RELAY

Definition: The relay is the device that opens or closes the contacts to cause the operation of the other
electric control. It detects the intolerable or undesirable condition with an assigned area and gives the
commands to the circuit breaker to disconnect the affected area. Thus protects the system from
damage.
Working Principle of Relay
It works on the principle of an
electromagnetic attraction. When the circuit
of the relay senses the fault current, it
energizes the electromagnetic field which
produces the temporary magnetic field.

This magnetic field moves the relay armature

for opening or closing the connections. The
small power relay has only one contact, and
the high power relay has two contacts for
opening the switch.
The inner section of the relay is shown in the
figure below. It has an iron core which is
wound by a control coil. The power supply is
given to the coil through the contacts of the
load and the control switch. The current flows through the coil produce the magnetic field around it.
Due to this magnetic field, the upper arm of the magnet attracts the lower arm. Hence close the circuit,
which makes the current flow through the load. If the contact is already closed, then it moves
oppositely and hence open the contacts.

Pole and Throw

The pole and throws are the configurations of the relay, where the pole is the switch, and the throw is
the number of connections. The single pole, the single throw is the simplest type of relay which has
only one switch and only one possible connection. Similarly, the single pole double throw relay has a
one switch and two possible connections.
Construction of Relay
The relay operates both electrically and mechanically. It consists electromagnetic and sets of contacts
which perform the operation of the switching. The construction of relay is mainly classified into four
groups. They are the contacts, bearings, electromechanical design, terminations and housing.
Contacts – The contacts are the most important part of the relay that affects the reliability. The good
contact gives limited contact resistance and reduced contact wear. The selection of the contact
material depends upon the several factors like nature of the current to be interrupted, the magnitude of
the current to be interrupted, frequency and voltage of operation.
Bearing – The bearing may be a single ball, multi-ball, pivot-ball and jewel bearing. The single ball
bearing is used for high sensitivity and low friction. The multi-ball bearing provides low friction and
greater resistance to shock.
Electromechanical design – The electromechanical design includes the design of the magnetic
circuit and the mechanical attachment of core, yoke and armature. The reluctance of the magnetic path
is kept minimum for making the circuit more efficient. The electromagnet is made up of soft iron, and
the coil current is usually restricted to 5A and the coil voltage to 220V.
Terminations and Housing – The assembly of an armature with the magnet and the base is made
with the help of spring. The spring is insulated from the armature by moulded blocks which provide
dimensional stability. The fixed contacts are usually spot welded on the terminal link.
Electromagnetic Relay
Definition: Electromagnetic relays are those relay which operates on the principle of electromagnetic
attraction. It is a type of a magnetic switch which uses the magnet for creating a magnetic field. The
magnetic field then uses for opening and closing the switch and for performing the mechanical
operation.
Types of an Electromagnetic Relay
By their working principle, the electromagnetic relay is mainly classified into two types. These are
a) Electromagnetic Attraction Relay
b) Electromagnetic Induction Relay
1. Electromagnetic Attraction Relay
In this relay, the armature is attracted to the pole of a magnet. The electromagnetic force exerted on
the moving element is proportional to the square of the current flow through the coil. This relay
responds to both the alternating and direct current.
For AC quantity the electromagnetic force developed is given as

The above equation shows that the electromagnetic relay consists two components, one constant
independent of time and another dependent upon time and pulsating at double supply frequency. This
double supply frequency produces noise and hence damage the relay contacts.
The difficulty of a double frequency supply is overcome by splitting the flux developing in the
electromagnetic relay. These fluxes were acting simultaneously but differ in time phase. Thus the
resulting deflecting force is always positive and constant. The splitting of fluxes is achieved by using
the electromagnet having a phase shifting networks or by putting shading rings on the poles of an
electromagnet.
The electromagnetic attraction relay is the simplest type of relay which includes a plunger (or
solenoid), hinged armature, rotating armature (or balanced) and moving iron polarized relay. All these
relays are shown below.
a. Balanced Beam Relay – In such type of relay two quantities are compared because the
electromagnetic force developed
varies as the square of the ampere-
turn. The ratio of an operating current
for such relay is low. If the relay is set
for fast operation, then it will tend to
overreach on a fast operation.
b. Hinged armature relay – The
sensitivity of the relay can be
increased for DC operation by adding
the permanent magnet. This relay is
also known as the polarised moving
relay.

2. Electromagnetic Induction Relay

The electromagnetic relay operates on the principle of
a split-phase induction motor. The initial force is
developed on the moving element that may be disc or
another form of the rotor of the non-magnetic moving
element. The force is developed by the interaction of
electromagnetic fluxes with eddy current that is induced in
the rotor by these fluxes.
The different type of structure has been used for obtaining
the phase difference in the fluxes. These structures are
 Shaded pole structure
 Watt-hour meter or double winding structure
 Induction cup structure.

a. Shaded pole structure

This coil is usually energised by current flowing in the single coil wound on a magnetic structure
containing an air gap. The air-gap fluxes produce by the initializing current is split into two flux
displace in time-space and by a shaded ring. The shaded ring is made up of the copper ring that
encircles the part of the pole face of each pole.
The disc is made up of
aluminium. The inertia of the
aluminium disc is very less..
Hence they need less deflecting
torque for its movement. The two
rings have the current induced in
them by the alternating flux of the
electromagnetic. The magnetic
field develops from the current produces the flux in the portion of the iron ring surrounded by the ring
to lag in phase by 40° to 50° behind the flux in the unshaded portion of the pole.

b. Watt-hour Meter Structure

This structure consists E shape electromagnet and a U shape electromagnet with a disc-free to rotate
in between them. The phase displacement between the fluxes produced by the electromagnet is
obtained by the flux generated by the two magnets having different resistance and inductance for the
two circuits.
The E-shaped electromagnet carries the two
windings the primary and the secondary. The
primary current was carrying the relay current
I1 while the secondary winding is connected to
the windings of the U-shaped electromagnet.
The primary winding carries relay current
I1 while the secondary current induces the emf in
the secondary and so circulate the current I2 in it.
The flux φ1 induces in the E shed magnet, and
the flux φ induces in the U-shaped magnet.
These fluxes induced in the upper and lower
magnetic differs in phase by angle θ which will
develop a driving torque on the disc proportional
to φ1φ sinθ.
The most important feature of the relay is that
opening can control their operation or close the
secondary winding circuit. If the secondary
winding is opened, then no torque will be developed, and thus relay can be made inoperative.

c. Induction Cup Relay

The relay which works on the principle of electromagnetic induction is known as the induction cup
relay. The relay has two or more electromagnet which is energized by the relay coil. The static iron
core is placed between the electromagnet as shown in the
figure below.
The coil which is wound on the electromagnet generates the
rotating magnetic field. Because of the rotating magnetic
field, the current induces inside the cup. Thus, the cup starts
rotating. The direction of rotation of the cup is same as that
of the current.
The more torque is produced in the induction cup relay as
compared to the shaded and watt meter type relay. The relay
is fast in operation and their operating time is very less
approximately 0.01 sec.

Static Relay
Definition: The relay which does not contain any moving parts is known as the static relay. In such
type of relays, the output is obtained by the static components like magnetic and electronic circuit etc.
The relay which consists static and electromagnetic relay is also called static relay because the static
units obtain the response
and the electromagnetic
relay is only used for
switching operation.
The component of the static
relay is shown in the figure
below. The input of the
current transformer is
connected to the
transmission line, and their
output is given to the rectifier. The rectifier was rectifying the input signal and pass it to the relaying
measuring unit.
The rectifying measuring unit has the comparators, level detector and the logic circuit. The output
signal from relaying unit obtains only when the signal reaches the threshold value. The output of the
relaying measuring unit acts as an input to the amplifier.
The amplifier amplifies the signal and gives the output to the output devices. The output device
activates the trip coil only when the relay operates. The output is obtained from the output devices
only when the measurand has the well-defined value. The output device is activated and gives the
tripping command to the trip circuit.
The static relay only gives the response to the electrical signal. The other physical quantities like heat
temperature etc. is first converted into the analogue and digital electrical signal and then act as an
input for the relay.
Advantages of Static Relay
The following are the benefits of static relays.
The static relay consumes very less power because of which the burden on the measuring instruments
decreases and their accuracy increases.
The static relay gives the quick response, long life, high reliability and accuracy and it is shockproof.
The reset time of the relay is very less.
It does not have any thermal storage problems.
The relay amplifies the input signal which increases their sensitivity.
The chance of unwanted tripping is less in this relay.
The static relay can easily operate in earthquake-prone areas because they have high resistance to
shock.
Limitations of Static Relay
The components used by the static relay are very sensitive to the electrostatic discharges. The
electrostatic discharges mean sudden flows of electrons between the charged objects. Thus special
maintenance is provided to the components so that it does not affect by the electrostatic discharges.
The relay is easily affected by the high voltage surges. Thus, precaution should be taken for avoiding
the damages through voltage spikes.
The working of the relay depends on the electrical components.
The relay has less overloading capacity.
The static relay is more costly as compared to the electromagnetic relay.
The construction of the relay is easily affected by the surrounding interference.
For integrated protection and monitoring systems programmable microprocessor controlled static
relays are preferred.

Thermal Relay
The thermal relay works on the principle of the thermal effect of electrical energy. The bimetallic
strips, heating coils and the current transformers
are the important parts of the thermal relay.
The current transformer supplies the current to the
coils of the heater. The thermal energy of the
heater coils heated the bimetallic strips. The
bimetallic strips are made of the alloy of nickel
and steel. The alloy of the nickel and steel has
high steel resistivity, and also they are free from
thermal ageing.
The insulated liver arm is connected to the trip
coil along with the spring and the bimetallic strips.
The tension of the spring is varied by the help of
the sector-shaped plate.
When the system is in normal operating condition,
the spring remains straight. When the fault occurs
on the system, the bimetallic spring is heated and getting bent. The tension of the spring becomes
releases which trip the relay contacts. The contact of the relay energizes the trip circuit because of
which the contacts of the circuit breaker close. Thus, the system remains safe.
The thermal relay is mainly used in the low voltage Squirrel Cage induction motor and in low output
rating DC motor. The thermal relay has low overloading capability. It is designed to operate under 6
to 7 times more than the full load current.
Such type of relay is not used under short-circuit condition. The short circuit current increases the
temperature of the bimetallic strips due to which the contacts of the relay close. The thermal relay is
used with the short circuit relay or with the time limit fuse.

Electronic Relay
Definition: The electronic relay is a type of an electronic switch that opens or close the circuit
contacts by using electronic component without any mechanical operation. In this relay, the current
carrier pilot relaying scheme is used for the protection of the transmission line.
In such type of relay, the electronic valves are used as a measuring unit. The two basic arrangements
of electronic relays are shown below. One uses an amplitude comparator, and the other makes use of a
phase comparator.
The figure of the amplitude comparator electronic relay is shown in the figure below. The relay has
two input ac quantities which are compared and rectified by the help of rectifier bridge circuit. The ac
quantity is applied to the control grid of the bridge circuit. The relay placed in series with the bridge
circuit start operating when any one of the
input quantities exceeds to the other.
In electronic phase comparator relay one of
the ac quantity is given to the control grid of
the electronic tube, and the other is directly
connected to the screen of the tube. The relay
starts operating when both the ac quantities
are in phase with each other.

Advantages of Electronic Relay

The electronic relay has several advantages likes
They require low maintenance.
The relay has fast response time.
They decrease the burden on the instrument
transformer.
Disadvantages of Electronic Relay
The high tension supply is required for their
operation.
The power consumption in the electronic relay is very
high.
The relay has the short lifespan.
The electronic relay is practically not used in the power system

Universal Relay Torque Equation

The universal torque equation explains the working of an electrical relay. The relay has some
arrangement of electromagnetic. These electromagnetic consist current and voltage windings. The
current through the winding produces magnetic flux. And the torque is produced by the interaction of
the flux of the same winding or between the flux of both the windings.

If both the current and voltage windings are used, the torque developed by the interaction between the
fluxes is given by the equation

Where θ is the angle between V and I and the τ is the relay maximum torque angle.
If the relay has current, voltage and the torque angle, the torque will be developed, and it will be given
as
where K1, K2, K3 are the tap setting or constant of V and I. The K 4 is the mechanical restraint due to
spring or gravity.
The operating characteristic of all types of relays is obtained by adding and subtracting all the other
constants and letting others be zero or by adding other similar terms.
For example – In over current relay the K2 = K3= 0 because of the absence of the voltage windings.
The torque equation becomes

The negative sign attributes to K4 because the spring produces restraining torque.
Similarly, for directional relay K1 = K2 = 0 and the developed torque will be given as

Overcurrent Relay
Definition: The overcurrent relay is defined as the relay, which operates only when the value of
the current is greater than the relay setting time. It protects the equipment of the power system
from the fault current.
Depending on the time of operation the overcurrent relay is categorized into following types.
 Instantaneous Overcurrent relay
 Inverse time Overcurrent Relay
 Definite Time Overcurrent Relay
 Inverse Definite Time Overcurrent Relay
 Very Inverse Definite Time Overcurrent Relay
 Extremely Inverse Definite Time Overcurrent Relay

Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay

The relay has no intentional time delay for operation. The contacts of the relay are closed instantly
when the current inside the relay rises beyond the operational value. The time interval between the
instant pick-up value and the closing contacts of the relay is very less.
The most significant advantage of the instantaneous relay is that it has low operating time. It starts
operating instantly when the value of current is more than the relay setting. This relay operates only
when the impedance between the source and the relay is less than that provided in the section.
The most important feature of the relay is their speed of operation. The relay protects the system from
earth fault and also used for protecting the system from circulating current. The instantaneous
overcurrent relay is placed in the outgoing feeder.

Inverse-Time Overcurrent Relay

The relay operates only when the magnitude of their operating current is inversely proportional to the
magnitude of the energize quantities. The operating time of relay decreases with the increases in the
current. The operation of the relay depends on the magnitude of the current
The characteristic curve for the relay is shown in the figure below. The relay will not operate when
the value of current is less than the pick value. The relay is used for the protection of the distribution
lines. The inverse time relay is of three types.

Inverse Definite Minimum Time Relay

The relay whose operating time is approximately
proportional to the fault current is known as the
IDMT relay. The operating time of the relay is
maintained by adjusting the time delay setting. The
IDMT relay uses the electromagnetic core because
it can easily saturate for the current having larger
magnitude than pick up current. The relay is used
for the protection of the distribution line.

Very Inverse Relay

The inverse characteristic of the relay is more than
the IDMT. Such type of relay is used in the feeder
and on long transmission lines. The relay is used in
the places where there the magnitude of the short-
circuit current fall rapidly because of the large distance from the source. It is used for sensing the fault
current which is free from the fault location.
Extremely Inverse Relay
The characteristic time of the relay is extremely large as compared to the IDMT and the Very inverse
relay. This relay is used for protecting the cable, transformer, etc. The relay can operate instantly
when the pickup value of the current is more than the relay setting time. The relay provides faster
operation even under the fault current. It is used for sensing the overheating of the machines.
The inverse time relay is used in the distribution networks and the power plants. The relay gives the
fast operation in the fault conditions because of their fault time characteristic.

Differential Protection Relay

Definition: The relay whose operation depends on the phase difference of two or more electrical
quantities is known as the differential protection relay. It works on the principle of comparison
between the phase angle and the magnitude of the same electrical quantities.
For example: Consider the comparison of the input and output current of the transmission line. If the
magnitude of the input current of the transmission line is more than that of output current that means
the additional current flows through it because of the fault. The difference in the current can operate
the differential protection relay.
The following are the essential condition requires for the working of the differential protection relay.
The network in which the relay use should have two or more similar electrical quantities.
The quantities have the phase displacement of approximately 180º.
The differential protection relay is used for the protection of the generator, transformer, feeder, large
motor, bus-bars etc. The following are the classification of the differential protection relay.
 Current Differential Relay
 Voltage Differential Relay
 Biased or Percentage Differential Relay
 Voltage Balance Differential Relay

Current Differential Relay

A relay which senses and operates the phase difference between the current entering into the
electrical system and the current leaving the electrical system is called a current differential
relay. An arrangement of overcurrent relay connected to operate as a differential relay is shown in the
figure below.
The arrangement of the overcurrent relay is shown in the
figure below. The dotted line shows the section which is
used to be protected. The current transformer is placed at
both the ends of the protection zone. The secondary of the
transformers is connected in series with the help of the
pilot wire. Thereby, the current induces in the CTs flows
in the same direction. The operating coil of the relay is
connected on the secondary of the CTs.

In the
normal
operatin
g condition, the magnitude of current in the
secondary of the CTs remains same. The zero
current flows through the operating coil. On the
occurrence of the fault, the magnitude of the
current on the secondary of CTs becomes unequal
because of which the relay starts operating.
Biased or Percentage Differential Coil
This is the most used form of differential relay.
Their arrangement is same as that of the current
differential relay; the only difference is that this
system consists an additional restraining coil
connected in the pilot wires as shown in the figure
below.
 The operating coil connects in the centre of the restraining coil.
The ratio of current in the current transformer becomes
unbalance because of the fault current. This problem is
resolved by the use of the restraining coil.
Induction Type Biased Differential Relay
This induction type relay consists a disc which freely rotates
between the
electromagnets. The
each of the
electromagnet consists
the copper shading
ring. The ring
can move in or out of
the electromagnet. The disc experiences a force because of
the restraining and the operating element.
The resultant torque on the shaded ring becomes zero if the
position of the ring is balanced for both the element. But if
ring moves towards the iron core then the unequal torques
acting on the ring because of the operating and restraining
coil.

Voltage Balance Differential Relay

The current differential relay is not suitable for the protection of the feeders. For the protection of the
feeders, the voltage balance differential relays are used. The voltage differential relay uses two similar
current transformer places across the protective zone with the help of pilot wire.
The relays are connected in series with the secondary of the current transformer. The relays are
connected in such a way that no current flows through it in the normal operating condition. The
voltage balance differential relay uses the air core CTs in which the voltages induces regarding
current.
When the fault occurs in the protection zone, the
current in the CTs become unbalance because of
which the voltage in the secondary of the CTs
disturbs. The current starts flowing through the
operating coil. Thus, the relay starts operating and
gives the command to the circuit breaker to operates.

Percentage Differential Relay

Definition: The percentage differential relay is
defined as the relay that operates on the
phase difference of two or more similar electrical
quantities. It is the advanced form of differential
protection relay. The only difference between them is
the restraining coil. The percentage differential relay consists restraining coil for overcoming the
trouble arising out of differences in the current ratio for the high value of an external short circuit
current.
The percentage differential system consists of a restraining coil connected in the pilot wire as shown
in the figure below and the current induced in
both the CTs flows through it. The operating coil
places between the midpoint of the restraining
coil.

The restraining coil controls the sensitive

characteristic of the relay. It restricts the
unwanted tripping of the transformer due to the
imbalance current. The restraining coil also
restrains the harmonics in the inrush current.
Working of Percentage Differential Relay
The torque due to the restraining coil prevents the
closing of the trip circuit while the torque due to
the operating coil tends to close the trip circuit contacts. Under normal operating conditions and
through load condition the torque developed by the restraining coil is greater than the operating coil
torque. Thus the relay remains inoperative.
When an internal fault occurs, the operating torque exceeds the restraining torque then the trip circuit
contacts are closed to open the circuit breaker. The restraining torque may adjust by varying the
number of turns of the restraining coil.
The differential current required to utilise this relay is a
variable quantity, due to the effect of the restraining coil.
The differential current in the operating coil is
proportional to (I1-I2), and the restraining coil is
proportional to (I1-I2)/2 as the operating current is
connected to the midpoint of the restraining coil. For
external faults both I1 and I2 increase and thereby the
restraining torque increase, which prevents the
maloperation.

Operating characteristic of the Percentage Differential

Relay
The operating characteristic of the relay is shown in the
figure below. The above graph shows that the ratio of their operating current and restraining current is
fixed percentage. This relay is also called the biased differential relay because the restraining coil is
also called a bias coil as it provides additional flux.

Types of Percentage Differential Relay

The percentage differential relay is mainly classified into
two types. They are the
 Three terminal system application of the
percentage differential relay.
 Induction Type biased Differential Relay.
Such types of relays use for the protection of generators,
transformer, feeders, transmission line, etc.

1. Three Terminal System Application – This relay can

be applied to the element having more than two terminals.
Each of the three terminals has the same number of turns,
and each of these
coils develops a
torque which is
independent of each
other. Their torques are added arithmetically.
The percentage slope characteristic of the relay will change
with the distribution of the current between the restraining
coils. These relays are instantaneous or high speed.

2. Induction Type Biased Differential Relay – This relay

consists pivoted disc, which moves in the air gaps of two
electromagnets. The portion of each pole is fitted with a copper
ring. This ring can further move from, into or out of the pole.
The disc
experien
ce two torques – one due to the operating
element and other due to the restraining
element. If the shading ring were in the same
position of each element, then the restraining
torque experienced by the ring would be zero.
But if the shaded ring of restraining element
was moved further into the iron core, the torque
exerted by the restraining element will exceed
than that of the restraining torque.
Distance Protection Relay
Distance protection relay is the name given to the protection, whose action depends on the distance of
the feeding point to the fault. The time of operation of such protection is a function of the ratio of
voltage and current, i.e., impedance. This impedance between the relay and the fault depends on the
electrical distance between them. The principal type of distance relays is impedance relays, reactance
relays, and the reactance relays.
Distance protection relay principle differs from other forms of protection because their performance
does not depend on the magnitude of the current or voltage in the protective circuit but it depends on
the ratio of these two quantities. It is a double actuating quantity relay with one of their coil is
energized by voltage and the other coil is energized by the current. The current element produces a
positive or pick-up torque while the voltages element has caused a negative and reset torque.
The relay operates only when the ratio of voltage and current falls below a set value. During the fault
the magnitude of current increases and the voltage at the fault point decreases. The ratio of the current
and voltage is measured at the point of the current and potential transformer. The voltage at potential
transformer region depends on the distance between the PT and the fault.
If the fault is nearer, measured voltage is lesser, and if the fault is farther, measured voltage is more.
Hence, assuming constant fault impedance each value of the ratio of voltage and current measured
from relay location comparable to the distance between the relaying point and fault point along the
line. Hence such protection is called the distance protection or impedance protection.
Distance zone is non-unit protection, i.e., the protection zone is not exact. The distance protection is
high-speed protection and is simply to apply. It can be employed as a primary as well as backup
protection. It is very commonly used in the protection of transmission lines.
Distance relays are used for both phase fault and ground fault protection, and they provide higher
speed for clearing the fault. It is also independent of changes in the magnitude of the short circuits,
current and hence they are not much affected by the change in the generation capacity and the system
configuration. Thus, they eliminate long clearing times for the fault near the power sources required
by overcurrent relay if used for the purpose.
Application of Distance Protection Relay
Distance protection relay is widely spread employed for the protection of high-voltage AC
transmission line and distribution lines. They have replaced the overcurrent protection because of the
following reasons.
It provides faster protection as compared to overcurrent relay.
It has a permanent setting without the need for readjustments.
Direct protection relay has less effect of an amount of generation and fault levels.
Their fault current magnitude permits the high line loading.
Distance protection schemes are commonly employed for providing the primary or main protection
and backup protection for AC transmission line and distribution line against three phase faults, phase-
to-phase faults, and phase-to-ground faults.

Impedance Type Distance Relay

Definition: The relay whose working depends on the distance between the impedance of the faulty
section and the position on which relay installed is known as the impedance relay or distance relay. It
is voltage controlled equipment.
The relay measures the impedance of the faulty point, if the impedance is less than the impedance of
the relay setting; it gives the tripping command to the circuit breaker for closing their contacts. The
impedance relay continuously monitors the line current and voltage flows through the CT and PT
respectively. If the ratio of voltage and current is less than the relay starts operating then the relay start
operating.
Principle of Operation of Impedance Relay
In the normal operating condition, the value of the line voltage is more than the current. But when the
fault occurs on the line the magnitude of the current rises and the voltage becomes less. The line
current is inversely proportional to the impedance of the transmission line. Thus, the impedance
decreases because of which the impedance relay starts operating.
The figure below explains the impedance relay in much easier way. The potential transformer supplies
the voltage to the transmission line and the current flows because of the current transformer. The
current transformer is connected in series with the circuit.
Consider the impedance relay is placed on the transmission line for the protection of the line AB. The
Z is the impedance of the line in normal operating condition. If the impedances of the line fall below
the impedance Z then the relay starts working.
Let the fault F1 occur in the line AB. This fault decreases the impedance of the line below the relay
setting impedance. The relay starts operating, and its send the tripping command to the circuit
breaker. If the fault reached beyond the protective zone, the contacts of the relay remain unclosed.
Operating Characteristic of an Impedance Relay
The voltage and the current operating elements are the two important component of the impedance
relay. The current operating element generates the deflecting torque while the voltage storage element
generates the restoring torque. The torque equation of the relay is shown in the figure below

The -K3 is the spring effect of the relay. The V and I are the value of the voltage and current. When
the relay is in normal operating condition, then the net torque of the relay becomes zero.

If the spring control effect becomes neglected, the equation becomes

The operating characteristic concerning the voltage and current is shown in the figure below. The
dashed line in the image represents the
operating condition at the constant line
impedance.

The operating characteristic of the

impedance relay is shown in the figure
below. The positive torque region of
the impedance relay is above the
operating characteristic line. In positive
torque region, the impedance of the line
is more than the impedance of the
faulty section. Similarly, in negative region, the impedance of the faulty section is more than the line
impedance
The impedance of the line is represented by the radius
of the circle. The phase angle between the X and R
axis represents the position of the vector. If the
impedance of the line is less than the radius of the
circle, then it shows the positive torque region. If the
impedance is greater than the negative region, then it
represents the negative torque region.

This type of relay is called the high-speed relay.

Electromagnetic Type Induction Relay
In such type of relay, the torque is induced by
the electromagnetic action on the voltage and
current. This torques is compared. Consider the
circuit of the electromagnetic type induction
relay. The solenoid B is excited by the voltage
supplied of the PT. This voltage develops the
torque in the clockwise direction, and it pulls
the plunger P2 in the downward direction. The
spring connects to the plunger P2 apply the restraining force on it. This spring generates the
mechanical torque in the clockwise direction.
The solenoid A generates the other torque in the clockwise direction and thus moves the plunger
P1 downwards. The solenoid one is excited by the CT of the lines. This torque is called the deflecting
or pick up torque.
When the system is free from fault, the contacts of the relay become open. When the fault occurs in
the protective zone, the current of the system rises because of which the current across the relay also
increases. The more torque developed on the solenoid A. The restoring torque because of the voltage
decreases. The balance arms of the relay start rotating in the opposite direction, thus closed their
contacts.
The pull of the solenoid A, i.e., (current element) is
proportional to I2 and that due to solenoid B (voltage
element) to V2. Consequently, the relay will operate
when

The value of the

constants k1 and
k2 depend on the
ampere-turns of the
two solenoids, and the
ratios of the instrument transformers. By providing tapping on the
coil, the setting of the relay can be changed.
The y-axis shows the operating time of the relay and the X-axis represents their impedances. The
operating time of the relay remains constants. The value of the voltage and current becomes constant
at the predetermined distance and after that their value becomes infinite.

Induction Type Impedance Relay

The circuit diagram of the induction type impedance relay is shown in the figure below. This relay
consists current and voltage element. The relay has an aluminium disc, which is rotating between the
electromagnets.
The upper electromagnet has two separate windings. The primary winding is connected to the
secondary coil of the current transformer. The current setting of the winding is varied by the help of
the plug bridge placed below the relay.

The electromagnetics of the relay connects

in series with each other. The flux induce
between the electromagnets produces the
rotational torque, which rotates the
aluminium disc of the relay. The
permanent magnet provides the controlling
and braking torque.
In normal operating conditions the force
exerted on the armature is more than the

induction element which keeps the trip contacts open.

When the fault occurs in the system, then the aluminium
disc starts rotating, and their rotation is directly
proportional to the current of the electromagnet. The rotation of the disc-wound the spring.
The angle of the rotation of the disc for relay operation depends on the force acting on their armature.
The force acting on the armature is directly proportional to the applied voltage. Thus, the angle of
rotation also depends on the voltage.

Time-Characteristic of High-Speed Type Impedance Relay

The figure below shows that the relay does not operate for
the value more than the 100 percent pickup value. The
curves 1 is the actual characteristic, and the curve 2 is the
simplified characteristic of the curve 1.
Drawbacks of Plan Impedance Relay
The following are the disadvantages of the impedance
relay.
It gives the response on both the side of the CT and PT.
Thus, it becomes difficult for the breaker to determine
whether the fault is external or internal.
The relay is easily affected by the arc resistance of the
line.
It is very sensitive to the power swing. The powerful
wings generate the faults on the line because of which the
impedances of the line vary.
The relay always operates when the impedance of the line
is less than the relay settings.

Reactance Relay
The reactance relay is a high-speed relay. This relay consists of two elements an overcurrent element
and a current-voltage directional element. The current element developed positive torque and a
current-voltage developed directional element which opposes the current element depending on the
phase angle between current and voltage.
Reactance relay is an overcurrent relay with directional limitation. The directional element is arranged
to develop maximum negative torque when its current lag behinds its voltage by 90°. The induction
cup or double induction loop structures are best suited for actuating reactance type distance relays.
Construction of Reactance Relay
A typical reactance relay using the induction cup structure is
shown in the figure below. It has a four-pole structure
carrying operating, polarizing, and restraining coils, as shown
in the figure below. The operating torque is developed by the
interaction of fluxes due to current carrying coils, i.e., the
interaction of fluxes of 2, 3 and 4 and the restraining torque is
produced by the interaction of fluxes due to poles 1, 2 and 4.
The operating torque will be proportional to the square of the
current while the restraining torque will be proportional to VI
cos (Θ – 90°). The desired maximum torque angle is obtained
with the help of resistance-capacitance circuits, as illustrated
in the figure. If the control effect is indicated by –k3, the
torque equation becomes

where Θ, is defined as positive when I lag behind V. At the balance point net torque is zero, and hence

The spring control effect is neglected in the above equation, i.e., K3 = 0.

Operating Characteristic of Reactance Relay
The operating characteristic of a reactance relay is shown in the figure below. X is the reactance of the
protected line between the relay location and the fault point, and R is the resistance component of the
impedance. The characteristic shows that the resistance component of the impedance has no
consequence on the working of the relay; the relay reacts solely to the reactance component. The point
below the operating characteristic is called the positive torque region.
If the value of τ, in the general torque equation,
expressed below is made any other 90º, a straight line
characteristic will still be obtained, but it will not be
parallel to R-axis. Such a relay is called an angle
impedance relay.

This type of relay is not capable of selecting whether

the fault has taken place in the section where the relay
is located, or it has taken place in the adjoining section
when used on the transmission line. The directional
unit used with the reactance relay will not be same as
used with the impedance type relay because the
restraining reactive volt-ampere, in that case, will be
nearly equal to zero.
Therefore the reactance type distance relay needs a directional unit that is inoperative under load
conditions. Reactance type relay is very suitable as a ground relay for ground fault because its reach is
not affected by fault impedance.

Mho Relay
A mho Relay is a high-speed relay and is also known as the admittance relay. In this relay operating
torque is obtained by the volt-amperes element and the controlling element is developed due to the
voltage element. It means a mho relay is a voltage controlled directional relay.
A mho relay using the induction cup structure is shown in the
figure below. The operating torque is developed by the
interaction of fluxes due to pole 2, 3, and 4 and the controlling
torque is developed due to poles 1, 2 and 4.
If the spring controlling effect is indicated by –K3, the torque
equation becomes,

Where Θ and τ are defined as positive when I lag behind V. At

balance point, the net torque is zero, and hence the equation
becomes

If the spring controlled effect is neglected i.e., k3 = 0.

Operating Characteristic of Mho Relay
The operating characteristic of the mho relay is shown in
the figure below. The diameter of the circle is practically
independent of V and I, except at a very low magnitude of
the voltage and current when the spring effect is
considered, which causes the diameter to decrease. The
diameter of the circle is expressed by the equation as
ZR= K1 / K2 = ohmic setting of the relay
The relay operates when the impedance seen by the relay
within the circle. The operating characteristic showed that
circle passes through the origin, which makes the relay
naturally directional. The relay because of its naturally
directional characteristic requires only one pair of contacts
which makes it fast tripping for fault clearance and
reduces the VA burdens on the current transformer.
The impedance angle of the protected line is normally 60º and 70º which is shown by line OC in the
figure. The arc resistance R is represented by the length AB, which is horizontal to OC from the
extremity of the chord Z. By making the τ equal to, or
little less lagging than Θ, the circle is made to fit around
the faulty area so that the relay is insensitive to power
swings and therefore particularly applicable to the
protection of long or heavily loaded lines.
For a given relay the τ is constant, and the admittance
phasor Y will lie on the straight line. The characteristic
of mho relays on the admittance diagram is, therefore, a
straight line and is shown in the figure below.

Mho relay is suitable for EHV/UHV heavily loaded

transmission lines as its threshold characteristic in Z-
plane is a circle passing through the origin, and its
diameter is ZR. Because of this, the threshold
characteristic is quite compact enclosing faulty area compactly and hence, there is lesser chance to
operate during power swing and also it is directional.