increases and therefore its synchronous reactance
increases.
But the speed of generator connected to the infinite bus or grid cannot be altered as its operating frequency and
therefore speed is governed by the frequency of Grid or infinite bus. Further the terminal voltage is fixed by
the grid voltage.

Field Excitation
Increasing field current for isolated generator, increases the excitation voltage and therefore the terminal
voltage. Thus the operating power factor is not dependent on the excitation rather it only depend on the nature
of load conned to the generator.
But for generator synchronized with grid, increasing excitation will change the operating power factor of
generator from leading to lagging as clear from the V-curve.

Prime Mover Input

Increasing the Prime Mover input increases the speed of an isolated generator. Due to increased speed, the
excitation emf and hence terminal voltage rises. Therefore power output P = EfVtSinδ / Xs increases.
But for Generator connected to grid, increase in prime move input do not alter the speed of generator and
hence excitation emf & terminal voltage. Rather active power delivered to the grid rises as the load angle
increases due to shift away Ef from the grid voltage Vt = Vb.

Detrimental Effects of Armature Reaction

As discussed in earlier post, Purpose of Interpole in DC Machine, there are two types of effect of armature
mmf on the main field flux:
1) Distortion in Main Field Flux
2) Net reduction of Main Field Flux
Due to the above two effects of armature mmf, there are many detrimental effects on the Electrical machine.
Distortion of Main Field Flux gives rise to three detrimental effects: Rise in Iron Loss, Poor Commutation and
Sparking in Carbon Brushes.
Net reduction in Main Field Flux leads to increased cost of field winding as we need more field winding to
have a fixed value of field flux.
Now we will discuss each of the bad effects of armature reaction briefly but in systematic way as follow:
Rise in Iron Loss: Iron loss basically depends on the maximum value of flux density in the teeth and in pole
shoes. Because of armature reaction the value of flux density increases considerably over its value at no load.
As a result, Iron Loss specially at teeth and pole shoes are much more greater at load when compared to no
load values. Also, because of increase of magnetic flux density in the teeth and pole shoes cause it to saturate
which in turn results into the stray flux at end plates and covers. This leads to more eddy current and hysteresis
loss. Iron loss at full is nearly about 1.5 times that of its value at no load.
Poor Commutation: At no load, zero crossing of flux density wave is along GNA but under loading condition
of DC Machine the zero crossing of flux density wave shifts by an angle of Ɵ from GNA. This shift Ɵ depends
on the magnitude of load current i.e. armature current. The greater the armature current more will be shift and
hence more will be the value of Ɵ.

Why Carbon Brushes Placed along MNA in a DC Generator?

As we know that, better commutation takes place if the voltage across the terminals of coil short circuited by
brushes is zero. Because of this, normally brushes are placed along GNA as along GNA the flux density is zero
and hence no emf will be generated across the ends of the coil. But because of armature reaction thing no
longer work.

This is because, due to armature reaction the zero crossing of flux density wave shifts by some angle Ɵ and
therefore the coil undergoing the commutation do not have zero emf induced across the terminals rather it has
some finite value. This induced emf in the coil undergoing commutation results into delay in reversal of
armature current in the coil short circuited by the carbon brushes which in turn may lead into sparking at
carbon brushes and poor commutation.
Sparking: Let us suppose that, the machine is heavily loaded. In this case the load current i.e. armature current
will be much more. Under such condition, the distortion in main field flux waveform will be considerable and
a greater amount of emf proportional to BvL will be induced across the coil ends undergoing the commutation.

If the voltage between the adjacent commutator

segment exceeds 30 or 40 V, a spark may occur
between these adjacent segments. This spark may
spread around the commutator in the form of fire
ring.
Cost of Field Winding: Due to the demagnetizing
nature of armature reaction, total flux per pole
reduces from its no load value because of magnetic
saturation. Thus there is a net reduction in the main
field flux which will reduce the generated voltage
across the terminal of generator with increase in load.
Likewise, the torque developed in motor, reduces as
the load increases due to reduction in main field flux
because of armature reaction. In order to compensate
for this reduction in total flux, field mmf may be
increased either by increasing the number of turns in filed winding or by using thick wire of field winding.
Either of these scheme results into increased cost.