Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 468 (2017) 67–73

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Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jnoncrysol

Structural characterization and magnetic properties of Al82Fe16TM2 (TM: Ti, MARK

Ni, Cu) alloys prepared by mechanical alloying
Nguyen Thi Hoang Oanha, Nguyen Hoang Vieta,⁎, Dina V. Dudinab,c,
Alberto Moreira Jorge Jrd,e,f,g,h, Ji-Soon Kimi
a
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Hanoi University of Science and Technology, No 1 Dai Co Viet, Hai Ba Trung, Hanoi 100000, Vietnam
b
Lavrentyev Institute of Hydrodynamics SB RAS, Lavrentyev Ave. 15, Novosibirsk 630090, Russia
c
Novosibirsk State Technical University, K. Marx Ave. 20, Novosibirsk 630073, Russia
d
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Federal University of São Carlos, Via Washington Luiz, km 235, São Carlos, SP 13565-905, Brazil
e
Univ. Grenoble Alpes, SIMAP, F-38000 Grenoble, France
f
CNRS, SIMAP, F-38000 Grenoble, France
g
Univ. Grenoble Alpes, LEPMI, F-38000 Grenoble, France
h
CNRS, LePMI, F-38000 Grenoble, France
i
School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Ulsan, San-29, Mugeo-2 Dong, Nam-Gu, Ulsan 680-749, South Korea

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this work, the structural evolution of Al–16 at.%Fe–2 at.%TM (Transition Metals (TM): Ti, Ni, Cu) alloys
Al-based amorphous alloy during mechanical alloying and their magnetic properties were investigated. The evolution of the phase
Structure evolution composition and microstructure of the alloys with the milling time was studied using X-ray diffraction (XRD) and
Mechanical alloying Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). The phase composition of the alloys was determined using the
Magnetic properties
Rietveld refinement of the XRD profiles. It was shown that the interaction between the components of the
powder mixtures during milling started with dissolution of Fe in the Al crystalline lattice and Al in the Fe
crystalline lattice. Upon further milling, ferromagnetic AlFe3 (DO3) formed and further transformed into
paramagnetic bcc-AlFe and later into an amorphous phase. It was found that the TM alloying elements
significantly influence the kinetics of the transformations during milling: the Al82Fe16Ti2 alloy was fully
amorphous after 40 h of milling, the Al82Fe16Ni2 alloy required 50 h of milling to achieve complete
amorphization, and the Al82Fe16Cu2 alloy was only partially amorphous after 60 h of milling. The interpretation
of the observed alloying effect has been proposed. The magnetic properties of the alloys were correlated with the
results of the structural characterization.

1. Introduction als design and property tailoring.

Mechanical alloying (MA) is a solid-state powder processing tech-
nique that offers possibilities to produce both stable and metastable
phases [1,2]. During milling, the powder particles experience repeated
deformation, while alternating fracture and welding processes lead to
homogenization of the chemical composition, refinement of the crystal-
lite size and defect generation in the crystalline structure of the
materials. Depending on the energy of the milling process and thermo-
dynamic properties of the constituents, a mixture of metallic powders
can be processed into intermetallic phases, solid solutions, nanocrystal-
line composite structures and amorphous alloys. Intermediate states
obtained by mechanical alloying are usually complex states in terms of
the crystalline structure presenting multiple possibilities for the materi-
The preparation of Al-based amorphous alloys by mechanical
alloying was reported in refs [3–5]. The structure of alloys contain-
ing > 80 at.% of Al is quite complex. Different phases, such as bcc and
fcc phases, Fe(Al) supersaturated solid solutions and amorphous phases
have been reported in these alloys [6,7]. As intermediate phases formed
in these alloys during mechanical alloying can be both magnetic and
nonmagnetic, the overall magnetic properties of the alloys depend on
their phase composition and microstructure. It is known that the
coercive force of nanocrystalline soft magnetic materials strongly
depends on the crystallite size. By using different milling durations,
alloys with different values of the coercive force can be produced.
Furthermore, it is of interest to study the saturation magnetization of
the alloys since the reduction of the grain size to the single magnetic

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: viet.nguyenhoang@hust.edu.vn (N.H. Viet).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jnoncrysol.2017.04.037
Received 16 February 2017; Received in revised form 29 March 2017; Accepted 23 April 2017
Available online 03 May 2017
0022-3093/ © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
N.T.H. Oanh et al. Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 468 (2017) 67–73

domain size offers a possibility to eliminate the influence of magnetic

walls [8].
In the present work, we report the preparation of Al–16 at.%Fe–2 at.
%TM (Transition Metals (TM): Ti, Ni, Cu) alloys by mechanical
alloying. The structural changes in the alloys up to complete (or partial)
amorphization with the progress of milling were investigated and the
relationships between the microstructure and magnetic properties of
the alloys were determined.

2. Experimental

Elemental powders of Al (−100, + 325 mesh), Fe, Ti and Ni

(10 μm) were used as the starting materials (> 99.5% purity). The
powder mixtures with the Al–16 at.%Fe–2 at.%TM (TM: Ti, Ni, Cu)
nominal compositions were prepared.
The mixtures were ball-milled in a Fritsch Pulverisette-6 planetary
ball mill at 300 rpm using stainless steel vials and hardened steel balls
with the ball to powder weight ratio of 20:1. In order to prevent the
sticking phenomenon, n-hexane was used as a process control agent.
The milling process was periodically interrupted (every 30 min) to
avoid excessive heating of the material inside the vial.
The evolution of the crystalline structure of the powders was studied
by X-ray diffraction (XRD) using Cu-Kα radiation. Rietveld refinement
was used to analyze the XRD patterns employing the Maud software
[9,10].
A high-resolution transmission electron microscope (TEM-JEOL
JEM-2100e) was used to observe the fine structure of the alloys.
Selected area electron diffraction (SAED) patterns were taken to
analyze the details of the crystalline structure of the alloys. The SAED
patterns were indexed using the JEMS software [11].
Magnetization curves of Al–16 at.%Fe–2 at.%TM (TM: Ti, Ni, Cu)
milled samples were measured by vibrating system magnetometers
(VSM, MicroSense, EV9) in which each sample was measured five to ten
times and an average value was obtained.

3. Results

3.1. Evolution of the crystalline structure

The XRD patterns of the Al–16 at.%Fe–2 at.%TM (TM: Ti, Ni, Cu)
powders milled for different milling times are shown in Fig. 1. In the
patterns, the intensities are plotted against the scattering vector
(Q = 4πsinθ/λ, where θ is the Bragg's scattering angle and λ is the
radiation wavelength). A general observation can be made that under
continuous milling, Al and Fe reflections become wider, which can be
caused by a decrease in the crystallite size and accumulation of defects
in the crystalline structure of the metals. The Al (111) reflection
(~ 27 nm− 1) shifts slightly towards higher scattering vectors (Q) as Fig. 1. XRD patterns of the powders milled for different milling times (intensity vs.
the milling time increases. At the same time, the Fe (011) reflection scattering vector Q): (a) Al–16 at.%Fe–2 at.%Ti. (b) Al–16 at.%Fe–2 at.%Ni. (c) Al–16 at.
(~ 31 nm− 1) shifts towards smaller Q. These effects indicate that the %Fe–2 at.%Cu.

corresponding lattice spacing of α-Al decreases and that of α-Fe

increases, which can be due to the formation of α-Al(Fe) and α-Fe(Al)
solid solutions.
Using the Al-Fe binary phase diagram [12], the XRD patterns were
processed by the Rietveld refinement technique [9,10] assuming the
possibility of the presence of four Al-Fe phases. The changes in the
phase contents in the alloys with the milling time are shown in Fig. 2.
Based on the analysis of the phase evolution, the alloying process can be
described as follows. During the first 30 h of milling, there is a gradual
decrease in the content of the fcc-Al phase. This phase can contain iron
and is paramagnetic; therefore, it is referred to as fcc-Al(Fe)-para. It
remains in the Al-Fe-Ti alloys milled for 20 h and in the Al-Fe-Ni and Al-
Fe-Cu alloys milled for 30 h. There is also a gradual reduction in the
quantity of the ferromagnetic bcc-Fe phase. This is predominantly bcc-
Fe, but it may contain a small amount of Al in all the milled samples and
is, hence, referred to as bcc-Fe(Al)-ferro.
The third phase, ferromagnetic fcc-AlFe3 (DO3), starts forming at
the early stages of milling. Starting from 10 h of milling, there is an
increasing contribution from a paramagnetic bcc phase. This phase is
identified as the AlFe phase and is, therefore, referred to as bcc-AlFe-
para. Apparently, upon further milling, bcc-AlFe-para transforms into
an amorphous phase. The evidence of the formation of an amorphous
phase is an increase in the background level and a halo between 27 and
32 nm− 1 observed on the profiles. The AlFe3 (DO3)-ferro and bcc-AlFe-
para phases were the phases remaining until complete amorphization of
the Al82Fe16Ti2 and Al82Fe16Ni2 alloys. The bcc-AlFe-para was the only
crystalline phase that was observed in the Al82Fe16Cu2 alloy after 50 h
of milling.
Noteworthy is the influence of the added TM alloying elements. As
the concentrations of these elements in the powder mixtures were lower
than 5 wt%, the presence of these elements could not be detected by the

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N.T.H. Oanh et al. Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 468 (2017) 67–73

Fig. 2. Fractions of the phases present in the powders as functions of the milling time obtained using Rietveld refinement of the XRD patterns.

Fig. 3. TEM analysis of the Al–16 at.%Fe–2 at.%Ti powder after 30 h of milling. (a) high-magnification bright-field image. The inset is the corresponding SAED pattern. (b) indexation of
the SAED pattern showing the presence of AlFe3 (DO3)-ferro phase. (c) indexation of the same SAED pattern showing the presence of bcc-AlFe-para. (d) blow-up of the SAED pattern
confirming the presence of two rings, the strong is from bcc-AlFe-para and the weak is from AlFe3 (DO3)-ferro. The numbers roughly indicate the interplanar distances in the reciprocal
space.

XRD analysis even in the unmilled mixtures. Ti, Ni and Cu can form
solid solutions during milling. The effect of these elements on the
kinetics of the formation of the Fe-Al phases is striking. By analyzing
the curves in Fig. 2, it can be concluded that the transformation
reactions during the early stages of milling are accelerated when Ni is
introduced instead of Ti and Cu introduced used instead of Ni. This is
seen from “AlFe3” line having a slope (Fig. 2). This line connects the
contents of AlFe3 after 5 h of milling and indicates that these values
increase from the Ti- to Ni- to Cu-containing alloy (the contents of AlFe3
are ~45%, ~50%, and ~58% in the Al82Fe16Ti2, Al82Fe16Ni2 and
Al82Fe16Cu2 alloys, respectively). Interestingly, this effect disappears
after 10 h of milling and at this milling time all three alloys show the
same content of this phase (~ 20%). After 10 h, the reactions are
delayed in the Ti-Ni-Cu sequence: the Ti-containing alloy reaches an
amorphous state after 40 h, the Ni-containing alloy – after 50 h, and the
Cu-containing alloy is still nanocrystalline (partially amorphous) after
60 h of milling. A better understanding of the phase composition of the
alloys was obtained by comparing the XRD results with magnetization
curves of the alloys, which will be discussed below.
3.2. Microstructural evolution
The TEM analysis of the alloys was performed to verify the presence
of the phases determined by the XRD analysis and confirm the crystal-
line or amorphous nature of the alloys. Here, it is worth mentioning
that, as the selected area apertures cannot select areas less than
~1 μm2, the selected area diffraction patterns were taken from larger
regions at lower magnifications than those used in the bright-field TEM
images hereafter presented. In this way, the diffraction patterns do not
stem exactly from the presented images, which are within the selected

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N.T.H. Oanh et al. Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 468 (2017) 67–73

diffraction halo, which is typical of amorphous structures. Conse-

quently, the TEM analysis allowed confirming that the Al82Fe16Ti2
alloy was completely amorphous after 40 h of milling.
Fig. 5 shows high-magnification bright-field images and correspond-
ing SAED patterns of the Al–16 at.%Fe–2 at.%Ni powder milled for 40
and 50 h. Fringes in Fig. 5a indicate the presence of very small
crystallites − < 10 nm in size − embedded in an amorphous matrix.
The inset presents the corresponding SAED pattern. Contrary to the
results of the Rietveld analysis, which has predicted the presence of a
small amount of the AlFe3 (DO3)-ferro phase along with the bcc-AlFe-
para phase, the indexation of the SAED pattern reveals only the latter.
As predicted by the XRD analysis, increasing milling time to 50 h
leads to the formation of a fully amorphous structure (Fig. 5b). This
follows from both the uniform contrast of the image and the SAED
pattern shown in the inset of Fig. 5a. The SAED reveals a uniform and
broad diffraction halo typical of amorphous structures. Therefore, it can
be concluded that the Al82Fe16Ni2 alloy is completely amorphous after
50 h of milling.
The Al82Fe16Cu2 alloy shows a similar microstructural development.
Fig. 6a demonstrates a high-magnification bright-field image of the
Al82Fe16Cu2 alloy after 40 h of milling showing the presence of
boundaries and fringes characteristics of a crystalline material. The
crystallite size was measured to be about 15 nm. The inset shows the
corresponding SAED pattern consisting of very thin diffraction rings. A
Fig. 4. High-magnification bright-field image of the Al–16 at.%Fe–2 at.%Ti powder after
blow-up of the SAED pattern is shown in Fig. 6b revealing the presence
40 h of milling. The inset presents the corresponding SAED pattern.
of a strong ring corresponding to the (110) reflection of bcc-AlFe-para
and a weak ring corresponding to the (220) reflection of AlFe3 (DO3)-
region of the aperture. Thus, diffraction patterns do not record
ferro. The numbers indicate the interplanar distances in the reciprocal
diffraction from the individual nanoparticles, but from many nanopar-
space. These findings confirm the results of the XRD analysis regarding
ticles or from larger amorphous areas. Therefore, the patterns will
the presence of these phases. TEM has also revealed the simultaneous
confirm the crystalline nature of the nanoparticle or their amorphous
presence of the AlFe3 (DO3)-ferro and bcc-AlFe-para phases.
state in a statically better way.
Fig. 6c presents the microstructure of the Al82Fe16Cu2 alloy after
A high-magnification bright-field image of the Al82Fe16Ti2 alloy
50 h of milling. The high-magnification bright-field image shows
after 30 h of milling (Fig. 3a) shows the presence of boundaries and
evidence of crystallinity in the form of boundaries and fringes. After
fringes characteristics of a crystalline material. The size of the alloy
50 h of milling, the crystallite size has reduced to about 10 nm. The
crystallites was measured to be about 20 nm. The inset shows the
corresponding SAED pattern is shown in the inset. As it was predicted
corresponding SAED pattern consisting of very thin diffraction rings.
by the XRD analysis, the SAED pattern reveals of a strong ring
The detailed analysis of the SAED pattern is presented in Fig. 3b–d.
corresponding to the (110) reflection of bcc-AlFe-para (Fig. 6d), which
It confirms the above made conclusion on the presence of the AlFe3
is the only crystalline phase present in the sample.
(DO3)-ferro and bcc-AlFe-para phases in the alloy. Fig. 3d displays a
Fig. 6e shows a high-magnification bright-field image of the
blow-up of the SAED pattern, in which it is possible to observe the
Al82Fe16Cu2 alloy after 60 h of milling. Contrary to the other two
presence of a strong ring corresponding to the (110) reflection of bcc-
alloys, this image reveals that the sample has still a large number of
AlFe-para and a weak ring corresponding to the (220) reflection of
nanocrystals embedded in an amorphous matrix. There is an obvious
AlFe3 (DO3)-ferro. The numbers roughly indicate the interplanar
reduction in the crystallite size, which was measured to be about 5 nm.
distances in the reciprocal space.
The inset shows the corresponding SAED pattern demonstrating a thin
Fig. 4 shows a high-magnification bright-field image of the
diffraction ring. The indexation of the SAED pattern (Fig. 6f) reveals
Al82Fe16Ti2 alloy after 40 h of milling featuring a uniform contrast.
that it corresponds to the (110) reflection of bcc-AlFe-para, which is the
The inset shows the corresponding SAED pattern consisting of a broad

Fig. 5. High-magnification bright-field TEM images and corresponding SAED patterns of the Al–16 at.% Fe–2 at.%Ni powder (a) after 40 h of milling (the inset presents the corresponding
SAED pattern, which was indexed as the bcc-AlFe-para phase) and (b) after 50 h of milling (the inset presents the corresponding SAED pattern confirming the amorphization of the alloy).

70
N.T.H. Oanh et al.
Fig. 6. High-magnification bright-field TEM images and the corresponding SAED patterns in the insets for the Al–16 at.%Fe–2 at.%Cu powder. (a) after 40 h of milling. (b) indexation of
the SAED pattern in the inset of Fig. 6a. (c) after 50 h of milling. (d) indexation of the SAED pattern in the inset of Fig. 6c. (e) after 60 h of milling. (f) indexation of the SAED pattern in the
inset of Fig. 6e.
only crystalline phase present after 60 h of milling.
3.3. Magnetic properties
Fig. 7 presents the magnetization curves (M-H) for all the alloys
studied in this work. All the synthesized alloys showed similar hyster-
esis loops, indicating their ferromagnetic nature.
Fig. 8 summarizes the properties obtained from the M–H curves
(saturation magnetization – Ms and coercive force – Hc). The alloys
show similar behavior in terms of the variation of the Ms and Hc values
with the milling time. In other words, the maximum saturation
decreases as the milling time is increased, while the coercive force
decreases very quickly at first, reaches a minimum and then grows
again slowly with the milling time.
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Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 468 (2017) 67–73
4. Discussion
The three powder mixtures studied in this work experience similar
alloying stages during milling, which include a crystallite size reduction
of the metals, changes in the lattice parameter of Al and Fe, the
formation of four different Al-Fe phases, continuous changes in the
phase fractions and finally a transformation of the bcc-AlFe-para phase
into an amorphous phase in the Al82Fe16Ti2 and Al82Fe16Ni2 alloys and
into a nearly amorphous phase in the Al82Fe16Cu2 alloy.
Mechanical milling of powders is known for its ability to assist
thermodynamically unfavorable reactions and destabilize compounds
[1,2,13–15]. This exceptional reactivity has been attributed to the
processing conditions, which are far from the equilibrium. During
milling, the material is subjected to severe plastic deformation. Another
feature is the formation of localized sites corresponding to highly
excited states [1,2,13–15]. The analysis of materials processed by
N.T.H. Oanh et al.
Fig. 7. M–H curves of (a) Al–16 at.%Fe–2 at.%Ti, (b) Al–16 at.%Fe–2 at.%Ni and (c)
Al–16 at.%Fe–2 at.%Cu milled for different times. Insets present low-intensity magnetiza-
tion curves.
mechanical milling is, therefore, conducted not only in the context of
diffusion and high concentrations of defects, but also in the context of
mechanics of the powder mixtures [16–18]. Thus, the relation between
the atomic movement induced by shear and the localized thermal
relaxation has been highlighted [19–26]. In other words, mechanical
stresses involved in the milling process directly influence the mass
transport at the atomic scale. Thus, the collision velocity between the
milling balls determines the rate, at which a macroscopic composite can
be formed [27,28]. Furthermore, the transformation rates depend on
the energy of the ball collisions [29–31] indicating that the mechanical
forces and the microscopic behavior are closely related.
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Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 468 (2017) 67–73
During milling, upon each collision, a certain amount of powder will
experience impact and shear stresses. After a certain number of
collisions and mixing, the resulting powder will be formed by fractions
of materials with different properties. As particles experience fracturing
and coalescence, their number will be changed accordingly during
milling [32], leading to a more complex series of morphological,
microstructural and chemical transformations [13–15,32].
At the early stages of milling, all particles will experience morpho-
logical changes, but only a fraction will undergo microstructural
changes and even fewer will be mixed at the atomic scale. In other
words, atomic mixing of the elements is the slowest process occurring
during milling. Therefore, the alloying process needs time to be
completed. While short processing times are usually sufficient to
produce nanocrystalline states in the milled materials and induce phase
transformations, longer processing times will be required to produce
amorphous phases. A further increase in the milling time can result in
crystallization of the amorphous phases.
The above reasoning explains the experimental results obtained for
the Al82Fe16Ti2, Al82Fe16Ni2 and Al82Fe16Cu2 alloys. The starting
materials were formed by pure metals and most of the pairs have an
inherently negative heat of mixing (Table 1). With increasing milling
time, pure metals firstly transformed into solid solutions as iron
dissolved in aluminum (and vice-versa) and then intermetallic phases
formed.
As can be concluded from the analysis of the TEM data and SAED
patterns (Figs. 3–6), all the alloys analyzed in this work followed the
same behavior in terms of the crystallite size evolution and phase
transformations. Further, amorphization took place, and the milling
time required for its completion increased in the Al82Fe16Ti2-
Al82Fe16Ni2-Al82Fe16Cu2 sequence. This corresponds to the changes in
the heat of mixing in Ti-Al, Ni-Al, Cu-Al and Ti-Fe, Ni-Fe, Cu-Fe
sequences (Table 1). The absolute values of the negative heat of mixing
in these rows become smaller and the heat of mixing is positive for Cu-
Fe.
The saturation magnetization depends on the phases present
(crystalline structure) in the alloys and their chemical composition.
By comparing Fig. 2 and Fig. 8, it is possible to conclude that with
increasing milling time from 5 to 60 h for the Al82Fe16Ti2, Al82Fe16Ni2
and Al82Fe16Cu2 alloys, the saturation magnetization decreases accord-
ing to the decrease in the content of the ferromagnetic phases – bcc-Fe
(Al)-ferro and AlFe3 (DO3-ferro) – and the increase in the content of the
paramagnetic phase – bcc-AlFe-para.
The coercive force is a sensitive parameter and is strongly affected
by the powder morphology, microstructural characteristics and the
level of microstrain introduced during milling. Microstrain was calcu-
lated by Rietveld refinement (not shown). As all the alloys were milled
for the same durations and in same conditions, they showed close
values of microstrain, which increased with the milling time. During
milling, a large number of defects and residual strain are introduced
into the materials, so the motion of the domain walls is hampered,
which is seen as an increase in the coercive force. So, within the first
20 h of milling, the coercive force decreases with the milling time as the
crystallite size of the alloys decreases. Upon further milling, amorphi-
zation starts and progresses slowly. As in the Al82Fe16Cu2 alloy this
transformation is delayed, it can be expected that the changes in the
coercive force will occur more slowly than in the other two alloys.
When paramagnetic amorphous phases start forming in the alloys, the
Hc values begin to increase with the milling time. Based on the
experimental data, one can conclude that the alloys show the same
character of the evolution of the coercive force with the milling time.
The difference between the absolute values of the coercive force of the
alloys is 30% on average.
5. Summary and conclusions
In the present work, mechanical alloying was successfully used to
N.T.H. Oanh et al.
Fig. 8. Summary of the main properties obtained from the M–H curves (Fig. 7): (a) maximum saturation magnetization (Ms) and (b) coercive force (Hc).
Table 1
Enthalpies of mixing (in kJ/mol) for binary systems composed of Al, Fe, Ni, Ti and Cu
[33].
Al Fe
Al – − 11 kJ/mol
Fe − 11 kJ/mol – 60–85% of Al synthesised by mechanical alloying and phase transformations
Ni − 22 kJ/mol − 2 kJ/mol
Ti − 30 kJ/mol − 17 kJ/mol
Cu − 1 kJ/mol 13 kJ/mol
prepare powders of Al82Fe16TM2 (TM = Ti, Ni, Cu) amorphous or
partially amorphous alloys. The evolution of the phase composition and
microstructure of the alloys with the milling time was studied using
XRD and TEM. Magnetic properties were correlated with the results of
the structural characterization. From these studies, the following
conclusions were drawn:
1) the interaction in the Al–16 at.%Fe–2 at.%TM (TM: Ti, Ni, Cu)
powder mixtures during mechanical milling starts with dissolution
of Fe in the Al crystalline lattice and Al in the Fe crystalline lattice;
as a result, fcc-Al(Fe)-para (paramagnetic) and the bcc-Fe(Al)-ferro
(ferromagnetic) solid solutions form;
2) upon further milling, AlFe3 (DO3)-ferro (ferromagnetic) forms and
then transforms into bcc-AlFe-para (paramagnetic); the bcc-AlFe-
para transforms into an amorphous phase;
3) the TM elements govern the kinetics of the phase transformations
during milling;
4) the saturation magnetization Ms decreases gradually with the
milling time, which agrees with the results of the analysis of the
phase composition of the powder alloys;
5) the coercive force Hc decreases significantly as the milling time is
increased from 5 h up to 20 h due to reduction of the crystallite size
of the alloys; upon further milling, a slow transition from ordered to
disordered systems introduces a paramagnetic amorphous phase,
which leads to an increase in the Hc values.
Acknowledgments
This research is funded by Vietnam National Foundation for Science
and Technology Development (NAFOSTED) under grant number
103.02-2011.49.
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